A History of England in the eighteenth century

Preface

. The history of a nation may be written in so many different ways that it may not be useless, in laying these volumes before tbe public, to state in a few words the plan which I have adopted, and the chief objects at which I have aimed. I have not attempted to write the history of the period I have chosen year by year, or to give a detailed account of military events or of the minor personal and party incidents which form so large a part of political annals. It has been my object to disengage from the great mass of facts those which relate to the permanent forces of the nation, or which indicate some of the more enduring features of national life. The growth or decline of the monarchy, the aristocracy, and the democracy, of the Church and of Dissent, of the agricultural, the manufacturing, and the commercial interests ; the increasing power of Parliament and of the press ; the history of political ideas, of art, of manners, and of belief ; the changes that have taken place in the social and economical condition of the people ; the influences that have modified national character ; the relations of the mother country to its depen dencies, and the causes that h»,ve accelerated or retarded the advancement of the latter, form the main subjects of this book.

PREFACE.

. VI In order to do justice to them within moderate limits it is necessary to suppress much that has a purely biographical, party, or military interest ; and I have also not hesitated in some cases to depart from the strict order of chronology. The history of an institution or a tendency can only be written by collecting into a single focus facts that are spread over many years, and such matters may be more clearly treated according to the order of subjects than according to the order of time. It wist appear evident, I think, from the foregoing sketch, that this book differs widely from the very valuable history of Lord Stanhope, which covers a great part of the same period. Two writers, dealing with the same country and the same time, must necessarily relate many of the same events ; but our plans, our objects, and the classes of facts on which we have especially dwelt, are so very different that our books can hardly, I hope, come into any real competition ; and I should much regret if it were thought that the present work had been written in any spirit of rivalry, or with any wish to depreciate the merits of its predecessor.

Lord Stanhope was not able to bring to his task the artistic talent, the power, or the philoso phical insight of some of his contemporaries ; but no one can have studied with care the period about which he wrote without a feeling of deep respect for the range and accuracy of his research, for the very unusual skill which he displayed in the difficult art of selecting from great multitudes of facts those which are truly characteristic and significant, and, above all, for his transparent honesty of purpose, for the fulness and fair ness with which he seldom failed to recount the faults of those with whom he agreed and the merits of those from whom he differed. This last quality is one of the rarest in history, and it is especially admirable in a writer who had himself strong party convictions, who passed much of his life in active politics,

PREFACE.

. VII and who was often called upon to describe contests in which his own ancestors bore a part. To the great courtesy of the authorities of the French Foreign Office I am indebted for copies of some valuable letters relating to the closing days of Queen Anne ; and I must also take this opportunity of acknowledging the un wearied kindness I have received from Sir Bernard Burke, Ulster King of Arms, during my investigation of those Irish State Papers which he has arranged so admirably and which he knows so west. LONDON : November 1877. THE FIRST VOLUME.

Chapter I

_.• ■ • _ rAGE Vicissitudes of Whigs and Tories 1 Not true that the parties have exchanged their principles . . , 2 The Revolution much more due to special than to general causes . 6 Many general influences had long been inimical to Freedom The decline of the yeomen ........ 6 Restrictions on the political influence of the commercial classes . 7 Subserviency of the Judges 7 Intellectual tendency towards Despotism 8 Growth of the doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings . . . 8 Summary of the causes of the Revolution 9 Skill with which the Whig leaders availed themselves of their opportunities 12 Part played by general and particular causes in history . . . 13 Unpopularity of the Revolutionary Government 16 Strength of the English hatred of foreigners 17 It acted at first in favour of the Revolution 18 And was strengthened by the Protestant feelings of the country . 19 Dangers to Protestantism in Europe 19 The jealousy of foreigners gradually turns against the Revolution 23 Foreign Policy The Spanish Succession 24 England desires the acceptance of the will of Charles H. . .25 Change of feeling produced by the invasion of Flanders . . . 27 Formation and prospects of the Grand Alliance .... 29 Recognition of the Pretender by Lewis XTV 30 Strong warlike feeling.

