Elements of General History. Translated ... Part first. Ancient history

Front matter

ELEMENTS OF GENERAL HISTORY. MODERN HISTORY. ELEMENTS OF GENERAL HISTORY ANCIENT AND MODERN. BY THE ABBE MILLOT. AVITH THE CONTINUATION FROM MDCCLX TO THE YEAR MDCCCXV, BY M. PROFESSOR MILLON OF PARIS. A NEW EDITION REVISED. VOLUME V. EDINBURGH: PRINTED FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY; HURST, ROBINSON AND CO. LONDON; AND ROBINSON AND HERNAMAN, LEEDS. 1823. Printed by J. Hutchison, for the Heirs of D. Willison. CONTENTS OF THE FIFTH VOLUME. MODERN HISTORY. TWELFTH EPOCH CONTINUED. PAGE IV. Conclusion of the Reign of Henry IV. Affairs of Venice, Holland and Spain . 3 V. Picture of the Government of Henry IV., and the Administration of Sulli . 13 VI. Disorders, Troubles and Civil Wars in the Beginning of the Reign of Louis XIII. 25 VII. Troubles of Arminianism in Holland. Reign of James I. King of England.

Ferdinand II. oppresses the Elector Palatine, and threatens the Liberty of Germany .... 33 VII I. Conspiracy of the Spaniards against Venice. Observations on Spain . . 44 VOL. V. a A I CONTENTS. THIRTEENTH EPOCH. THE HOUSE OF AUSTRIA HUMBLED. THE PARLIAMENT OF ENGLAND GIVES LAW TO THE SOVEREIGN. From the Year one thousand six hundred and twenty-four, to the Beginning of the Reign of Louis XIV. I. First Years of the Minstry of Cardinal Richelieu. Taking of Rochelle. Cabals and Rebellions . i p. 53 II. Ferdinand II. disgusts the Germans by his Despotism. State of the North. Gustavus Adolphus united with France. Events of this War till 1635 63 III. France at War with the whole House of Austria. Revolutions in Catalonia and Portugal .... 76 IV. Death of Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIII 86 V. Reign of Charles I. in England till the War with the Parliament 92 VI.

Civil War against Charles I. He is Beheaded .... 102 VII. Observations on Government and Manners. Religion and the Church. Sciences and Polite Literature . , . CONTENTS. VII FOURTEENTH EPOCH. LOUIS XIV.

Book I

From the Accession of Louis XIV. in one thousand six hundred and forty-three, to the War of one thousand six hundred and sixty-seven. I. Continuation of the War against the House of Austria. Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 . . p. 183 II. Civil War in France against Mazarin. Sequel of the War with Spain . 197 III. Commonwealth of England under Cromwell .... 206 IV. Reign and Abdication of Christina Queen of Sweden . . . 218 V. Peace of the Pyrenees in 1659, and of Oliva in 1660. Restoration of the English Monarchy. Death of Cardinal Mazarin 226 VI. Louis XIV. makes himself respected abroad, and puts his Kingdom in a flourishing state. Affairs of Europe till 1667 .... CONTENTS.

Book II

From the War in one thousand six hundred amd sixty seven to that of one thousand six hundred and eightyeight, after the League of Augsburg. I. Conquest of Flanders and Franche-Comte. Triple Alliance. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. Siege of Candia by the Turks p. 249 II. War against Holland for insufficient Reasons. Louis XIV. reduced to extremities in 1662. Commotions in Europe against him. He soon loses his Conquests .... 259 III. Sequel of the War with Holland, now become almost general. Louis XIV. triumphant. He dictates the Terms of Peace at Nimeguen in 1678 . 269 IV. During the Peace, Louis XIV. draws upon himself the hatred of the Potentates. Vienna besieged by the Turks. Genoa bombarded and reduced. Death of Colbert. Reflections on his Administration 279 V. Disputes with the Jansenists. Quarrels of Louis XIV. with Innocent XL Revocation of the Edict of Nantes . 289 VI.

