The Domestic Life, Character, and Customs of the Natives of India

Front matter

THE DOMESTIC LIFE, CHARACTER, AND CUSTOMS OP THE NATIVES OF INDIA. By JAMES KEEE, M.A, LATE PRINCIPAL OF THE HINDOO COLLEGE, CALCUTTA. LONDON : W» H. ALLEN & CO., 13, WATEKLOO PLACE, S.W. 1865. [The Right of Translation and Reproduction is Reserved.] LONDON : PRINTED BY WOODFALL AND KINDER, MILFORD LANE, STRAND, W.C. TO CHARLES HAY CAMERON, ESQUIRE, LATE PRESIDENT OF THE COUNOIL OF EDUCATION, CALCUTTA, fjjjis |8ook is gtbitattir, IN TOKEN OF BESPECT FOE HIS TALENTS AND UPRIGHTNESS, AND FOR THE INTEREST HE HAS LONG FELT, THROUGH EVIL REPORT AND GOOD REPORT. IN THE ELEVATION, BY ALL PRUDENT AND SUITABLE MEANS. OF THE NATIVES OF INDTA.

Preface

The observations now submitted to the public fall under the following heads : — I. The Character of the Natives of India. II. The Domestic Life and Customs of the Natives of India. III. Indian Caste. On these subjects the author has endeavoured to express his unprejudiced opinion, founded upon per sonal observation, at the same time, on all disputed points, giving due weight to the views of other writers of acknowledged authority. The following sources of information he has found particularly valuable : Bu chanan's Indian Statistics ; Shore's Notes on India ; the early volumes of The Friend of India ; the Evi dence given before the Parliamentary Committees on Indian Affairs in 1853 ; Colebrooke's Essays ; Profes sor H. H. Wilson's Treatises on Indian Literature ; VI

PREFACE.

. and Dr. J. Muir's Sanscrit Texts; not to mention other -books of a more popular character. The chief object kept in view throughout the volume is, to illustrate the Character and Customs of the Natives of India. In the observations made on their moral and intellectual character, the writer has been influenced rather by a feeling in favour of. the natives than against them. Wherever he could throw light on the better traits and finer features of their character, he has not failed to do so. It is seldom that Europeans in India have opportu nities of becoming intimately acquainted with the natives of the country. There is a great gulf between us and them. It happened • that peculiar circumstances brought the writer of these pages into close intimacy with a large number of intelligent natives ; and of one or two of them he has ventured to give a brief biographical sketch, as a sequel to the more general view of native character which goes before.

In the observations on Indian Caste, the attentive reader will find much that differs from the views of other writers. It has been the author's object to describe this singular system as it is in the present day, and not, as most of our writers have viewed it, as it existed in ancient times, but of which the shadow scarcely now remains.

PREFACE.

. VII The reader . is requested to bear in mind that the work professes to*have been written in India, where, in fact, it was planned, and where the materials were collected, although it has undergone repeated and careful revision, and has been in great part re-written since the author's return to this country. CONTENTS. CHARACTER OP THE NATIVES OF LND1A.

Chapter I

Intellectual Character — Ignorance of the People. In India the mass of the people are very ignorant — ignorant to a degree far beyond what we meet with in Europe in the present day, and to find a parallel to which we must go back to the dark ages. There is here only a very small reading public among any class of the community. Even the priests — or, as we commonly style them, the Brahmins, who may be considered, on the whole, the most advanced class in the country — are, as a body, very ignorant. Many of them can neither read nor write. Their knowledge is confined to their immediate duties, the repetition of a few texts, or the mechanical performance of certain rites. They have no knowledge of history or of science ; and, like the rest of their countrymen, they are liable to be alarmed by every shadow and every idle rumour.

In such a state of society we must expect to meet with a rank outgrowth of superstition. In point of fact, the minds of the people are filled with the most childish superstitions. If a bird chirps, or an insect appears in sight, or a particular animal crosses the path at an inauspicious moment, it excites the greatest alarm. An eclipse of the sun or of the moon strikes terror into the whole community. They hasten to per form their ablutions, to break their earthen pots, to blow their shells and horns, and to beat their tom-toms, as if by these means they could avert the impending disaster.* The belief in astrology is universal. In fact astro logy rises in India to the rank of a practical science. Learned pundits are called in to cast the child's nativity. The position of the stars at the moment of his birth is carefully noted down, and preserved in the horoscope for future use.

