Colonial France

Preface

. Within the last few months public attention has been directed in a striking manner to England's Colonies ; their wealth and their strength are just objects of pride to every loyal Briton, and any action which tends to overshadow their greatness is looked upon as a blow struck at the integrity of the Empire. A certain amount of jealousy has been evinced at the attempts made by other nations to extend their Colonial possessions, and France has come in for no small share of public odium for her freshly-developed views on Colonial expansion. From the Colonial history of France we may learn many a valuable lesson. The rapidity with which the Colonial Empire founded by Louis XIV. crumbled to pieces under the unskilfully conducted expeditions of our Naval and Military Forces should teach us the necessity for inaugurating such a scheme of Imperial Defence as shall effectually prevent a like humiliation overtak ing Great Britain.

In the system which gives the Colonies Representation in the Senate and the Chambers may, perhaps, be found a solu tion of that vexed question, an Imperial Parliament, and out of the many plans propounded by French Ministers of War may be found a royal road for the construction of a Foreign Preface. VI Service Army which shall obviate the necessity of garrisoning our distant stations with half-trained and half-grown lads. I do not profess to put the book forward as a complete history of Colonial France — of its many shortcomings no one is more sensible than I am ; but as Colonial matters are now claiming some share of public interest, I would fain hope that " Colonial France " may meet with some readers who will judge its defects lightly, and maybe find some interest and possibly some instruction in the dryness of its details. C. B. N. PAGE 1 ■> a CONTENTS.

Chapter I. Historical Summary And Financial Administration

The Colonies of France — Early Explorations of French Voyagers— Richelieu's Efforts to Colonize — Colbert's Policy — Governors- General and Intendants — Changes in Colonial Administration owing to the Revolution — Present Constitution — Conseils Prives — Conseils Generaux — Contributions furnished by Colonies to the State Budget — Contributions by State to Colonial Budgets — Local Budgets — Financial Officers — Colonial Banks

Chapter II. French Settlements In Africa

Senegal : Early French Explorations on West Coast of Africa — First Settlements on the Coast — Captured by the English in 1759— Its Second Capture in 1778— Third Capture in 1809— Progress of the Colony under the Restoration — Faidherbe's Expeditions against Inland Tribes — Recent Efforts at further Development — Railway from St. Louis to Dakar — Public Works — Population — Administration — Justice — Education — Religion — Agriculture and Commerce — Finance — Garrison — Gaboon, Grand Bassam, and Assinie

Chapter III. Islands In The Indian Ocean

: REUNION, NOSSI BE, SAINTE MARIE DE MADAGASCAR, AND MAYOTTE. Reunion: Its Discovery — Temporary Occupation by Dutch and English — Permanent Occupation by the French — Its Privateers Contents. PAGE during the Anglo-French Wars — Blockade in 1794 — Surcouf and his Successors — Captured by the English in 1810 — Popula tion — Government and Administration — Justice — Education — Religion — Public Works — Cultivation and Commerce — Finances 42 Nossi Be : Early History — Ceded to the French — Rising of the Inhabitants — Final French Conquest — Topography — Population — Government and Administration — Commerce and Agriculture — Finances .......... 60 Sainte Marie de Madagascar: Early French Settlements — Population — Government — Commerce and Finances . . . .65 Mayotte : French Attempts to Fortify — Population — Government — Commerce and Finances 69

Chapter IV. East

indies. Pondicherry, Mahe, Chandernagore, Karikal, and Yanaon — Early History of the French in India — Trading Companies under Royal Support — Richelieu and Colbert's Efforts — Beaulieu and Carron — Francois Martin's gallant Defence of St. Thome — Founding of Pondicherry — Wars with the English — Repeated Capture of the French Possessions — Population — Government and Administration — Justice — Education — Agriculture — Commerce and Industry — Finance . . . 74

Chapter V. Islands In The Pacific

: TAHITI, THE MARQUESAS, AND NEW CALEDONIA. Tahiti: Its Discovery — Early Navigation— Missionary Successes — Annexation by the French — Consul Pritchard's Protests — Topography — Population — Government and Administration — Justice, Religion, and Education — Public Works — Agriculture and Commerce — Finance 94, New Caledonia : Its Discovery — Annexation by the French — Converted into a Convict Settlement — Inefficient Supervision — Escape of Convicts to Australia — Indignation of Australian Governments — Their Representations to the Home Government — The Recidivist Bill — Topography— Population — Government and Administration — Justice — Education — Public Works — Mines — Free Emigration — Commerce and Finances . . . Contents. IX PAGE