End of the Reign of Charles II. of England. Pretended Popish Plot. Charles dissolves several Parliaments, and continues absolute till his Death . . CONTENTS. IX VII. James II. draws upon himself the Hatred of the English. Dethroned by William Prince of Orange. The English Constitution fixed . . . p. 311

Book III

From the War of one thousand six hundred and eighty eight, to the Congress of Utrecht in one thousand seven hundred and twelve. I. League of Augsburg against Louis XIV. He maintains a successful War against almost all Europe . . 323 II. Peace of Ryswick necessary to Louis XIV. though a Conqueror. Peace of Carlowitz, the Terms of which were dictated to the Turks . . . 333 III. Partition-Treaty for the Succession of Spain. Last Will and Death of Charles II. He is succeeded by Philip V., and the War breaks out in Italy . . 340 IV. Louis XIV. gives the Title of King to the Son of James II. King William arms England and Holland. Death of William III. General War. Revolt of the Cevennes .... 349 V. Misfortunes of France and Spain from 1704 to 1710. Almost all hope at an end 358 VI. Continuation of the War. Death of the Emperor Joseph. Intrigues at London. Disgrace of Marlborough, and Preliminaries of Peace . . . CONTENTS. X

Book IV

Containing the End of the Reign of Louis XIV. and the History of the Czar Peter I. and Charles XII. I. Negociations of Utrecht. Victories of France. End of the War in 1714 . . p. 381 II. Death of Queen Anne and the Affairs of England. Death of Louis XIV. . 393 III. Rise of Czar Peter the Great, till the War with Charles XII. . . 401 IV. Rise of Charles XII. King of Sweden. He triumphs over all his Enemies, and dethrones Augustus King of Poland 413 V. Charles XII. defeated at Pultawa, flies into Turkey. The Campaign of Pruth fatal to the Czar. His Peace with the Turks. Continuation of the War in the North .... 424 VI. Charles XII. returns into his own Dominions. Intrigues of the Baron de Gortz. Death of the King, and Revolution in the Government of Sweden. Peace of the North . . . 435 VII. Death of Peter the Great.

His Establishments and Law. State of Russia to the Reign of Catharine II. . . ELEMENTS OF GENERAL HISTORY. MODERN HISTORY. ELEMENTS OF GENERAL HISTORY. MODERN HISTORY CONTINUED. TWELFTH EPOCH.

CHAPTER IV. CONCLUSION OF THE REIGN OF HENRY IV.

AFFAIRS OF VENICE, HOLLAND, AND SPAIN. While France was reaping the fruits of an Various excellent administration, and saw her strength conspiracies revive with her happiness, new conspiracies hI^-Iv. were incessantly forming against the king. His mistress, d'Entragues, who exposed him to the queen's peevish humour, was ungrateful enough to betray him. She endeavoured to put in force the promise of marriage which she had received, notwithstanding the zeal of the minister, and the court of Spain fanned a2 He reeals the Jesuits. In what this order was to be dreaded. the fire of the cabals. Old d'Entragues, his daughter, and the count d'Auvergne, entered into a correspondence with that court. The plot was discovered, and the criminals were arrested and condemned, but pardoned by Hen ry. He was afterwards obliged to take arms against the duke de Bouillon, who stirred up the Calvinists, and deprived him of Sedan, but immediately restored it.

We shall see this king, notwithstanding his extraordinary bene ficence and attention to every thing that could gain the hearts of his subjects, continually sur rounded with traitors and assassins, till at last he fell under the stroke of fanaticism. Meantime, Henry recalled the Jesuits, out of complaisance to the pope, against the ad vice of Sulli, and in opposition to the strong remonstrances made to him by Achilles de Harlai, first president of the parliament. Fa ther Cotton, one of the most able politicians in their order, enjoyed a considerable share of his confidence, and, by opening to them access to the court, soon furnished them with means for acquiring excessive credit. It is not to be doubted, that several advantages might be reaped from the activity and talents of that body,, which was devoted to study and indefatigable labours.

But, if it en tertained prejudices contrary to the interest of the nation ; if it was the instrument of the court of Rome ; became the arbiter of opinions and consciences ; had an influence in all affairs, great and small ; and formed a powerful party in the state which it was dangerous to resist ; was it not to be apprehended, that this establishment would open a way to trou- TheologistSj bishops, and popes, engaged ii disputes, Venice embroiled with Paul V. bles and abuses ? This was dreaded by Sulli and the parliament ; but Cotton had the art of pleasing and persuading the monarch. Cer tainly, the circumstances were not such as could produce prejudices favourable to the order. Every day gave birth to some poisonous fruit, either from religious dissensions, the preten sions of the clergy, or the ancient papal des potism.