Dissolution of Parliament and triumph of the Whigs 30 Death of William 30 Tory sympathies of Anne 31 New Tory Ministry and Parliament ;i-' X FAGE The exigencies of foreign policy draw Godolphin and Marlborough towards the Whigs 34 Partial transformation of the Ministry 34 Blenheim 37 Anger of the clergy against the Queen 37 Great Whig majority of 1705 38 Progress of the alienation of the Government from the Tories . 38 Chief events of the Godolphin Ministry 39 Government at length completely Whig 42 Alienation of the Queen. The Ministers depend mainly for their power on the continuance of the war . . . . . . 43 Negotiations of 1706 44 And of 1709 46 Marlborough refused the position of Captain-General . . .49 The Church Opposition The Sacheverell case .......... 51 Downfall of the Whigs 59 Coincidence of great ecclesiastical influence in England with great political and intellectual activity 60 Relations of the clergy to the Revolution : the abjuration oath . 62 Exaltation of Charles 1 64 The miracle of the royal touch 67 Strength of the Church in England 74 Its gains and losses by the Reformation 74 Poverty and low social position of the clergy 75 Effect of the Revolution in weakening their power . . . . 79 Growth of the Latitudinarian party.

Burnet .... 80 Change in the tone of the pulpit 84 The non-juror theology 86 Conflict between the lower clergy and the bishops . . . . 87 Divisions in Convocation 89 Several Church measures carried under Anne 90 History of the Occasional Conformity Bill 92 Conduct of the Whig party 94 The Schism Act 95 Political and religious liberty in gTeat danger 96 Review of Foreign Policy Deaths in the French and Austrian royal families . . . .97 Military situation gg Conferences of Gertruydenberg 98 Reasons for a peace go Inevitable dissolution of the alliance iqi Wisdom of recognising the title of Philip V. 103 Hostility of the new Government to Marlborough . . . 105 Secret negotiations and preliminaries .... 107 Conference at Utrecht 108 England abandons her allies Ill Disasters that follow j,o PAGE Violent proceedings at home 113 Fall of Marlborough 114 His character and career 115 The Peace of Utrecht 122 Abandonment of the Catalans 125 Reflections on the Peace 126 Strength and weakness of the Government Characters of its leaders 128 Strength of the Jacobite party throughout the kingdom . . . 130 Attitude of leading politicians towards it 132 The Protestant succession in great danger 134 Refusal of the Pretender to become a Protestant . . . .137 Forms the chief obstacle to his success 138 Advantages of the Whigs 140 The Commercial Treaty 142 Its failure weakens the Ministry 145 General Election.

Clerical and Jacobite agitation . . . . 145 Divergence of Oxford and Bolingbroke ..... 148 Attitude of the opposing parties. Intentions of Bolingbroke . . 149 Policy of Swift 157 Dismissal of Oxford 161 Jacobite designs of Bolingbroke. His intended Ministry . . 161 The Queen is seized with a mortal illness 1C3 Conduct of Shrewsbury, Argyle, and Somerset .... 164 Shrewsbury made Treasurer 1 65 Preparations to secure the Hanoverian succession . . . 165 Queen dies 165 George I. proclaimed 166 Attitude of Parliament and of parties 166 Formation of a Whig Ministry 168 CHAPTEE II. Analysis of the Whig Party. 1. The Aristocracy Their remarkable liberality in England 170 Their influence in raising public labour to honour . . .172 In averting unscrupulous legislation 176 In making government popular 178 In sustaining patriotic feelings 179 In bringing young men into politics 179 Other uses of the peerage 180 Its evils 182 Moderation of the English aristocracy 184 Peerage Bill of Stanhope 185 Great influence of the aristocracy al the time of the Revolution . 2.