Instances sometimes occur * Superstitious notions are rife among the Hindoos. Good and bad omens alternately excite their hopes and fears. The ticking of a lizard, the sound of sneezing, the appearance of a jackal or a vulture at a particular time or place, are matters of grave interest. They are looked upon as signs and warnings, which it would be imprudent to disregard. If a lizard ticks overhead it is a bad sign ; if a vulture or an owl settles on the roof of a house, it is considered unlucky, and some misfortune to the inmates may be looked for. A Sanscrit school is closed when it thunders, and when the sun or the moon is eclipsed. A wise man, says the Vishnoo Pooran, will not study the Veds " when it thunders, or at eclipses." In certain cases something depends upon the situation or direction of the object.

It is con sidered fortunate to see a cow or a Brahmin on your right hand, or a jackal on your left. If a lizard drops on you, it is a good or a bad omen according to the part of the body on which it falls. in which the exact date of birth is not precisely known. The astrologer has an ingenious expedient to meet this emergency. It is assumed that the name of the child is given by direct inspiration, and indicates, in a miraculous way, the exact position of the stars when the child was born. The problem, given the name of a child, to find the planet under which he was born, presents no difficulties to a Hindoo mathematician. A pious Hindoo will undertake no affair of moment without consulting the stars. In all the great events of life their guidance must be sought. In the case of marriage, for example, an auspicious day must be chosen for performing the rite.

In addition to this, there must be a certain coincidence or correspondence between the horoscopes of the bride and the bridegroom, in order that the union may prove propitious. If a house is to be built, or any important business to be undertaken, the astrologer is consulted, and his conjectures are listened to with the respect due to a revelation from Heaven. Ingenious astrological tables are printed in Hindoo almanacs, by which any person, knowing the date of his own nativity, may find out whether the year will be, on the whole, fortunate or unfortunate. Rules are also given for determining, from tables, the duration of any disease, calculating from the point of time when it commenced. In like manner the sister art of alchemy has in the present day its dupes here, as in former times it had its dupes in Europe.

The Hindoo Dousterswivel is at no loss for tricks to amuse the credulous. Some chemical b substance is used to give the requisite golden tinge, and encourage the belief in a gradual transmutation ; or some few grains of the precious metal are slipped into the crucible, to keep alive the hopes of the poor dupe who " never is, but always to be blessed." It is the same with magic. Those among us who are best acquainted with what is passing in the depths and darker regions of Hindoo society, have frequent occasion to observe the influence which a belief in magic exercises over the minds of the people. Those who are skilled in this black art pretend to have the power, by means of spells and incantations, of casting out devils, of curing the bite of serpents, and of healing malignant diseases. The lower ranks of the people have a firm belief in these fanciful notions.

They relate to one another wonderful cures effected by such means, with the same undoubting faith with which stories of ghosts and goblins were once believed among ourselves.* It is not unusual for a Hindoo who is suffering from any misfortune, to suppose that it has been brought upon him by the ill-will of an enemy. This belief takes a form very analogous to the notions regarding witchcraft which formerly prevailed in Europe. It is commonly believed there are persons in human shape, who are possessed of a supernatural and malignant * See Buchanan's Indian Statistics. I allude in these re ferences to Dr. Francis Buchanan, or, as he is sometimes called, Hamilton Buchanan, a keen, if not alwaj's unprejudiced, observer of Indian manners and customs. power of injuring their neighbours. The belief pre vails that when a witch sees a fine child she has the power, and not unfrequently the will, to deprive it of reason, or undermine its health so that it pines away and dies.

Nor is this malignant influence confined in its effects to little children alone. It takes a wider range, and may sometimes afflict the whole household.* In various ways a harvest is made out of the superstitious fears of the people. The following anecdote lately appeared in one of the native newspapers. A poor cooly, on his way to Calcutta, was accosted by two strangers who were travelling together. One of them hinted that his companion was a great saint, who possessed the power of working miracles. Among other miracles, it was said, he could turn sand into sugar, and silver into gold. Upon this the cooly pros trated himself before the saint, and craved to be per mitted to see these wonders with his own eyes. The saint, nothing loth, proceeded to gratify his curiosity. The experiment was first tried of turning sand into sugar.

A handful of sand was placed before the * Sir Thomas Munro states, that in the district of Canara, where he was residing, the belief in witchcraft was universal. He says, " The cattle of the farmer seldom die a natural death. If any accident happens in any of their families when they begin to plough a field, if a snake runs across the path, or if they see a land crab, they abandon it, and say that it is in possession of the devil. It lies waste for several years." He adds that he once " had a complaint from one of the farmers that a witch had killed his wife and mother, and about twenty cows and bullocks." saint, who after certain manipulations succeeded in effecting the miracle. The cooly was invited to taste, and to his surprise he found it was really and truly sugar of very good quality.