The Jesuits and Dominicans carried on a kind of war on the subject of their systems upon Grace, which was almost as violent as that between the Catholics and Protestants. The Calvinists in France established in their synods, as an article of faith, that the pope is properly Antichrist, the beast clothed in scarlet, which the Lord shall discomfit, as he hath pro mised. The archbishops of Aix and Bour deaux excommunicated the parliaments who should dare to try clerks on criminal accusa tions. The Catholics in England, as we shall relate elsewhere, formed the horrid Gunpowder Plot, to destroy, at a single blow, the king, the royal family, and the whole parliament. Next year, 1606, broke out the famous quarrel be tween the court of Rome and the Venetians, the consequences of which would perhaps have been fatal, had it not been for the mediation of the king of France.

Of all the Catholic states, that of Venice was least a slave to prejudices repugnant to the civil laws, and derogatory from the power of sovereigns. This republic followed, with de liberate but firm steps, a system of liberty which the popes looked upon as a system of rebellion. An Augustine monk, guilty of the most enormous crimes, had been put to death. Two ecclesiastics were in prison for the like offences, and their trial would infallibly be followed by their execution. Besides, the senate had forbidden the building any more churches and convents without permission, as they were already too numerous *, and prohibited, in fu ture, the alienation of lands to the clergy and monks, who were become a burden to the state by their riches and their exemption from im posts. All these were things that necessarily drew down the thunders of Rome. i6«56.

Clement VIII., who died in 1605, had prurepuWic dently dissembled. Paul V., Borghese, more putunderan haughty and enterprising, excommunicated the "Henry doge and the senate, and put the whole repubmetcltor. under an interdict. The Theatins, the Capuchins, and the Jesuits, were the only persons who submitted to the bull ; and the last were sentenced to perpetual banishment, as being of a more intriguing spirit than the others. Paul then attempting to support his anathemas by force of arms, and the Venetians preparing to defend their rights and liberties, Henry offered himself as mediator, and in that quality put an end to the quarrel, notwithstanding the opposition of the Spanish court, whose credit had long been prevalent at Rome. The senate put the two criminal priests into the hands of the pope, and suspended the execution of its laws without revoking them ; but refused to restore the Jesuits.

We may judge by this accommodation, that if the Venetians then entertained the same principles as they do at present, they did not find it so easy to put them in practice. From how many trammels has the progress of reason freed governments ! The war with Holland still continued. Hen- Affairs ry protected those brave republicans, who for H S^d so many years resisted the Spanish power, and had the glory of procuring an acknowledgment of their independence, which, notwithstanding their invincible courage, they had not yet been able to obtain. Let us collect the facts, the knowledge of which here becomes necessary. In 1598, Philip II. ceded the Low CounpsjnCe tries, Franche Comte, and the territory of Chajj^™^ rolois, to the Infanta Elizabeth, who was marthe ried to Albert, archduke of Austria, formerly was£STst cardinal and archbishop of Toledo, on con dition that, in default of heirs, or in case the heirs should renounce the Catholic religion, these provinces should revert to Spain.

Though the Dutch had been less fond of liberty, yet the dread of again falling under the Spanish yoke was sufficient to make them redouble their efforts. Their leader, Maurice of Nas sau, prince of Orange, maintained the glory of his family. Sieges, battles and conquests, were multiplied as before. No siege can be found in modern history Famous comparable to that of Ostend, for its length, of 0esfend. or the blood that was split. This place, which held out three years and three months, cost the Spaniards eighty thousand men, and the Hol landers sixty thousand. Ambrose Spinola, a gTJ^ Genoese, who gloriously concluded this siege in 1604, is a great example of the strength of genius. Wilde his brother Frederic was dis tinguishing himself in the armies, Ambrose was Wonderful progress of the Dutch, 1609.