The Commercial Classes PAGE The natural representatives of political progress .... 187 And of religious toleration 187 Immigration of Refugees 188 Its importance in the history of industry 191 Effect on the Whig party 193 Growth of industrial influence and prosperity in England . . 193 Effect of the funding system and of the great mercantile corporations in strengthening the Whigs 198 Political -corruption by rich merchants 201 Summary of the political influence of the commercial classes , 201 3. Tlie Nonconformists Their position at the time of the Revolution 202 How far the Revolution favoured religious liberty . . . . 203 The Toleration Act 203 The Comprehension scheme 204 Position of the Quakers ......... 205 Their affirmation allowed instead of oaths . .... 206 ' Increased facility for levying tithes 206 Jacobitism under Anne very hostile to Dissenters . . . . 206 Impeachment of Tory statesmen 208 Growing discontent 209 Bremen and Verden . • 211 Insurrection of 1715 212 Languor of public opinion.

The Septennial Act .... 216 Decline of the Monarchical Sentiment in England Multiplication of disputed successions throughout Europe . . 217 Decay of the doctrine of Divine right . . 218 The party interest of the Tories hostile to the reigning King 219 The respect for law opposed to high monarchical views " 220 Influences favourable to the royal power were overbalanced . 220 Increased simplicity of the Court ... 221 Disappearance of the miracle of the royal touch . 221 Lingering traces among the Stuarts .... ! 221 Growth of party government diminishes monarchical authority' . 223 Methods by which the Whig party strengthened their power . . 227 Close alliance with France ... ' „0R Peace of Rastadt ' „ Disturbances in Spain .... Career of Alberoni ... Failure and dismissal .... 9i. General pacification of Europe strengthened the Government . 246 Decline of the Ecclesiastical Spirit Growth of Scepticism-its different effects on Churches 248 Political results of the Trinitarian controversy and ot the writfn^ ' of Hoadly .

" PAGE Indefinite prorogation of Convocation 251 Banishment of Atterbury 252 Manner in which it was received 252 Religions Legislation of the Whigs Discussions on the Sacramental Test. Its history and effects . 253 Unsuccessful efforts to repeal it 257 Repeal of the Schism and Occasional Conformity Acts . . . 258 Measures in favour of the Irish Presbyterians 258 Relaxations of the English test 259 Measures in favour of the Quakers 260 Revival of the Bill for Naturalising foreign Protestants . , 261 The Jewish Naturalisation Act 262 Popular disturbances. Repeal of the Act 264 Intolerance not confined to the Anglicans or High Churchmen . . 265 Repeal of the law against witchcraft 266 Rectification of the calendar . 267 The position of the Catholics unimproved 268 Peculiarity of the position of Catholicism in Europe . . . 268 And in England 271 New laws against Catholics in England 275 Laws against Catholics in the Colonies 276 And against those in Ireland.

The Treaty of Limerick . . . 278 The Irish penal code not due to any rebellion .... 280 Laws depriving the Irish Catholics of all civil life . . . . 283 Laws prohibiting Catholic education . . . . - . .285 Laws affecting property 286 Laws preventing intermarriage of Catholics and Protestants . . 289 Laws affecting domestic life 289 Laws affecting religious worship 292 Degree in which the code was enforced 296 Its effects 301 Condition of the Catholics in England 303 And in Scotland 310 Measures relating to Unitarians, Arians, and Sceptics . . . 311 Rapid growth of religious indifferentism in England . . ,313