Chapter VI. Cochin-china, Annam, And Tonkin

Early Dealings of the French in Annam — The Jesuit Bishop Treaty of 1787 directed against the English — Cruelty of Annamites to Missionaries — French Threats — Occupation of Saigon — War of 1861 — Annexation of Cochin-China — Dupuis' Expedition to Tonkin — Garnier's Campaign and Death — Riviere's Expedition — Final Treaty and Annexation of the whole Eastern Portion of the Peninsula — Topography — Population — Government and Administration — Justice — Education — Religion — Public Works — Agriculture and Commerce — Finance .... 114

Chapter VII. Martinique

Its Discovery — Early French Occupation — Foundation of the Colony — British Expedition of 1759 — Capture of the Island in 1762 — Its Eestoration by Terms of Treaty of Paris — De Bouille's Expedition against the British West India Islands — Disturbances at Commencement of the Eevolution — Capturedby England in 1794 — Restored at Peace of Amiens — Retaken in 1809, and again Restored by Treaty of Paris — Population — Government and Administration — Justice — Education — Religion — Commerce and Agriculture— Finance — Taxation — Garrison and Defences 133

Chapter VIII. Guadaloupe, And Its Dependencies

Early French Occupation — Hostilities with the Natives — Collapse of the First French West India Companies — Captured by English in 1703 — Ceded to France by Treaty of Utrecht — Recaptured by British in 1759 — Ceded again to France in 1763 — Unsuccessful Attempt of the English in 1794— Taken by England in XglO — Restored by Treaty of Paris in 1815 — Topography— Its Dependencies: Saintes, Marie Galante, Desirade, Sainls Martin and Bartholomew — Immigration — Government and Administration — Education — Clergy — Public Works— Cultivation — Commerce and Finance— Garrison lrJ2 Contents. X rAGE

Chapter IX. French Guiana

Its Present Condition — Its Discovery and Early French Settlements — Its Inauguration as a Penal Colony during the Revolution—Captured by an Anglo-Portuguese Expedition in 1807 — Restored by Treaty of Paris in 1817 — Fresh Attempts under the Restoration to Colonize Guiana — Population — Education — Government and Administration — Justice — Public Works — Agriculture — Arboriculture — Cattle-raising — Gold-mining — Commerce — Comparison with British Guiana — Finances — Garrison and Defence 191

Chapter X. The Islands Of Saint Pierre And Miquelon

Their Early Occupation by French Fishermen — The Fishing Fleets of Saint Pierre and Miquelon— Population — Government and Administration — Justice — Education — Public Works — Agriculture and Commerce — Finance ...... 207

CHAPTER XL MADAGASCAR.

Its Geographical Position known to the Ancients — Discovered by the Portuguese — First French Expedition in 1642— De Pronis and De Meilleraye settle on the Island — Flacourt annexes it to France — Failure of Attempts to Colonize — Re-attached to France — Jesuits step in to Proselytize Inhabitants— English Alliance with Radama I. — Island of Ste. Marie occupied by France— French Collision with Malagese in 1829 — Constant Efforts by Jesuits to regain lost Ascendency — Laborde, Lastelle, and Finaz — French encourage Slavery — Occupation of Mohely — Relations between Radama II. and the French — His Religious Tolerance— His Death — Religious Intolerance of his Widow — Her Pretended Baptism and Death — Hostilities with France — Rivalry between France and England — Conduct of Admiral Pierre — Firmness of Lord Granville — Hostile Feeling in France towards England — Leroy Beaulieu on French Colonies — Their Danger to England Contents. XI PAGE 256 264 288

Chapter XII. Obock

Its Situation —Population — Climate — Purchased by the French — Early Neglect — Recent Efforts to Improve the Harbours — Commerce with Central Africa— Its Value as a Commercial and Military Port — Coal in the Neighbourhood — A Shelter for Merchant Vessels and Ships of War— Home for Corsairs — Possible Source of Danger to England