Philip HI. acknow: ledges their independ: ence, engaged in trade, but all at once came to join him ; when the former being killed, he sup plied his place, showing himself an able captain, though he had no masters except books. He was created commander in chief in Flan ders by Philip III. Such is the force of genius, it can, without assistance, rapidly make its way to glory, to which mere assiduity leads only by slow degrees. In the heat of this obstinate war, the Dutch, by dint of admirable economy, frugality, activity, courage, and industry, had put them selves into a condition not only to improve their country, but to execute the greatest en terprises abroad. Their fleets had already ta ken the Moluccas in the East Indies from the Portuguese, or rather from Spain, of which Portugal was still a province. ' Holland, ' says Voltaire very justly, ' deserves the more atten tion, as it is a state of a kind entirely new, which has become powerful almost without possessing any land, rich without having of its own growth a sufficiency to maintain the twen tieth part of its inhabitants, and considerable in Europe by its industry in the extremity of Asia. ' Let us add, a state which was nothing before it was free.

At length, by the good offices of the king of France, and the address of his ambassador, the president Jeanin, the Dutch liberty was established on a firm footing, by a truce of twelve years, concluded at the Hague ; by which Philip III. acknowledged the United Provinces as free and independent states, and obliged himself to allow them a free trade in the Indies and America. Of the seventeen provinces comprehended in the Netherlands, the house of Austria has lost seven ; the poorest indeed, but which, by their union, form the greatest and richest republic in the world. Can it be believed that Spain, after so ma- The ny losses, which, notwithstanding the empire of the New World had drained it of men and from sPain money, should yet give itself a deep and incurable wound, from the same persecuting spirit, by which it had lost a great part of its subjects?

By an insensate edict, all theMoriscoes were or dered to leave the monarchy in thirty days. Such were the fruits produced by the zeal of the inquisitors. It was imputed as a crime to the duke of Ossuna, that he had the courage singly to oppose this measure. They had like wise made it one in the king, that he shed some tears at an auto-da-fe. It is said that the grand inquisitor condemned him, as an expiation for the scandal he had given, to cause himself to be let blood, which the executioner threw into the fire. Such an atrocious deed appears incredible, even amidst the horrors which were at that time too certainly committed by the inquisition. "Whatever be in this, historians estimate the loss sustained by Spain, in consequence of this edict, at a million of people ; and they were of that class, who, by their labour and industry, made themselves most useful.

Almost all of them fled into Asia and Africa. In the reign of Louis XIII. they made an Mighthave offer of clearing* the waste lands in Gascony, been , o , . , j ' converted but it was rejected ; notwithstanding which, instead of some of them settled in France, where their lost" posterity has been hardly treated. These un happy people, whom the Christians persecuted as Mahometans, passed among the Mahome tans for Christians ; and thus fell victims to the hatred which subsisted between the two religions ; an evident proof, that, had the inquisitors been humane and reasonable, such of them as were still attached to their ancient practices might have been made true Christians by instruction and gentleness. According to Perefixe, above sixty thousand Huguenots were converted by the gentle usage they met with from Henry IV. ; but they would have been burnt, or at least banished, by the inquisition.

This monarch's great designs were upon the point of being disclosed. The project of a Christian republic, which is to be found in Sul li's Memoirs, has been commonly ranked a mong the political reveries. It was proposed to divide Europe into fifteen settled powers, none of which should be suffered to make any new acquisition, and should altogether form an association for maintaining a mutual ba lance, and preserving peace. Henry conceived, and certainly carefully meditated on this sub lime idea ; but what appearance is there that he thought it capable of being realized ? His actual design was, to set bounds to the ambi tion and power of the house of Austria, both in Germany and Italy. He had already taken all his measures, when the emperor Rodolphus II. furnished him with a reason for commencing the war, by seques trating the duchies of Juliers, Cleves, and Bergue, after the death of the last duke.

Henry entered into a league with the elector of Brandenburg and the count Palatine of Neu- Project ot a Christian republic by Henry IV. Forms a League against the bouse of Austria. His means of success. 1610. He is assassinated by Ravillac. burg, who both pretended to the succession. The Protestants of Germany, always restless and suspicious, likewise formed a league for the maintenance of their liberties ; of which he was the prime mover, and which he did not neglect to join. The pope, the Venetians, the duke of Savoy, the Swiss and other states, likewise entered into those views. Never was any enterprise better concerted. He was to march into Germany at the head of forty thousand excellent troops. The ar my, provisions, and every other necessary were in readiness. Money could not fail him, Sulli having laid up forty millions in the treasury, which were destined for this war.