Chapter III

Monotony of English party politics. Tories still esteemed Jacobite 316 Policy and partial restoration of Bolingbroke 316 Schism of the Whigs in 1717 318 Partial reconciliation in 1720 321 The South Sea catastrophe 321 Complete ascendancy of Walpole 324 Sketch of his life :s24 CONTENTS OF PAGE Ministry of Walpole His skill in managing men 328 His care in avoiding violent concussions of opinion . . . 329 His measures to reconcile the country gentry to the dynasty . . 330 His prudent religious policy 331 Instances of his sagacity of judgment 332 His financial skill 334 Great prosperity of the country 335 Proceedings relating to the National Debt. Arguments for National Debts 336 Their dangers 337 Erroneous estimates of the financial capacities of the country . 340 ' Connection between the Revolution and the National Debt . . 341 The sinking fund of Walpole 342 His deference to public opinion combined with great absolutism in the Cabinet 343 His moderation to opponents has been exaggerated . . . 346 His pacific policy 348 Treaty between Spain and Austria in 1725 349 Siege of Gibraltar .......... 351 Negotiations for peace • . 351 Peace of Seville and Peace of Vienna 353 War of the Polish Succession 354 Military sentiment of the King and country ... . . 356 Menacing progress of France 356 Walpole maintains peace 359 His ascendancy not due to great eloquence.

Oratory not supreme in Parliament 361 Summary of the merits of Walpole 363 Bis Defects Low political honour 3g3 Want of decorum 3C4 Corruption. History of Parliamentary corruption .... 366 Degree in which the guilt of it attaches to Walpole . . . 369 His influence over young men 370 Report of the Committee of Inquiry .... 37I Effect of the language of Walpole on political morality in England 373 Elements of Opposition Pulteney 374 Carteret „»r • • ■ . 6 1 5 Chesterfield „_„ The Boy Patriots „_q The Tories '.'.'.' \ 379 Position of Bolingbroke ...... Ln The Prince of Wales ' . 381 Death of the Queen. Isolation of Walpole . PAGE Patronage of Queen Caroline 464 Decline of political enthusiasm 466 Attitude of the nation in 1745 468 Browne's Estimate 469 Superiority of the English Government to most Continental ones . 471 Cons usion of party qualities.

Natural history of Whigs and Tories 473 Reforms in Scotland 476 Legislation about Public Order On gin-drinking. History of Drunkenness ..... 476 Extreme danger of London streets. The Mohocks . . . 482 The inefficiency of the watchmen ....... 483 Street robberies . 484 Abolition of the privileges of the Mint 485 Measures for the better lighting of London 486 Formation of a new police force 487 Frequency of riots 488 Wrecking. Laws to repress it 488 Jlie Marriage Act of Lord Hwrdwicke Clandestine marriages 490 English legislation on marriage 491 Difference between the secular and the theological aspects of marriage 492 Divorce 493 Growth of the secular view of marriage in English law . . . 497 Success of Lord Hardwicke's Act 498 Decline of the spirit of philanthropy and reform .... 499 Berkeley 499 Oglethorpe 499 Condition of debtors' prisons 500 Foundation of Georgia 503 Neglected condition of the navy and army 504 Atrocious penal system 504 The nation assuming rapidly its modern aspect . . . . 507 Growth of the Modern Military System Improvements in the art of war led to standing armies . . .509 History of the Mutiny Act 510 Opinion of Blackstone 512 Jealousy of the Army 513 History of barracks 5xi

Chapter IV

National Tastes and Manners Growth of newspapers and magazines 517 Coarseness of manners 5'1 Gambling THE FIRST VOLUME. XV111 PAGE Gardening 523 Architecture 526 Painting 526 Music. Growth of the Opera 531 Career of Handel 532 The Drama. Its immorality 538 Legislation on the subject 542 ' The Beggars' Opera' 542 Depression of taste ......-••• 543 The Shakespearean revival 544 Garrick 545 Puritanical opposition to the theatre 548 Amusements with animals ......... 550 Watering-places 554 Rise of sea-bathing 555 Character of country life 556 Condition of the poor 558 Increase of London .......... 565 Town amusements .......... 568 Fashionable hours .......... 569 Domestic service ........... 570 Sanitary condition of London ........ 572 Growth of medicine 573 Anatomy ............ 574 Inoculation 575 Conclusion Foreign Troubles PAcœ Disputes with Spain 30, The Family Compact 004 Jenkins' ears 3g. Declaration of war.