The saint then proceeded to perform the more important miracle of turning silver into gold. But here a difficulty arose. Neither he nor his companion happened at the moment to have any silver in his possession. What was to be done ? The miracle must be put off for the present. "No," said the cooly, "I have three rupees in silver." He forthwith produced them, and placed them at the disposal of the saint. The latter took them in his hand, went through certain forms, muttered mysteri ous words, and finally tied them up in thecooly's kummer bund or waistband, advising him at the same time on no account to look at the treasure till next morning, when he would undoubtedly find that each rupee had become a gold mohur. They then parted, and the cooly pursued his journey alone. After walking some distance medi tating upon what had passed, he thought within himself, "It is probable the change has already taken place."

This idea kept working in his mind, till at last his curiosity fairly got the better of him, and he untied the Icummerbund. But what was his surprise? A change had indeed taken place ! The silver was gone, and, instead of it, there remained a small quantity of dust. The gold mohurs were not there, and neither was the saint anywhere to be seen. I am not sure that the " Curse of a Brahmin," in its original sense, inspires much terror among Hindoos of the present generation. This belief, like many others, seems to have fallen into the sear and yellow leaf. The curse of a Brahmin, regarded merely as the malediction of one belonging to the highest of the four castes, is, in the present day, treated with contempt. But if by Brahmin we under stand a holy sage, or religious devotee, his enmity is still, in the popular mind, invested with mysterious power.

I have lately received a letter from a friend, in which there is an allusion to this circumstance. It is to the following effect : — " I do not know whether I ever told you, in any of my letters, about the Dacca mangoes. When I first went to Dacca it was about the commencement of the mango season, and one day I had a dish of most delicious-looking mangoes placed on the table. I sat down to have a feast — when, lo ! to my great astonishment, every one of the mangoes, on being cut, proved to be full of grubs and large live beetles, which, on being liberated, ran briskly across the table. I turned to the consomar and said, ' How is this, that all the Dacca mangoes are full of insects?' He replied, ' Saheb, the reason that all the Dacca mangoes are full of insects is owing to the curse of a Brahmin.' 'Why, consomar, did the Brahmin curse the mangoes ? ' ' How do I know, saheb ! Your slave cannot tell.' "

Chapter II

Intellectual Character — Intelligence — Business Talent — Influence over Europeans — Precocity. All that I have said in the foregoing chapter I believe to be true. The natives of India, taken as a whole, are ignorant and superstitious, to a degree of which we can scarcely form any adequate conception. They are ignorant, but not stupid. I have somewhere read that the people of India are ignorant, but intelligent. This seems exactly to describe their character. In matters of science they are as ignorant as children. I speak of the mass of the population. It is seldom they can tell their age. Their notions of distance are extremely vague. They have no correct knowledge of the dates of events.* * One meets occasionally with some curious illustrations of their ignorance in these respects. On one occasion, When travelling in Bengal, I asked the palankeen bearers how far it was to the end of the journey, mentioning the name of the place, a village with which they were perfectly well acquainted.

They replied that it was " a koss and one pow," a koss being equal to two Enghsh miles, and one pow being a fraction of a mile. This was about four o'clock in the afternoon. We travelled on and on till live o'clock came, and then six o'clock, and then All this, and much more than this, is true. But it is equally true that very generally throughout the country, and more particularly in the cities, there is found a quick intelligence which is quite remarkable, and which pervades all ranks and orders of men. There is no doubt that in ancient times the Hindoos exhibited capacity of a high order. They produced works of great excellence in many branches of litera ture and science. Their books on mathematics, on metaphysics and logic, on grammar and poetry, their fables, their dramas, and their epic poems, have been greatly admired by the most competent judges.

They exhibited the same excellence in some of the finer mechanical arts, and in some of the fine arts them selves, most certainly in sculpture and architecture, and, as some think, also in painting and music. Nor is there any reason to think that the natives of India of our day are, in point of intellectual power, inferior to their forefathers. There has been, with change of circumstances, a decline in the exercise and development of their powers. But there has been no decline of capacity, which is still there, ready to be developed by favourable circumstances. Many of those who have had experience in the colleges and schools established by the Indian Government, are seven o'clock, and still seemed to be no nearer the end of our journey. At last, a tittle after eight o'clock, the bearers came in sight of the village, and made a rush forward.

We had, at last, arrived at our destination, the two miles and one pow having talien the bearers fully four hours to traverse, though they travelled along at a steady pace. B ready to acknowledge that in quickness of apprehension, in retentiveness of memory, in a happy talent for learning languages, and for mastering the truths of science, Hindoo students are not a whit behind Eng lish students of the same age. Indeed, it is very generally admitted that, up to a certain age, young Hindoos are, if anything, quicker and more intelligent than Europeans. In the common concerns of life the natives of India exhibit no deficiency of intellect. In all matters of business, in everything affecting their own interest, they display great practical acuteness. As bankers and shopkeepers they are not only clear headed, but they have the spirit of patient per severance in a high degree.

While a Hindoo lawyer — what shall I say of him, but that he is one of the subtlest of living mortals ? I do not know that in the present day there is any wider field for the display of native talent than in winning the confidence of European functionaries. The sharpest intellects of the country are directed into this channel, and have here full scope for all their activity. When a European arrives at a station in the capacity of magistrate, collector, or judge, the natives of the district, and more especially those connected with the public courts, set themselves to study his character. When they have thoroughly mastered it, when they have discovered its strong points, and its weak points, great is their reward. Possessed of this knowledge, they hold in their hands the keys of official patronage.

The life and property of the district lie at their feet. Wielding this immense power, court is paid to them by their fellow countrymen on all sides. Whosoever wishes to gain a favour from the judge, or collector, or magistrate, must first propitiate these influential parties, who must not only be treated with deference and flattered with sweet words, but must be addressed with golden arguments too. WThen all this is done, when all these preliminary steps are taken, then, and not till then, the saheb may be approached with safety. No wonder that such influence is greedily sought. No wonder that all the energies and resources of the native mind are put forth to gain this enviable position. The ascendancy, too, which is gained, must be studiously concealed from the party principally con cerned.

And for this purpose how much tact is required, how much talent, and even genius ! It is interesting, it is sometimes highly amusing, to observe the pains taken by natives in office to insinuate themselves into the favour of the European functionary, especially at first. They deem it prudent to worship the rising sun. They pay assiduous court to him. They write respectful letters to him, studded with flattery and sweet words. Nor is it by these arts alone they strive to win his regard. They make them selves useful by the most scrupulous attention to business. In various ways they contrive to impress the saheb's mind with the belief that they are the most trustworthy and devoted persons he can have near him, CHARACTER OF THE NATIVES OF INDIA. that with their aid everything will go on smoothly, and that they are altogether indispensable to his happiness and usefulness.

But let the saheb have a will of his own. Let him rashly attempt to introduce reforms, to correct abuses, or to circumscribe their influence in any way, they change their cue. No open opposition is attempted ; but impediments are secretly thrown in the way ; innumerable little springs are touched ; innumerable little wheels suddenly stop. Business is brought to a standstill, and the European functionary is not long in discovering that he would have acted a wiser part if he had let ivell alone. A friend of mine, some ten years after his arrival in India, entered upon a new office. At the head of his establishment was a very able native clerk. At first, and for a considerable time, this clerk was most attentive, most obliging, most accommodating. What ever went wrong was immediately put right by his intervention and assiduous attention.

The books and accounts were all kept in the most exact and beautiful order. Every wheel moved with the utmost regularity. For a good while not the slightest deviation could be detected from the strictest propriety. At length, when the saheb's mind was supposed to be lulled to sleep, a slight inaccuracy slipped into the accounts. A slight overcharge was made, but so slight as almost to elude detection. This went on in an increasing ratio, until it became necessary to check it. And what was the result of such interference ? This able clerk, finding CHARACTER OF THE NATIVES OF INDIA. that his master kept a vigilant eye upon him, thought fit to change his tactics. He secretly threw impedi ments in the way. Things no longer went on so smoothly. Quarrels and misunderstandings were frequent among the servants and subordinates.

Workmen could no longer be found so easily. My friend perceived that all charges incurred on his own private account increased enormously. Palankeen bearers, shoemakers, carpenters, masons and boatmen, one and all demanded higher wages. There could be no doubt that the native clerk had a hand in it. There was a clearly defined object to be gained. The whole scheme was devised with a view to open the saheb's eyes to the fact that he might diminish his private expenses considerably, that he might save himself a world of trouble, and live in peace and comfort, provided he allowed the native clerk to have a little more of his own will. His conduct, you will observe, was founded upon cool calculation. It was founded upon a comprehensive survey of the principles of human nature, and an enlightened appreciation of his own interests.

Circumstances have here developed a type of character of a very peculiar kind. The natives of India find their country occupied by a stronger arm and stronger will than their own. All political situations of direct influence are filled by strangers. What are they to do to win back the power they have lost? They have recourse to woman's art, to cunning. The peculiarity of their position sharpens their faculties, and they acquire a keenness of intellect, of which Europeans have but a faint idea. I must not be understood as saying that all native employes belong to the type here described. Far from it. Many of them are men not only of tact and discern ment, but of great integrity. That the number of such may increase more and more, must be the earnest wish of every real friend of India. Let us revert for a moment to that class of natives of whose mental capacity, as measured by their attain ments in European science, we have excellent means of judging.

I allude to the students in the colleges established by the Indian Government, and to those in the larger missionary seminaries. As regards the intellectual character of Hindoo students, I venture to say that in early years, and, in many cases, so long as they remain under instruction, they are highly distinguished for capacity and intelli gence. This is combined with the most tractable docility and steady application to their studies. I think, however, it will be admitted that, speaking generally, the Hindoo intellect, so far as we have yet had opportunities of judging from the class referred to, reaches its culminating point sooner than the European, and begins sooner to decline. Up to a certain age, young Hindoos make great progress. Arrived at this point, they suddenly stop. This is true, more or less, of all the natives of India.

It applies to Hindoos, Mahomedans, and Eurasians alike. Up to the age of fourteen or fifteen they are intelligent in a high degree ; but after that age not a few of them sink into indolence, and become incapable of exertion. I have myself observed many instances of intelligent youths losing their energy and brightness all at once, to the amaze ment of their friends, who could not account for this sudden eclipse of their faculties. This fact of the precocity of the native mind, of its coming early to maturity and then suddenly falling off, has given rise to much speculation among Europeans. It was the very first observation I heard made on the native character on arriving in India. The phenomenon seemed to me at that time a mystery utterly incompre hensible, and I doubted the fact. Gradually, with growing experience, I became convinced that there was some truth in it.

I was disappointed to find that few of those natives who received a good education, devoted themselves in after life either to literary or scientific pursuits. A letter in the newspapers, or occasionally a light article in a local magazine, was in general the greatest literary effort they were capable of. They were not found, in any large numbers, engaged in laborious study. I never heard of one of them making experiments in chemistry or observations in astronomy, either in pursuit of truth or simply as a recreation for his leisure hours. Granting that the opinion which is so prevalent regarding the early development and early decline of the native mind, speaking generally and without regard to bright exceptions here and there, has a real foundation in fact, to what particular cause may we suppose it to be owing?

Is it owing to a defective system of education, or to a climate which disposes to indolence, or to the general social condition of the people, which presents almost insuperable difficulties for individuals to rise above the common level ? Some are disposed to place it to the account of climate more than to any other cause. But if this were the main cause, would not its influence be felt in early youth as in manhood, in boys as well as men ? Something seems due to the circumstance of their falling back after they leave school upon a more ignorant society, where they naturally sink to the level of those with whom they associate, and where all stimulus to improvement is lost. It may be observed that the natives retain their quickness and shrewdness as lawyers, as bankers, and in all mercantile transactions.

It may be inferred that the falling off, where it exists, may be occasioned mainly by the want of a powerful motive for exertion, and that as openings to satisfy a just ambition (I do not mean those merely in the gift of Government) arise and multiply, men will be found ready to discharge the duties with energy and ability. Indolence is most observed in those who are without the stimulus of useful employment, many of whom certainly do, to an extent that is hardly conceivable, allow their faculties to " fust in them unused." Some think the hookah and the zenanah are to blame for the sudden pause which has often been observed in the Hindoo student as he approaches adolescence. There can scarcely be a doubt that these have some influence in individual cases.* * Mr. John Marshman, a man of sound judgment and of the greatest experience, in his evidence before the parliamentary committee in 1853, gave it as his opinion, that native students rarely followed up the education they received at school.

The want of a career might, he thought, have some influence. But even those who obtained situations, seldom increased their stock of knowledge in after years. Mr. Norton, who resided many years in India, taking all the while a warm interest in the improvement of the natives, and who must be considered by all a most unprejudiced and un exceptionable witness, stated in his evidence that he had had occasion particularly to observe that the native character afforded great means of development up to a certain period of life, but after that became stationary. He had no doubt that if an active career were opened to the young men, it would aid materially in the development of their character. At the same time he was disposed to think that the falling off arose, in no small degree, from a defect inherent in their minds.

He stated that the falling off took place about the age of one or two and twenty, which is perhaps somewhat later than most others who have had their attention turned to the fact would be disposed to assign. It is but fair to place against these opinions that of one whose views on all Indian questions must be listened to with respect. Sir Charles Trevelyan, another witness before the same parlia mentary committee, stated decidedly that he had never in India, with all his opportunities of judging, observed in Hindoo students the mental decay and falling off alluded to.