How could an emperor, immersed in the study of astrono my and the search of the philosopher's stone, and a king of Spain, ruled by his favourites and the inquisitors, both of them without strength and foresight, have borne up against the storm that threatened them ? Henry, though impatient to join the army, and his mind harassed with sinister forebodings. was stopped against his will, upon account of the queen's coronation ; a ceremony which she insisted upon with too much eagerness. Pas sing along a street, his coach was entangled ; and, his footmen quitting it, Ravillac, a des perate fanatic, who had long formed a design to murder him, taking advantage of the op portunity, stabbed him, in the midst of seven courtiers, who were in the coach. Thus died, at the age of fifty-seven, a prince worthy of immortality ; against whom above fifty conspiracies had been formed, whose memory is to this day adored by every good Frenchman, and whose reign ought to serve as a model to princes who love their subjects.

Let us bury in oblivion a few spots which stain his private life, weaknesses which unhappily are too common to heroic minds, and examine his principles of government, which form the best lesson for sovereigns, for statesmen, and for all who desire to be acquainted with the sources of public prosperity. 1589. Dreadful state of France.

CHAPTER V. PICTURE OF THE GOVERNMENT OF HENRY IV.

AND THE ADMINISTRATION OF SULLI. I shall trace only a general sketch, for my plan is inconsistent with long details. These are to be found in the Memoirs of Sulli ; a work which ought to be studied with care by all who would acquire a knowledge of the true principles of politics. Let us represent to ourselves the dreadful state of the monarchy in the beginning of this reign. Civil wars, so much the more furious, as superstition and fanaticism fanned the fire of rebellion, and received from it an activity which made them still more terrible ; the feelings of justice, humanity, patriotism, and duty, stifled by the rage of cabals, and the vices and interests of the factious ; the regal authority so far debased, as to make no impression upon hearts naturally friends to royalty ; the vitals of the state almost entirely corrupted ; disorder and robbery universally prevalent ; the laws without vigour ; the clergy refractory* the nobles breaking through all rule and restraint; and the force of arms annihilating the rights Adored bis troops, The spirit of indepen: dence was universal.

What it cost to gain the factious, and happiness of society. To remedy so many mischiefs, a king was necessary, who, to admi rable qualifications, joined a passion for public good, a steady application to business, sagacity which nothing could escape, a courage which nothing could shake ; and such was Henry IV., who so well deserved the surname of Great. As a general, he possessed in a superior de gree the art of gaining the military men. Ac customed to the profession of arms from his most early youth, and educated in camps, he not only set an example of labour, sobriety, and courage, but charmed the soldiers by his behaviour and discourse, which breathed all the vivacity of his genius, and the beneficence of his heart. From his mouth, the least expression of praise acquired inestimable value.

But the love of independence and the thirst of ambition formed an almost insuperable ob stacle to the restoration of order. The majority of the great men attempted to make themselves absolute in the provinces. Nothing was thought of but dismembering the government, appro priating principalities, or even erecting com monwealths. The republican spirit, roused by Calvinism and the progress of Holland, fer mented briskly in the kingdom. It is not sur prising, therefore, that Henry, when he entered into treaty with the principal lords of the League, granted them terms so advantageous. Peace was absolutely necessary to him, and two-and-thirty millions were sacrificed for that purpose. Villars Brancas, who had defended Rouen with the most heroic courage, exacted, for his single share, a pension of sixty thousand livres, with governments and other favours.

To keep the factious nobles within bounds, to prevent or repress their frequent conspiracies, to form a regular plan of administration, and pursue it with success, in the midst of so many cabals and dangers, is a work which cannot claim too much admiration. Henry stood in need of a minister worthy Suin to share with him the cares of government. nec'eXysor Without assistance, he would have sunk uiiderg"over,ime"t the burden ; and, if he had not made the most judicious choice, he would have been bewilder ed in that labyrinth : perhaps, he might even have done harm, while he was endeavouring to do good. Rosni, or the celebrated duke of Sulli, was formed by nature for that glorious, but slippery, station. He possessed the friendship of his master, and deserved it by his vir tues, as well as his services.

A hero in the field, he displayed still greater abilities in the cabinet. Far from despising that kind of knowledge which is acquired by reading, a fault almost universal among the nobility of his time, he applied himself early to instructive studies. He read not for the sake of amuse ment, but information ; making extracts, ar ranging his ideas, reflecting, and observing. Nor had the contemplation of what was passing in the world contributed less than books to ex tend the sphere of his genius. In a word, ne ver did a minister, possessed of more extensive capacity or greater zeal for the public good, take upon him the political administration. Accordingly, he was mortally hated by those who had turned to their own advantage the for mer disorders, the reformation of which he had the courage to attempt.

Ruin of the finances. System there established, The finances, in particular, were in a state . so deplorably ruinous, that the king, far from being able to supply the public exigencies, was even in want of necessaries for his person. During the war with Spain, in 1596, he held at Rouen an assembly of the notables, in order to take their advice and procure aids, where he spoke like the father of his people, i" have not called you, said he, among other things, as my predecessors did, to oblige you blindly to approve my will ; I have caused you to be assembled, in order to receive your advice, to listen to it, to follow it, in a word, to make you my guardians. This is seldom done by ki?igs, grey-beards, and victors, like me ; but the love which I bear to my subjects, and the extreme desire that I have to preserve my kingdom, make me think every thing easy and honourable.

This assembly ill answered his confidence. It proposed to establish a council of reason, whose members should be of its own nomina tion, to manage one-half of the revenue, for the purpose of paying pensions and discharging debts, without being subject to have the accounts inspected. Such a system was irrecon cilable with the royal authority. Yet Sulli caused it to be accepted, foreseeing that it would soon fall of itself, and that the necessity of effectual remedies would be more clearly perceived. In fact, these ignorant administra tors had scarce exercised their office three months, when, finding it impossible to succeed, they petitioned for a suppression of the new council. Experience of ill is often necessary to lead men to good. After this, the whole management of the re- Sum super: venue was put into the hands of Sulli.

The last superintendant, Francis d'O, a man equal ly rapacious and prodigal, had filled up the measure of the abuses produced by the dissipa tion and vices of Henry III. The state was indebted three hundred and thirty millions of livres, which at present would make eight hun dred and two * of the current money of France. One hundred and fifty millions were levied on the people, and of that only about thirty came into the treasury. Thus the king, loaded with debts, received only a fifth part of what was exacted from the nation, which was over whelmed with misery. The great increase of taxation, instead of enriching the state, had long been appropriated to raising the fortunes of a few men, who preyed upon the nation. We have seen that the perpetual taille was esta blished under Charles VIE, in whose reign it did not exceed eighteen hundred thousand livres.

So early as the reign of Francis I., it amounted to fifteen millions seven hundred thousand livres. f The kingdom had, after that time, experienced every kind of misfortune, calculated to ruin the prince and increase the oppression of the people. Sulli resolved to examine every thing in per- He son, before he attempted the bringing of this ex™dnes chaos into order. His zeal was neither cooled disco™s aU by the immense labour it required, nor the inabuses. * About 33,041,6661. English. f The foreign wars, kindled by a fatal ambition, had necessarily pro duced tliis augmentation of the imposts, and made the princes ruin their subjects and dominions. According to Philip de Comines, Charles VIII. could not continue bis march in Italy without borrowing from the Genoese at two-and-forty per cent.

VOL. V. B Ilii operations and successes Cabals against him, finite number of obstacles he had to encounter. He saw that the financiers, by their secret prac tices, robbed the king with impunity, while they affected to serve him ; that the ladies and grandees of the court, sharing the fruits of their extortions, interested themselves keenly in their defence ; that odious taxes had been im posed, only to fill the coffers of those insatiable men ; that the people were more oppressed, as their money was lost among a multiplicity of hands, which prevented it from reaching the treasury. He perceived that the actual revenues were likewise dissipated in vain expenses, and that, if they were not sufficient to supply the exigencies, it was principally for want of knowing how to employ them with economy and prudence.

He saw the evils, and found the remedies. To make the receipt less complicated ; to re cover the real rights, and cancel such as were abusive and usurped ; to subject the finances to an exact and clear order, balance the receipt and the expense, sacrifice the frivolous to the useful, and direct all the operations to the same end, the public good ; in these consisted the se cret of the minister, which is clearly explained in his Memoirs. The effects were, that, in the space of fifteen years, the debts were dis charged ; the revenues increased four millions, and forty millions in reserve ; at the same time that the taxes were considerably diminished. The clamours and artifices of those, who before fattened on the substance of the people, may be guessed. By dint of calumnies, they sometimes well nigh effected the ruin of the minister; but luckily these clouds were soon The king himsell sometimes thwarted his views.