First Expeditions .... , 387 Death of the Emperor. Weakness of Maria Theresa . . . 387 Frederick II 389 The succession of Berg and Juliers . .... 390 Claims to Silesia 3g, Invasion of Silesia. Coalition against Maria Theresa . . . 392 Policy of Walpole 393 Subsidy to the Empress. Neutrality of Hanover .... 393 Fall of Walpole ' . .' 395 Ruin of the influence of Pulteney 397 Failure of the impeachment of Walpole 398 His last days ......... 399 The new Ministry 400 Convention of the Austrians with Frederick 401 Austrian victories in Bohemia and Bavaria 401 Charles VII. crowned Emperor 401 Frederick breaks the Convention. Battle of Czaslau . . , 402 Peace of Breslau ......... . 402 Expulsion of the French from Bohemia 403 Death of Fleury 403 Rapid changes of fortune in Italy 404 Services of the British fleet 404 The Austrians completely victorious in Germany . . . . 405 The Dutch enter the war.

Battle of Dettingen .... 405 Revulsion of feeling in England. Ambitious views of Maria Theresa 406 Exaggerated war measures of England 407 Alleged subordination of English to Hanoverian interests . . 408 Unpopularity of Carteret 411 Death of Lord Wilmington. Ascendancy of the Pelhams . . . 411 Henry Pelham 412 Abortive attempt of the French to invade England . . . . 413 French and Spanish fleet escapes from Toulon in spite of the English 413 Brilliant campaign of the French in Flanders 414 Interrupted by the Austrian invasion of Alsace .... 414 Frederick renews the war 415 Capture of Prague with its garrison 416 The Emperor reinstated in Munich 416 Frederick driven into Silesia 417 French capture Friburg 417 Italian campaigns in 1744 417 1745. Offensive alliance between England, Holland, Austria, and Saxony 418 Death of Charles VII 418 Peace between Austria and Bavaria.

The Duke of Lorraine elected Emperor 419 vol. I. *a PAGE Victories of the Prussians. Peace of Dresden between Austria and Prussia 419 Insurrection of Genoa. French and Spaniards victorious in Italy 420 French campaign in Flanders. Battle of Fontenoy and its results 420 The Jacobite insurrection of 1745 421 General incapacity of the British commanders . .... 423 Successes of the navy 423 Italian campaigns of 1746 424 Victories of the French in Flanders and Holland .... 425 Failure of the attempt of the King to displace Pelham . . . 426 Re-establishment of the Ministry . 426 Condition of Europe called urgently for peace . . . . 427 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle 428 Reduction of the army 430 Foundation of Halifax 430 Financial measures of Pelham 431 Great predominance of the commercial spirit in Parliament . . 433 Anxiety for Parliamentary reform in the country . . . . 434 Parliamentary Corruption and Tyranny Simultaneous growth of the power of the Commons and the influence of Government upon its members since the Revolution . 434 Arbitrary proceedings of the Lower House.

The Kentish petitioners 436 The Aylesbury election 437 Parliamentary censorship of the Press 438 Parliamentary privilege .... , 439 Scandalous proceedings in the trials of disputed elections . . 440 Parliamentary reporting forbidden. Its history . ... 442 Measure against bribery ,447 Measures diminishing the number of pensioners and placeholders in Parliament . 447 Attempts to shorten the duration of Parliament. Effects of the Septennial Act 4^0 Redeeming Features of Parliament Character of the English upper classes 451 Constant infusion of young members .... ... 451 The representation of the counties and of the large towns . ' . 452 Fear of the Pretender 452 Attention paid to popular wishes . 453 Comparative simplicity of English politics 453 Low standard of political honour .... 454 Exclusive employment of Government patronage for political ends 455 Danger of leaving science and literature to the unrestricted operation of the law of supply and demand ... 456 Methods that have been adopted for encouraging them 459 Government patronage of literature under Anne . . .461 Effects of the degradation of literature under the first Georges' .' HISTORY OF ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTUKY.