A practical Treatise on Metallurgy, adapted from the last German edition of Professor K.'s Metallurgy, by W. Crookes and E. Röhrig ... Illustrated, etc

Front matter

A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON METALLURGY. A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON METALLURGY, ADAPTED FROM THE LAST GERMAN EDITION OF PROFESSOR KERL'S METALLURGY, BY WILLIAM CROOKES, F.R.S., &c, AND ERNST ROHRIG, Ph.D., M.E. IN THREE VOLUMES— VOL. III. STEEL, FUEL, SUPPLEMENT. ILLUSTRATED WITH 145 WOOD ENGRAVINGS LONDON : LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 1870. LONDON : PRINTED BY WILLIAM CROOKES, CHEMICAL NEWS OFFICE, BOY COURT, LUDGATE HILL, E.C. PREFAC E. This forms the third and concluding volume of a work undertaken to supply the want long felt in England of a complete and Practical Treatise on Metallurgy. Owing to the complexity and vastness of the subject, and to the con tinual development of new processes and inventions, the task of the authors has proved by no means easy, but they trust that they have succeeded in producing, in a com pendious and somewhat complete form, a work of practical value to the Metallurgist.

Although this work is much ampler than was originally intended, it has been found necessary to give many pro cesses in as condensed a form as possible, and to omit details which were either unnecessary to the full elucida tion of the subject, or which would at once be suggested to the practical mind. While the authors have taken the admirable treatise of Professor Kerl as the groundwork of their labours, they have given much practical information and many useful processes which are not to be found in Kerl ; for as his first volume was published in 1861, the second in 1863, the third in 1864, and the last in 1865, it is evident that a mere translation of this standard work would not, at the present time, constitute anything like a complete practical treatise. An instance of this amplification is shown in the fact VI

Preface

. that our treatment of steel comprises twenty sheets, while, in comparison to the size of page and type, Kerl devotes but twelve, and Percy (published in 1864) about ten sheets to this subject. Our concluding volume contains, in addition to the chapter on Steel, exhaustive chapters on Fuel, and the Materials for the Construction of Furnaces. Moreover, to bring the work to the level of the actual state of science and practical experience, we have availed ourselves of articles and reports on im proved processes from some of the English and Foreign Journals, which we give in the form of a supplement. At the conclusion will be found a report of the latest experiments on Siemens's highly valuable processes for producing steel. A glossary of technical terms and tables of weights and measures are also added. London, November, i86g. CONTENTS OF THE THIRD VOLUME.

Chapter I. Steel

PAGE Characteristics of Steel and its Difference from Pigand Wrought-iron ........ i Principal Methods of Making Steel . . . . i A. Steel Direct from the Ores i Gurlt's Method, i. Chenot's Method, 2. Liebermeister's Proposal, 2. Siemens's Method, 2. B. Steel from Pig-Iron ...... 2 1. By Oxidising Part of its Carbon .... 2 Tunner's, Weber's, and Lohman's Methods, performing the Oxidation at a Glowing Red Heat, 2. Herrzeel and Paulis's Methods, Heating Pig-iron in contact with Steam, 2. Eaton's Method, Heating Pig-iron together with Carbonate of Soda, 2. Oxidation of the Carbon in the Fused Pig-iron : — Bessemer's Process, 3. The Production of Natural Steel in Open Fires, 3. Sabatier's Method, employing Steam, 3. Puddled Steel, 3. Heaton's Process, in which Nitrate of Soda is used as Oxidising Agent, 3.

Uchatius's Process, 3. Obuchow's Method, 3. 2. By Fusing Pig-Iron in Admixture with Wrought-iron 4 Obersteiner's Method, 4. Cowper's Method, 4. Price and Nicholson's Method, 4. Siemens-Martin Process, 4. C. Steel from Wrought-iron by Carbonisation . . 4 Indian Wootz, 4. Mushet's Method, 4. Farrar's Method, 4. Howell's Homogeneous Metal, 5. Verdie's Half Steel, 5. Classification of Steel according to the Treatment it Undergoes ; . 5 Cast-steel, 5. Shear Steel, 5. Platinum Steel, Silver Steel, &c, 5. Damasked Steel, 6. CONTENTS. VIII Classification of Steel according to its Application . 6 Bibliography of the Manufacture of Steel ... 7 Properties of Steel ....... 8 Colour, 8. Texture, 8. Specific Gravity, 13. Hardness, 13. Strength, 15. Comparative Strength of various kinds of Iron and Steel in lbs. per square inch, 15.

Influences on the Tensile Strength of Steel, 16. Elasticity, ig. Behaviour of Steel at higher Temperatures, ig. Fusion Point of Steel, 20. Constitution of Steel 20 Bergmann's, Gurlt's, Tunner's, and Lohage's View, 21. Mayrhofer's Chemical Formulae for different kinds of Steel, 21. Schafhautl's View, 22. Fremy's Suggestion, 22, 23. Malberg and Fuchs's View, 22. Faraday's Determination of Nitrogen in Steel and Pig-iron, 23. Sanderson's Experiments, 23. Macintosh's Method, 23. Explanation of the Formation of Blister Steel, 22, 23. Zander's View, 23. The Theory of Hardening Steel 25 Hausmann's Suggestion, 25. Tunner's View, 26. Jullien's Theory, 26. Hezner's View, 26. Deville's and Caron's Theories, 27. Kerl's View, 27. Influence of Foreign Admixtures on the Properties of Steel 27 Action of Oxygen and Water and Acids upon Steel, 28.

Carbon, 28. Analyses of Natural and Puddled Steel, 28. Analyses of Cast-steel, 2g. Eggertz's Colorimetric Method for the Determination of Carbon, 2g. Sulphur, 30. Phosphorus, 30. Silicon, 31. Manganese, 32. Copper, 33. Arsenic, 33. Tungsten, 33. Analyses of so-called Tungsten Steel, 34. Titanium, 35. Platinum, Silver, Nickel, Iridium, Rhodium, Aluminium, &c, 36. Examination of Steel ....... 36 The Appearance of the Surface and Fracture of Steel, 36. I. Production of Steel from Raw Materials . . . 38 1. Production of Steel from Pig-Iron .... 38 A. Tunner's Method of Producing Steel by Raising Pig-Iron to a Glowing Heat with an Admission of Atmospheric Air ....... 38 B. Production of Steel by the Reaction of Oxygen from Atmospheric Air, or other Substances, upon Liquid Pig-Iron ......... 39 Different Methods, 3g. Comparison of Raw and Puddled Steel, 3g. Comparison of Raw and Cement Steel, 41.

Production of Natural Steel in Fineries . . ; 42 Situation of this kind of Steel Works, 42. Modifications of the Finery Process, 42. Difference of the Process from the Finery Process for the Production of Wrought-iron, 43. CONTENTS. IX Materials for the Production of Natural Steel . . 43 Pig-iron, 43. Fuel, 45. Fluxes, 45. Zander's Theory of the Reaction of Schafhautl's Powder, 45. Apparatus and Accessories 45 Finery Fire for the Production of Steel ... 45 Chief Differences between these Fineries and those for the Production of Wrought-iron, 45. Construction of the Finery Fires, 46. Refinery Fire (Hartzerrenn Hearths), 47. Warming Stoves, 47. Hammers of different Description, 48. Methods of Producing Steel by Fining in Hearths . 48 Comparison of the different Methods, 48. The Styrian Process, 48.

The Paal and the Carinthian Process, 4g. The Tyrolese Process, 4g. The Siegen Process, 4g. The North German Process and the Dauphine Process, 4g. Steel Produced by one or the other Method, 4g. Chemical Reactions of the Finery Process ... 50 Analyses of the Pig-iron at different periods of the Steel Finery Process, 52. Indications of the Steel Finery Process, 52. Analyses of Slags resulting at the Steel Finery Process, 53. Styrian Method (the Steel Finery Process with White Pig-Iron which comes easily to Nature) ... 54 Finery Hearth, 55. Processes- Classification of the Products, 56. Carinthian Raw Steel Process 57 Materials, 57. Finery Fire, 57. Process, 58. Varieties of the Produced Steel, 58. The Paal, or so-called True Brescian Steel Process . 59 Its difference from the Carinthian Process, 5g. The Tyrolese Method 59 Pillersee, 60.

