Physical, historical, and military geography: from the French ... edited with additions and corrections, by A. F. Lendy, etc

Preface

. In 1836, Lavallee opened a new era in the study of Geo graphy. Condemning the treatises put into the hands of youth as mere catalogues of towns, rivers, &c, he abandoned the path followed by his predecessors, and instead of taking for landmarks the political divisions, which are constantly changing, he adopted the physical features or natural divisions of the globe. Lacroix, Humboldt, Ritter, &c, had already made an attempt in that direction, but it was reserved for Lavallee to render their ideas popular. The division of Continents into Watersheds, Basins, &c, rendered the study of Geography so much easier, that in a few years the method of Lavallee was generally adopted, and his work was translated into the principal European languages. In this country it has become familiar to a numerous class of readers, thanks to the late Colonel Jackson, who, in 1850, published a translation of a portion of an early edition under the name of " Military Topography of Continental Europe."

This edition, however, is exhausted. In 1865, two years before his death, Lavallee published a new edition (the seventh) considerably enlarged, and autho rized me, his old pupil, to give it an English garb. I was encouraged by his promise of a preface in form of an intro duction. Owing, however, to the httle time which daily occupation allowed me to spare, to the difficulty of rendering French VI PEEFACE. names into English or foreign ones, and to the necessity of correcting numerous errors which had somehow crept into the original, my task was not accomplished till too late for the promised preface of my deceased friend. Recent discoveries and surveys have rendered several alter ations necessary, whilst the wars of America, Italy, and Germany have obliged me to make many additions. The student will observe that some countries, such as the British Islands, Russia, Sweden, &c, are treated much less fully than others, as France, Belgium, Spain, Germany, &c. ; but this is not accidental.

The details are proportioned to the extent of the mihtary records of the various countries. Thus, countries which have long been the battlefields of European armies, such as Belgium, France, Italy, &c, are treated with a fulness of details which was not deemed neces sary with respect to countries hke Great Britain, Sweden, &c, which have not been, and are not likely to become, the theatre of future wars. A. F. LENDY. Sunbury, January, 1868. CONTENTS. Book I. -PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. PAGE

CHAPTER I. — The Interior op the Eaeth .. .. .. 1

CHAPTER IL

— The Surface of the Earth. § I. — Division into Seas and Lands . . . . . . . . 5 II. — Exterior and Interior Divisions of the Terrestrial Surface .. .. .. .. .. .. 5 III. — Study of the Land : — Mountains and Hills .. .. 12 IV. — Study of the Land {continued) : — Valleys and Plains 17 V. — Study of the Waters: — Running Waters .. .. 19 VI. — Study of the Waters (continued') : — Seas .. .. 25 Summary of the Terraqueous Surface . . . . . . . . 28 Book II.-POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

CHAPTER I.

— Man, Considered in Himself 29

CHAPTER IL

— Man, Considered Socially 32 9.9. Book III.-GENERAL DIVISIONS. § I. — Great Divisions of the Seas .. .. .. .. 36 II. — Great Divisions of the Land .. .. .. .. 37 III. — History of Geography .. .. .. .. .. 39 Book IV.— EUROPE.

CHAPTER I.

— Generalities. § I. — Description of the Seas .. .. .. .. .. 44 II. — Description of the Land . . .. .. .. .. 48 III. — History of the Geography of Europe .. .. .. CONTENTS. VIII CHAPTER H.— Spanish Region. PAGE § I. — General Ideas . . . . . . . . • • • ■ 58 II. — History of the Geography of the Spanish Peninsula . . 61 III.— Southern Watershed 63 IV. — Western Watershed . . . . . . . . . • 65 1. Basin of the Guadalquiver .. .. .. 66 2. Basin of the Guadiana , .. .. .. .. 70 3. Basin of the Tagus .. .. .. •• 73 4. Basin of the Duero, with the Secondary Basins of the Mondego and Minho .. .. .. 79 V.— Northern Watershed .. .. .. .. -• 86 VI. — Eastern Watershed (Basins of the Ebro, Jucar, &c.) 89 VIL— Balearic Islands 101 VIII. — The Azores, or Western Islands . . . . . . 102 IX.— Statistics (Spain and Portugal) .. .. .. 102

Chapter III

— French Region. § I.— General Ideas 103 II. — History of the Geography of Gaul . . . . . . 106 Table of the Principal Divisions of Gaul .. .. 112 III. — Northern Watershed of the Pyrenees .. .. .. 116 1. Basins of the Tech, Rear, Tet, Gly, and Aude .. 117 2. Basins of the Nivelle and Adour . . .. .. 120 3. Basin of the Garonne .. .. .. .. 123 Summary of the Frontier of the Pyrenees . . . . 131 IV.— Watershed of the Bay of Biscay 132 1. Basins of the Nivelle and Adour . . .. .. 132 2. Basin of the Garonne .. .. .. .. 132 3. Basins of the Seudre, Charente, Sevres, &c. . . 132 4. Basin of the Loire . . . . . . . . 137 5. Basins of the Vilaine, Blavet, &c. .. .. 147 V. — Watershed of the English Channel (Basins of the Orne, Seine, Somme, &c.) .. .. .. .. 148 VI. — Watershed of the Mediterranean (Basins of the Herault, Rhone, Var, &c.) .. .. .. .. .. 170 Recapitulation of the Frontier of France in the Rhone Basin 196 VII. — Watershed of the German Ocean .. .. .. 199 1.

Basin of the Upper Rhine (Left Bank) .. .. 205 2. Basin of the Middle Rhine „ .. .. CONTENTS. IX PAGE 3. Basin of the Lower Rhine (Left Bank) .. .. 220 4. Secondary Basin of the Escaut .. .. .. 226 Coast Streams, Coast, and Harbours between Cap* Grisnez and the Mouths of the Meuse .. .. 234 Recapitulation of the Frontier of France in the Basins of the Rhine and Escaut .. .. .. ..237 § VIII. — Statistics (France, Switzerland, Belgium, &c.) .. 245

Chapter IV

— Central or German Region. § I. — General Ideas 246 II. — History of the Geography of the German Region . . 248 Table of the Prussian and Austrian States . . . . 258 III. — Watershed of the German Ocean .. .. .. 260 1. Basin of the Rhine (Right Bank) .. .. 260 2. Basin of the Weser .. .. .. .. 273 3. Basin of the Elbe 276 IV. — Danish Peninsula and Islands . . . . . . 288 V.— Watershed of the Baltic Sea 291 1. Basin of the Oder 291 2. Basin of the Vistula 295 VI.— Watershed of the Black Sea 297 Basin of the Danube . . . . . . . . . . 297 First Basin of the Danube . . . . . . . . 303 Second Basin of the Danube . . .. .. .. 316 Third Basin of the Danube 323 Fourth Basin of the Danube . . . . . . . . 329 VII. — Statistics (Austria, North German Confederation, other German States, Non German States) .. .. 334

Chapter V

— Italian Region. § I.— General Ideas 336 II. — History of the Geography of Italy .. .. .. 338 III. — Continental-Italy (Basins of the Po, Adige, Bacchiglione, Brenta, Piave, Livenza, Tagliamento, and Isonzo) . . 343 IV. — Peninsular Italy .. .. .. .. .. .. 373 Western Watershed, from the' Pass of Cadibona to Cape Spartivento . . . . . . . . . . 374 Southern Watershed, from Cape Spartivento to Cape Leuca .. .. .. .. •• .. 380 Eastern Watershed, from Cape Leuca to the Ronco CONTENTS. X PAGE V.— Insular Italy (Corsica, Elba, Sardinia, Sicily, &c.) •• 383 VI.— Statistics (Kingdom of Italy and Pontifical States) . . 389

Chapter VI

— Greek Region. § I.— General Ideas 389 H.— History of the Geography of Greece .. -. ■• 391 III.— Western Watershed 396 IV— Eastern Watershed 40° V.— Morea 404 VI— Islands 40(5 VIL— Statistics (Greece, Turkey) " 408 CHAPTER Vn— Russian Region. § I.— General Ideas 408 II. — History of the Geography of Russia .. .. .. 411 III.— Watershed of the Black Sea 414 1. Basin of the Dniester .. .. .. •• 414 2. Basin of the Dnieper .. .. .. .. 415 3. Peninsula of Crimea .. .. .. .. 418 4. Basin of the Don . . . . . . . . . . 421 IV. — Isthmus of the Caucasus . . . . . . . . 421 V. — Watershed of the Caspian Sea .. .. .. .. 423 1. Basin of the Volga .. .. .. ..423 2. Basin of the Oural 425 VI.— Watershed of the Baltic 426 1. Basin of the Passarge .. .. .. .. 426 2. Basin of the Pregel 426 3. Basin of the Niemen .. .. .. .. 427 4.

Basin of the Dvina 428 5. Basin of the Narva . . . . . . . . 428 6. Basin of the Neva 429 7. Peninsula of Finland 430 VII. — Watershed of the Arctic Ocean .. .. .. .. 432 Basins of the Petchora, Dwina, Onega, and Lapland 432 VIII— Statistics -433

Chapter VIII

— Scandinavian Region. § L— General Ideas 433 IL— History of the Geography of Scandinavia . . . . CONTENTS. XI PAGE III.— Eastern Watershed 436 IV.— Southern Watershed 437 V.— Western Watershed 438 VI.— Statistics 439

Chapter IX

— British Region. § I. — General Ideas .. .. .. .. .. .. 439 II. — History of the Geography of the British Isles .. .. 4r40 III.— Great Britain 443 IV.— England 444 1. Southern Watershed .. .. .. .. 444 2. Eastern Watershed . . . . . . . . 446 3. Western Watershed 449 V.— Scotland 450 1. Western Watershed .. .. .. .. 450 2. Eastern Watershed .. .. .. .. 451 VI.— Ireland .. .. 452 1. Eastern Watershed 453 2. Western Watershed 453 VII.— Statistics 454 Book V.-ASIA. § I. — Division of the Seas .. .. .. .. .. 455 II. — Division of the Land .. .. .. .. .. 456 III. — History of the Geography of Asia .. .. .. 457 IV. — Watershed of the Arctic Ocean . . .. .. .. 462 V. — Watershed of the Pacific Ocean . . . . . . 465 VI. — Watershed of the Indian Ocean .. .. .. 474 1. Peninsula of Malacca .. .. .. .. 479 2.

Rivers of Tibet and Burmah . . . . . . 479 3. Basin of the Ganges .. .. .. .. 480 4. Peninsula of Hindustan .. .. .. .. 483 5. Basin of the Indus .. .. .. .. 486 6. Plateau of Persia 488 7. Basins of the Euphrates and Tigris .. .. 490 8. Peninsula of Arabia .. .. .. ..491 CONTENTS. XII PAGE VIL— Watershed of the Mediterranean 493 I.Syria 495 2. Asia Minor 498 3. Colchis 501 VIII.— Plateau of the Caspian and Aral Seas 501 IX.— Central or Chinese Plateau 504 Book VI— OCEANIA § I.— General Ideas 505 II. — Asiatic Islands, or Malaysia .. .. ■■ •• 506 III.— Polynesia 510 IV. — Australasia .. .. .. •■ •• •• 511 Book VII.-APEICA. § I. — Divisions of the Seas .. .. .. .. .. 513 II. — Divisions of the Land .. .. .. .. .. 514 III. — History of the Geography of Africa .. .. .. 515 IV— Basin of the Nile 519 V. — Watershed of the Gulf of Sidra and Khabs . . . . 527 1.

Barca Country .. .. .. .. .. 527 2. Regency of Tripoli 528 VI.— Northern Watershed of the Atlas 528 1. Regency of Tunis .. .. .. .. .. 531 2. Algeria 532 § 1. Coast 535 2. Basins of the Tell .. .. .. .. 539 3. The Sahara .. .. .. .. .. 543 VII. — Sahara .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 545 VIII. — Basins of Senegambia . . . . . . . . . . 548 IX. — Basin of the Niger .. .. .. .. .. 551 X — Basin of the Lake Chad . . .. .. .. .. 553 XI. — Southern Africa : — Watershed of the Atlantic Ocean . . 553 XII. — Southern Africa : — Watershed of the Indian Ocean . . 556 XIII. — Islands of Africa . . . . . . . . . . . , CONTENTS. XIII Book VIII.-AMERICA. PAGE § I. — Divisions of the Seas .. .. .. .. ., 563 II. — Divisions of the Land .. .. .. .. .. 565 III. — History of the Geography of America .. .. .. 567 SOUTH AMERICA. § L— Patagonia 571 IL— Basin of the Plata 572 III. — Basin of the Maraiion .. .. .. .. ..579 IV. — Watershed of the Caribbean Sea .. .. .. 586 V.— Watershed of the Pacific 588 NORTH AMERICA. § I.— Watershed of the Pacific 590 IL— Watershed of the Gulf of Mexico 594 1.

Eastern Watershed of the Caribbean Sea .. 594 2. Eastern Watershed of the Gulf of Mexico .. 595 3. Basin of the Mississippi .. .. .. .. 597 Rivers on the East of the Mouth of the Mississippi, as far as Cape Table 601 § III.— Watershed of the Atlantic Ocean 602 1. Watershed of the Alleghanys .. .. .. 602 2. Basin of the St. Lawrence . . . . . . 608 IV. — Watershed of the Hudson's Bay and the Arctic Ocean 612 V— Polar Lands 613 VI. — Columbian Archipelago . . .. .. .. .. 614 1. The Antilles 614 2. The Bahama Islands 620 Alphabetical Index .. .. .. .. ■• •• E BEAT A. - Page 78, line 14 from top, for Moradel, read Moradal. 82, 15 „ „ for Ildefons, read Ildefonso. 83, 3 „ bottom, for Entre Douro Minho, read Entre Douro e Minho. 85, 5 „ top, for Tras os Montes, read Traz os Montes. 89, 13 „ „ after Oviedo insert 3.

Santandek. „ ,, „ „ for 3, Biscay, read 4, Biscay. „ „ „ „ for 4, Guipcscoa, read 5, Guipcscoa. 93, 6 ,, „ for Col de Costouge, read Col de Coustouge. 102, 23 „ „ for San Michael, read San Miguel. 27 „ „ for XIX., read IX. 106, 2 „ bottom, for Narbonnaise premiere, read Narbonensis I. 117, 14 „ „ for Basin, read Basins. 132, 3,4, 5 „ „ for I., II., III., read 1, 2, 3. 134, 3 „ top, for Pertais, read Pertuis. 176, 18 ,, „ for Brigg, read Brieg. 204, 8 „ „ for 141, read 149. 208, 9 „ „ for Intertaken, read Interlaken. 210, 8 „ „ for Kliir, read Kliin. 219, 9 „ bottom, for Duchy, read Grand Duchy. 232, 3 „ top, for Ropelmonde, read Rupelmonde. 269, 1 „ bottom, for Duchy, read Grand Duchy. 270, 2 „ top, for the river, read the latter river. 278, 2 „ bottom, for Trautenan, read Trautenau. 299, 8 „ „ for ScheideeJc, read Scheideck. 311, 8 „ „ for Napolean, read Napoleon. 813, 21 „ top, for Tannen, read Tiinnen. 376, 18 „ ,, for Rapello, read Rapallo. 379, 12 „ bottom, for dell' Ovo, read del Uovo. 401, 18 „ top, for Bahr, Kalessi, read Bahu Kalessi. „ „ „ „ for Poleocastro, read Paleocastro. 403, 5 „ „ for Uskibu, read Uskiub. 410, 16 „ „ for Artie, read Arctic. 417, 8 ,, „ for Dolichitsy, read Dokchitsy. „ 26, „ „ for Prujini, read Prujani. 418, 8, „ „ for Worsltda, read Worskla. b Page 426, line 2 from bottom, for East Konigsberg, read KuNigseerg. 445, 8 „ top, for Tourvill's, read Tourville's. 451, 19 „ „ for Ettreclt, read Ettriclc. 455, 4 „ bottom, after Ma lay, insert the Capes: East, Lapalka, Cambodia, and Romania ; 491, 12 „ top, for Cesephon, read Ctesephon. 494, 13 „ „ for Phasiss, read Pbasis. 498, 5 „ bottom, for these, read the ancient. 503, 14 „ „ for Deria, read Daria. ,, 11 ,i ,, for Syr, read Sir. „ 7 „ „ for Deria, read Daria. 521, 11 „ ,, for waters, read enters. 538, 6 „ top, for flows, read flow. 550, 18 ,, bottom, after establishment, insert ceded to Great Britain in 1867. 556, 12 „ top, for Table Lion, read Table, Lion. 557, 12 „ bottom, for washes, read waters. 55?, 20 „ top, for Zanbar, read Zanzibar. 591, 16 „ „ for Popoeatepelt, read Popocatepetl 592, 2 ,, bottom, for commences, read commence. 596, 12 and 20 from top, for Texcoco, read Tezcueo.

Book I Physical Geography Physical, Historical, And Military Geogkaphy Book

I. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Chapter I. The Interior Of The Earth

The earth is one of the planets of the solar system. In shape it is a spheroid, flattened at the poles and bulging out towards the equator. Its mean distance from the sun is 95 millions of miles ; its revolution round the sun is accomplished in 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 49 seconds, and its rotation on its own axis in 24 hours. Its demi-axis is 3,949*75 miles ; its radius at the equator 3,963 miles ; it has a superficies of 197 millions of square miles ; and a volume of 260,000 millions of cubic miles. The mass of the terrestrial globe is not homogeneous. It may be said to be divided into two parts, the limits of which are not determined :— 1st. The central nucleus, or interior part, whoso radius is probably upwards of 3,480 miles; 2nd. The external crust or superficial part, which has a variable thickness of not more than 12 to 24 miles. 1.

The interior part, to which it is improbable that man will ever be able to penetrate, has been the theme of many conjectures. The most recent researches have almost demonstrated it to be composed of incandescent matters. The facts adduced in proof P. of this opinion are:— 1. The density of the earth, which is so great that its interior must consist of very much heavier matters than those composing the external crust ;* 2, the exist ence of a central heat proper to the earth, independent of the solar heat, and which increases as we descend ; 3, volcanic phenomena and thermal springs. | 2. The superficial part is only known to us by direct observ ation to a depth of 500 or 600 yards; but earthquakes and volcanic eruptions have brought to the surface portions of the interior which we could examine ; moreover, as the highest moun tains are not formed by an extreme accumulation of the latest strata, but by the upheaval of all the beds of which they are composed, it follows that an exploration of the substances com posing a mountain 24,000 feet high, is equivalent to that of a plain to the depth of 24,000 feet.

This exterior crust is composed of an irregular series of strata of different kinds, piled one upon another at all sorts of inclin ations, forming sometimes very extensive horizontal layers of very various thickness ; sometimes masses vertically placed, over turned, up-heaved, and even curved and folded over. These strata are almost always traversed by cracks and cavities, some of which remain open, and play an important part in earthquakes ; others are filled up with metallic matters, differing from those of the stratum, and called veins. The whole of this crust shows marks of sudden| and numerous revolutions, which, by disarranging its structure and materials, have altered the relative extent and situation of water and land, caused variations of the nature and position of its surface, de stroyed and changed the creatures inhabiting it.

According to * " The mean density of the earth is about five times that of water, consequently nearly double that of the mineral crust of the globe." (DAubuisson, Traits de Ge'ognosie, t. i., p. 28.) With tl.is density, the weight ofthe globe must be about 6,160,716 millions of tons. f Vide Discours sur les Revolutions du Globe, by Cuvier ; and Letlres sur Us Revolutions du Globe, by Alexandre Bertrand. X Wo need not have recourse to sudden convulsions, in order to account for the state of the crust of the earth. There is scarcely a spot of the "lobe which has not been sometimes above, sometimes under, water ; and this^on stant oscillation, which even now is slowly going on under our eyes, is suffi cient to account for lhe changes, however great, that have come over our planet. THE INTERIOR OF THE EARTH. the antiquity of those revolutions, indicated by the fossil organic remains* they contain, the layers are divided into primary, transition, secondary, tertiary, and alluvial, corresponding with the order of their depositions. f Primary rocks are those found at the greatest depths to which man has been able to penetrate ; they appear to have resulted from the first solidification of the earth.

They are the ancient foundations of the entire envelopie of the globe, and in the over turned and irregular position of these masses, they bear the marks of a primeval terrestrial revolution at a period when no organized beings existed. They are chiefly composed of granitic rocks, which appear to be the framework of the mineral crust of the globes and they contain the richest mineral veins. The skeleton of mountains of the primitive order belong to this series of rocks. Above them are found beds which partake of the nature of both primitive and secondary rocks ; they are called transition, because they mark the passage of unstratified into stratified rocks — that is to say, into rocks whose structure consists of a succession of layers, which appear to have been deposited hori zontally by sediment from water.

" These are the rocks where primitive nature, dead and purely mineral nature, seems to dis pute for the empire with organized nature." J The schists, the calcareous rocks, and the sandstones§ are their principal elements ; they contain, in their deepest beds, the impressions of gigantic vegetables, few of which have analogues among the existing vegetation, and in their latest beds the remains of zoophytes and mollusks. || * Fossils are divided into three classes : — Remains that have retained, in whole or in part, their natural state — these are chiefly bones and shells ; petrified substances or stony bodies, the organic substance of which has been replaced by earthy or metallic matters ; lastly, impressions. t This classification into primary, transition, secondary, &c, rocks, is, in some degree, obsolete.

The primary rocks alluded to are the plutonic or metamorphic rocks of the present day ; the transition beds are tlie primary or palæozoic rocks of modern geologists ; the secondary or mesozoic, the tertiary or cainozoic, and the alluvium or quaternary, remain the same. t Cuvier. Discours sur les Revolutions du Globe. § The schists are soft, earthy rocks, of a laminated structure, like slates. The calcareous rocks are composed of carbonate of lime. The' sandstones are aggregated rocks, composed of grains agglutinated by some sort of cement. II Zoophytes, animal-plants ; mollusks, invertebrate animals. B The transition is succeeded by the secondary series, almost entirely composed of calcareous and argillaceous rocks, and of banks of chalk and clay. They rarely possess metallic veins. In their lowest strata we meet with those ancient vegetables which form the vast accumulations of coal, which the manufacturers of the present day put to such great use ; and in the upper strata the remains of organised beings in enormous quantities, especially marine shells, monstrous fishes, gigantic reptiles, most of the genera of which have no modern repre sentatives.

The flanks of the mountains of the primitive order, and almost aU the hills of smooth undulating forms, belong to the secondary series. Above them we find the tertiary series, whose rocks are less perfectly coherent, and their composition less uniform. There, among calcareous rocks, among accumulations of marl and argillaceous sand, we find the fossil remains of immense cetacea, of enormous quadrupeds, which bave no living analogies, but which Cuvier succeeded in reconstructing ; and the most remarkable of which is the jjalœotherium, an animal with a thick hide, partaking of the character of the rhinoceros, the horse, and the camel. Here, also, we meet with the bones of the mammoth, a kind of elephant, which has left thousands of its carcases in every latitude, and whose ivory tusks are so well preserved that they are still an object of commerce in northern Asia.

The destruction of this ancient population of the globe took place, no doubt, in the last revolution it underwent, at which time man dial not exist, for his bones have nowhere been found. " Where," asks Cuvier, " was the human race at that time ? Did the animals that now co-exist with him on the globe, and of which no trace is to be found among the fossils, exist then? Have the countries where he lived along with them been engulphed, while those he now inhabits were elevated into dry land '? Thus much is certain, that we are in the midst of a fourth succession of terrestrial animals, and that after the age of the reptiles, after that of the jialæotherium, after that of the mammoth, there came the age when the human species, aided by some domestic animals, peaceably dominated and multiplied on the earth, and that it is only in the rocks formed since that period, in the alluvium, in the peats and the recent concretions that we find fossil remains of the bones of animals which still exist."

The most superficial parts of the crust of the globe is com posed of drift earths or alluvium, deposited by running waters, and formed of various kinds of detritus ; they are almost every where covered with humus or vegetable soil, and in some places are mingled with the sands and shingles of the sea shores and the scoriæ of volcanoes.

Chapter II. The Surface Of The Earth

§ I— DIVISION INTO SEAS AND LANDS. The surface of the earth presents an irregular assemblage of depressions and elevations. These inequalities may be sup posed tO'have been formed either by the raising up of the lower beds, or by the sinking of those beds. The most considerable depressions are filled by a vast collec tion of stationary and continuous water ; all these waters collectively are termed oceans or seas. The most considerable elevations are masses of land rising to a greater or less height above the level of the ocean, separated from one another by seas, and constituting the surface of the land. Of these masses the two largest are called continents, all the others islands. The terraqueous surface contains about 197 millions of square miles ; of these, the ocean comprises 148 millions ; the conti nents and all the islands, 49 millions ; whence it follows that the surfaces of the globe, the seas and the land, bear the following proportion among themselves : 4, 3, 1. § II— EXTERIOR AND INTERIOR DIVISIONS OF THE TER- RESTRIAL SURFACE.

The ocean, by encompassing the continents and islands, gives to their exterior perfectly fixed and well-determined limits ; but these limits have very irregular and often complicated forms. Sometimes it penetrates deeply into the land, and there excavates a mediterranean sea or a gulf; sometimes it capriciously indents the shores, forming bays, coves, creeks, roads, harbours ; sometimes it is contracted between two lands, and forms a strait; finally, it sometimes encloses betwixt two gulfs a portion of land called peninsula, because it would, in fact, be an island, were it not united to the continent by one side, which is often very narrow, called an isthmus. The ocean, hy .means of the various indentions it makes in them, gives the continents and islands a polygonal outline, the angles of which are marked by projections jutting out upon the coast, called capes, promontories, points.

The capes are the most remarkable features of the exterior limits of the land, and we shall presently see that the sides of the polygon they belong to have a certain corre spondence with the interior limits of the land. When we take a cursory glance at the interior of the conti nents and islands, in order to discover divisions as clear and as natural as those which the ocean makes in their exterior, we see a system of elevations and depressions of such a complicated character, that it seems to be an inextricable chaos. But there is nothing isolated on earth, and nature shows on its surface, if not arrangements of a constant kind, and classifications of invariable character, still relations and analogies easily recog nised. Thus the relations among the elements of the soil are such that the masses have the same physiognomy as their details, and that, as we descend from generalities to particular circum stances, we may follow the successive dependencies of each part.

We should, therefore, endeavour to make the analytical descrip tion of the surface of the land by dividing and subdividing it in accordance with its chief framework into elements of detail subordinate to the general system of which they form part. Let us see what are the sure and invariable bases on which we may rest this analytical description. If we look at the maritime limits of a continent or of an island, we shall observe that, proceeding from the shore, the soil rises gradually in the interior up to a certain series or chain of heights (mountains or hills), beyond which the soil sinks symmetrically to the opposite shore. Every continent or island may therefore be regarded as composed of two grand planes of contrary slope, or watersheds* united by their superior points into a ridge running in the direction of the greatest dimension of the continent or island, and this ridge is termed the water-parting.