Chapter XIII. Tunis

Continuity of French Action in the Regency — Early History of Tunis — Louis IX. dies there in 1270 — Treaty between the King of Tunis and the Kings of Sicily, Navarre, and France — Invasion by Charles VI. of France — Continual War between Sicily and Tunis — Invasion by the Emperor Charles V. — Tunis conquered by the Turks, and Power vested in Deys — French Fleets bombard the Coast in 1683 and 1685 — Overthrow of the Deys by Turkish Soldiery — In the Eighteenth Century French Fleets appear off Goletta on many Occasions — Tribute paid to the Bey by all European Powers, and by United States — In 1799 Bey declares War with the Republic — Gigantic Sums paid by Catholic Societies to repurchase Slaves — Lord Exmouth puts an End to Slavery — French Conquest of Algeria — Financial Difficulties of the Bey — French and Italiau Rivalry in the Mediterranean — France determines to chastise the Kroumirs — French Troops enter the Regency — Treaty wrung from the Bey — French Protectorate — Probable Results of French Power

Chapter XIV. Colonial Defence

Defence of English Colonies — Dual System in both Colonies — Forces employed in recent French Colonial Wars — Campenon's Scheme for a Colonial Army — Boulanger's Scheme — Present System of Garrisoning Colonies — Naval Forces in French Colonies— Admiral Aube's Groups of Combat— Destruction of English Commerce — Means of counteracting these Schemes . Contents. XII

Appendix

. NO. PAGE I. Ratification of the Powers granted to the " Compagnie pour le Commerce d'Orient et de Madagascar et d'establer des Colonies franchises aux iles de l'Orient .... 297 II. Extract from the Letters-Patent of Louis XIV. for the Foundation of the Company of the East Indies . . 299 III. Decree of the Council of State concerning Madagascar . 300 IV. Declaration of Tsimandroho to the King of France . . 301 V. Letters from Prince Rakoto and the discontented Chiefs to the Emperor Napoleon III 302 VI. Extract of Letter from Father Jouen 303 VII. Letter from Tombi Fatouma to the French Commandant . 303 VIII. Text of the Charter granted to M. Laborde . . . .304 Table showing present Position of British Possessions . . 306 Table showing present Position of French Possessions . . 307 1 . Principal Items of Colonial Expenditure ..... 308 2.

Principal Products 310 3. Acreage under Cultivation 312 4. Vessels Entered and Cleared 312 5. Vessels Cleared from Saigon 314 6. Exports and Imports of Principal Colonies . . . . .315 7. Items of Military Expenditure and Strength of Garrisons . . 316 8. Strength of the Marine Forces 317 9. Squadrons maintained in Colonies

Chapter I. Historical Summary And Financial Administration

The Colonies of France — Early Explorations of French Voyagers — Richelieu's Efforts to Colonize — Colbert's Policy — Governors- General and Intendants — Changes in Colonial Administration owing to the Revolution — Present Constitution — Conseils Prives — Conseils Generaux — Contributions furnished by Colonies to the State Budget — Contribution by State to Colonial Budgets — Local Budgets— Reserve Funds — Financial Officers — Colonial Banks. The Colonial policy of France has under the Third Republic taken a fresh lease of life ; past failures have been tacitly buried in oblivion, past successes exhumed from the musty volumes of monarchical history, and the people of France persuaded through the medium of a subsidized press that the regenera tion of the country is possible only through an extension of her colonial system.

Fresh homes will be created for the bons peresde famille, fresh outlets found for French commerce, fresh scenes for French glory. Animated with this idea vast tracts have been added to the dominions of France ; including the recent acquisitions of Tunis and Annam, her colonies may now be said to contain 500,000 square miles of territory, with 25,000,000 inhabitants. In Asia, they comprise the minor settlements of Pondicherry, Cbandernagore, Mahe and Karikal, in the East Indies ; whilst the whole eastern portion of the peninsula of Further India is now under the dominion of the Tricolour. Cochin-China was wrested from the King of Annam in 1860 ; Annam proper, B Tonkin and Cambodia were placed under French protection after long-protracted and costly military operations twenty years later. In Africa there are Senegal, Gaboon, some petty tracts on the Gold Coast, together with the islands of Mayotte, Nossi Be, Reunion and Madagascar; for though the treaty of 1885, which closed the war that had been waged between the Republic and the Queen of that island, expressly omitted any mention of the word Protectorate, France roundly asserts her claim to the whole of Madagascar — a claim based on treaties which surely have lapsed by the effluxion of time.

Lastly, in June, 1886, the Comores group, lying to the north-west of Madagascar, were also formally annexed. In America the colonies consist of the penal settlement of French Guiana, the "West Indian islands of Martinique, Guadaloupe, and other dependencies, together with the fishing stations of St. Pierre and Miquelon, off Newfoundland. In the Pacific, the convict establishment of New Caledonia, the islands of Tahiti and the Marquesas, and possibly ere these pages see the light the New Hebrides group may have been added to the list of French possessions. Both from a legislative and financial point of view, there is a great similarity in the laws under which these various colonies are governed. But before proceeding to a detailed description of each dependency, it may be of interest to summarize as clearly as may be the principal points which are common to all, and to give a brief history of the rise and fall of France as a Colonial Power.

Englishmen are justly proud of the position occupied by their country as the sovereign Power on whose dominions it has with truth and pride been said that the sun never sets, and we are apt with less truth to deride the pretensions of the French to any aptitudes for colonization. Yet the veriest tyro in European history must know that for many years French explorers marched side by side with Englishmen, even if they did not distance them, in the discovery of far-off lands, and that for close upon two centuries the foreign possessions of France equalled, if they did not surpass, our own. So far back as the middle of the fourteenth century, in the reign of Charles V., the merchants of Rouen and the hardy seamen of Brittany and Normandy joined together in expedi tions as daring and as perilous as any of which our own naval annals can boast.

In little barques not measuring a hundred tons, they scoured the Atlantic, and brought back to the markets of the Seine the rich produce of the African Gold Coast and the fruits of the Western Isles. For close on half a century (1364—1410) Norman merchants had establishments atElmina, Fantin, Cormontin, and other spots on the west of the Dark Continent, long before British mariners had ever visited those shores. Scarcely a hundred years elapsed before another Norman sea captain, Paulmier de Gonneville, doubled the Cape of Good Hope and visited Australia (this was about the year 1503) ; and twenty-five years later Parmentier returned to Dieppe freighted with the spices of the Malaccas and the ebony of Madagascar. About the same time (1535) Jacques Cartier of St. Malo hoisted his country's flag on the shores of New foundland, and instituted the fisheries off that coast — fisheries which to-day constitute much of the wealth of Brittany.

In the reign of Henri IV. private discoverers began to receive royal patronage and official assistance which in the previous reigns had been denied them. Brazil and Louisiana were discovered, and efforts made to establish regular commerce between these distant countries and France. Companies were founded for the development of their trade, but no attempt, as yet, was made to promote emigration. The merchants who interested themselves in the matter looked, only to the imme diate present, and the Government was blind to the possibilities of a future. In 1598 Henri IV., by Royal Letters Patent, appointed M. de la Roche Governor- General of Canada, and entrusted him with a mission to establish a colony in those regions, and implant there the Catholic faith. In 1600 a similar patent was granted to a Company for the development of Sumatra, Java, the Malaccas, and the East Indies.

The efforts of the King were not crowned with success. In b Canada complaints and quarrels arose between the Breton fisherman and M. de la Roche's emigrants ; and though the latter actually founded a colony in the island of St. Croix, the pressure brought to bear upon the King was such as to result in the return of the emigrants, chiefly merchants and traders, with a powerful admixture of the adventurer element. Their opponents sat in high places. Sully threw the whole weight of his influence against the enterprise : — " I must include amongst the acts done in defiance of my opinion the despatch of the colonists to Canada this year. No sort of success is to be hoped for, no riches can be drawn from those countries in the new world which lie beyond the fortieth degree of latitude." The death of Henri IV. following on the open hostility of his minister to these far-off projects, was but the precursor of their downfall.

Hardy and bold as the sailors of Brittany and Normandy were, ever ready to set forth in quest of fresh worlds, their compatriots inland were by no means prepared to incur expatriation in order to aid in the commercial development of new provinces across the seas. There was but one class in France willing to turn from the mother country and seek fresh homes in happier climes, where religious persecutions were unknown, and where all would be free to worship as they chose ; but the narrow policy of Richelieu and the machinations of a priest-ridden ministry forbad the introduction of any but the Catholic faith into the colonies of France. Thus the very element, the off-shoots of a State religion which have been the mainstay and prop of our own distant settlements, was forbidden to the new province of France.

Tempted by the marvellous successes attained by the Dutch East India Company at the commencement of the seventeenth century, the French, under the guidance of Richelieu, lent them selves with renewed energy to the formation of fresh com mercial undertakings — undertakings which were to connect more closely the trade of distant lands with the commerce of the home markets. One of the earliest of these was "La Compagnie de la Nacelle de Saint Pierre fletir deli see," which had for its object, as stated in its charter, " To establish in the kingdom of France a great trade in all the objects to bo found in these countries, and to establish in them fisheries, dockyards for the construc tion of ships, and depots for other manufactures which are uiikuown in those regions, to develop the value of those territories which now return but little profit, and to thoroughly explore all localities over which the flag of France flies.

To establish foundries, mines for gold, silver and iron, to jirosecute journeys into the interior of these lands and into the neighbouring States, to attract population to them, establishing colonists in suitable places, such as Canada and North America, and to trade and traffic in all countries which have not shown themselves hostile to our sovereign." The results of this company were as infinitesimal as its intentions were grandiose : abroad as well as at home it effected nothing but the ruin of its supporters. The sanguine minister, however, was in no way discouraged. Whilst the anger of the members of " La Compagnie de la Nacelle de Saint Pierre Jleur deUsee " was still smouldering, Richelieu travelled down to Brittany, and there collecting round him the enterprising mer chants of the west coast, he founded one more equally gigantic enterprise, equally vague in its scope, equally doomed to failure.

This company was styled " La Compagnie de Morbihan," and again, to quote a charter, " The shareholders were granted the privilege of possessing lands in North America, whether on the continent or on islands and other places which they may conquer, the King alone reserving the right of homage. The Company will be permitted to take out of France all persons who may volunteer for service under this charter, to enrol and to arm them, as well as all rogues and vagabonds whom the agents of the Company may impress." It is easy to understand how quickly the Company of Mor bihan attained failure. Its directors thought only of enriching themselves by the sale of lands and monopolies which never had, and never could have had, any existence. In fact no real efforts at colonization were made, the clause as to the com pulsory embarkation of all rogues and vagabonds — a power which, judiciously used, might have led to the happiest results — remained a dead letter.

In the seven years during which the Company dragged on an existence solely for the purpose of enriching the one hundred directors, only forty colonists were introduced into Canada. Warned, though undismayed, by this second failure, Richelieu continued the grant of patents to new Companies on every hand. In 1626 a grant was accorded to two worthy merchants of Dieppe— d'Enambuc and du Rossy— who in the previous year had visited the islands of Saint Christopher and the Barbadoes, returning thence with the most exaggerated stories of their boundless wealth, to found a Company for the development of the West India Islands and Peru. In 1628 a second Canadian Company was formed under Royal Patent. To it was granted Quebec, Canada, Florida, and the whole coast of North America up to the Arctic Circle, with a monopoly of all trade between that continent and France for fifteen years, and a monopoly in perpetuity of the trade in skins and furs.

In the same year (1628) the third French East India Com pany was formed, previous attempts having been made in 1604 and 1615 ; and in 1642 a fourth East India Company was again launched on a course of certain failure. The closing years of Richelieu's career seem to have been marked with an absence of that love for colonial aggrandizement which had so distinguished him in his earlier days, and France remained undisturbed by visions of wealth to be extracted from distant lands. Under Colbert, however, the fever of colonial speculation again burst forth. Company after company was formed, but, being founded on erroneous principles, none reached maturity. In 1664 those of the East and West Indies ; in 1673 Senegal, which in 1679 was merged into that of Senegal and Guinea; in 1698 that of Saint Domingo, followed by one for the develop ment of trade with, and colonization in, China.

It was not until the commencement of the eighteenth century that any of these institutions really took root in the soil to which they had been transplanted ; the history of their rise or fall belongs to another period, and will be dealt with in each separate case. The administration of these companies was confided to Governors-General, who were appointed by the King to guard the interests of the State in its various distant possessions. These officials, however, were expressly forbidden from touching on questions relating to commerce or the sale of lands. As might have been anticipated, the restric tion of the powers of these otherwise irresponsible Viceroys gave rise to endless disputes. The trading companies, on the one hand, protested against any interference with their pre rogatives, and the Governors, on the other, were annoyed at the curtailment of their powers.

The interposition of the Home Government became necessary, and towards the end of the seventeenth century it undertook the entire management of all its foreign possessions. In 1679, " Intendants " were ap pointed to each colony to assist the Governors- General in matters of internal administration, and to act, as it were, as middlemen between the representatives of the Proprietor Com panies and the State. Far from putting an end to the disagreements to which the appointment of Governors had given rise, the new state of affairs proved more fruitful of quarrels than the old. The In tendants in many cases looked on themselves as spies over the action of the Governors, and as appointed solely to watch over the interests of the civil portion of the population ; in other instances Intendants and Governors banded themselves to gether against the traders ; in all cases they succeeded in fomenting discord and producing distrust.

The peculiar position occupied by these Intendants opened out great opportunities for peculation, and many were the efforts made by the proteges of the King's favourites to obtain these coveted posts, from which they returned in a few years possessors of handsome fortunes. The history of the French reverses in Canada furnishes an apt illustration of one of the most glaring instances of official rapacity and incapacity in the person of Bigot, the Intendant during Montcalm's gallant campaign. Every obstacle was thrown in the way of the military com mander during the operations against the British. The most exorbitant taxes were levied on the most necessary articles of food for the soldiers ; their pay was so much in arrear that many of the subordinate officers were compelled, owing to debts due to the State, to resign their commissions, and were then subjected to civil punishment for bankruptcy.

Yet whilst the military were thus suffering, the civil officials were rapidly enriching themselves. "All are hastening to make their for tune before the inevitable loss of the colony, which many eagerly long for. Its loss will cast an impenetrable veil over their past misconduct." Thus wrote the brave Montcalm in one of the letters which his gallant subordinate, de Bougain ville, succeeded in conveying to the Minister of Marine. That there was too much truth in this assertion is evident from the fact that, on his return to Paris, Bigot was tried for his pecu lations, condemned to perpetual banishment from the realms of His Most Christian Majesty of France, and compelled to dis gorge 12,000,000 francs. The result of his conduct was the loss of Canada to the French, and the death of Montcalm.

In the year 1787, when the Revolutionary storm-cloud was just appearing over the horizon, and when the universal cry for political freedom was resounding throughout France, fresh changes were made in the administration of the colonies by the institution of " Colonial Assemblies." These bodies, to a certain extent, represented the principle of local self-government, and were intended to appease the landed proprietors, whose power had been totally abolished by the appointment of Governors-General and Intendants. The change was not of lasting duration. The Revolutionists of 1789 were too busily employed in sweeping away abuses at home to think of effecting necessary reforms abroad, and thus the position of the colonies was un affected by the Constitution of 1791. Later in the year, how ever, attention was called to the anomaly of France being ruled by a set of laws based on universal equality, whilst its colonists were subject to the old regime.

In September, 1791, a decree was issued placing the colonies under a special code ; but it was not until the Constitution of 1797 that the French colonies were legally incorporated into the Republic, and subjected to the same constitutional laws. Five years later fresh changes were introduced, and two years afterwards, on August 4, 1803, a decree of the Senate was published, renew ing again the colonial constitution. The power which in olden days had been conferred on Governors-General was now transferred to officials styled " Captains-General," each one having under his orders a colonial " Preset" and a Chief Judge. With the fall of the Empire in 1814 fresh changes became necessary, and the Republican officials were once more replaced by Governors and Intendants. The necessity of putting an end to the equivocal situation of the various colonial adminis trations also became apparent, and it was obvious that some decision must be arrived at in order to avoid in the future the clashing between the Metropolitan and Local authorities, and to define with more clearness the exact jurisdiction and powers of each official.

From time to time Ministerial orders were issued dealing with individual colonies, but it was not until the year 1830 that the Government realized the impossibility of dealing with each colony as a separate factor. Yet there was a strong antipathy to placing the whole of the dependencies absolutely under French law. A series of resolutions were accordingly drawn up in which the various colonies were grouped with more or less method ; but the Code Napoleon was the basis of their laws, and they were administered by men trained in France, ignorant of the peculiar characteristics of the people among whom they were thrown, and careful rather for the interests of the mother country than the welfare, moral or material, of the subject races. Though, undoubtedly, a certain amount of political liberty was accorded to the people, who were nominally, at any rate, entrusted once more with local self-government, the clash between races was apparent ; the white colonists, of course, reserving to themselves all places in local institutions, their black brethren being debarred the privilege of voting even in Municipal elections.