Steel Finery Processes with Pig-Iron which comes to Nature with Difficulty . . . . . .60 Siegen Raw Steel Finery Process .... 60 Finery Hearths, 60. Manipulation of the Process, 61. The Production of Steel at Siegen, 62. Sweden, 62. North German Raw Steel Finery Process, Treating Mottled or Grey Pig-Iron 62 Difference from the Siegen Process, 62. Upper Silesia, 62. Westphalia, 62. Hartz, 63. The Dauphine or Rivois's Raw Steel Finery Process . 63 Raw Material, 63. Finery Fires, 63. Process, 63. Finery Process, Patented by Mr. C. Sanderson, of Sheffield 64 b X CONTENTS. Production of Steel by Puddling 64 History of the Process, 64. Comparison of Puddled Steel with Raw Steel . . 65 Chemical Reactions of the Steel Puddling Process . 66 Lan's Analyses of Iron taken at different Stages of Puddling, 67.

Lan's Analyses of Slags of different Periods of the Steel Puddling Process, 67. Other Analyses of such Slags. 67. Schilling's Analyses of Iron taken at different Stages of Puddling, 68. Corresponding Composition of Slags, 6g. Comparison of the Puddling Process for the Production of Iron with the Steel Puddling Process . . 70 Requirements of the Steel Puddling Process: — A Pure, Thinly Liquid Pig-Iron, 70. A High Temperature, 72. Suitable Slag, 72. Fluxes, 73. Manipulation of the Process, 74. Loss of Iron in the Process, 75. Consumption of Fuel in the Process, 75. Pro duction, 75. Cost, 76. The Construction of the Puddling Furnaces . . 76 The Differences of Steel Puddling Furnaces from the Common Puddling Furnace, 76. Dimensions of different Steel Puddling Furnaces, 78. Puddling Furnace used at Lohe, 7g. Puddling Furnace used at Hirschwang, near Reichenau, 80.

Mechanical Treatment of the Puddled Steel . . 81 Fires for Re-heating Puddled Steel, 81. The Manipulations of the Steel Puddling Process . 8^ Modifications in the Steel Puddling Process, 83. Operations : — The Formation of the Hearth and the Warming of the Fur nace, 83. The Charging, 84. The Melting Down, 84. Stirring the Fused Mass, 84. The Fining, 85. The Formation of the Balls, 87. Shingling the Balls, 87. Re-heating the Shingled Balls or Blooms, 87. Riepe's Description of the Process, 88. The Results of Various Steel Puddling Works . . 89 The Puddling Process with Direct Firing with Mineral Coal : — Lohe in Siegen, go. Geisweide in Siegen, go. Haspe in Westphalia, go. Konigshiitte in the Hartz, gi. Vierzon, gi. In the Department of the Loire, g2. Seraing, g2. Niederbronn on the Lower Rhine, g2.

The Puddling Process Carried on with Brown Coal : — Neuberg, g3. Eibiswald in Styria, g3. Hirschwang, near Reichenau, g3. Puddling Steel with Gas : — Neuberg, g4. Zorge in the Hartz, g4. Kirchhunden in Siegen, g4. Bessemer's Process ....... 94 History of the Process, g5- Tunner's Estimation of the Converters at Present in Operation, g6. Literature of the Bessemer Process, g7. English and Swedish Methods, g7. Comparison of the Two Methods, g7- Combination of the Two Methods at Turrach in Styria, 102. CONTENTS. The Chemical Reactions in the Bessemer Process . 102 Experiments with Hot Blast, 103. First Period of the Process, 104. Analyses of different kinds of Swedish Pig-Iron, 104. Second Period, 105. Third Period, 105. Addition of Spiegeleisen, 106. Casting of the Bessemer Steel, 107. The Blast Employed in the Converter, 108.

The Selection of the Pig-Iron for the Bessemer Process no Influence of Phosphorus, Sulphur, and Copper, in. Influence of Silicon, in. Influence of Aluminium, 112. Influence of Manganese, 112. Influence of Graphitic Carbon, 112. The Iron Preferred in Sweden, 113. The Iron Preferred in England, 114. The Iron Used in Westphalia, 114. Series of Analyses taken at Different Stages of the Bessemer Process 114 Treatment of the Ingots 115 Defects to which the Ingots are Liable, 115. The English Method of Conducting the Bessemer Process ......... 116 Bessemer Furnace or Converter, 116. The Plant of a Bessemer Steel Works, 121. Ladle and Ingot Mould, 122. Fairbairn's Proposed Apparatus, 124. Wilson's Proposed Apparatus, 125. The Charges Made in Sheffield, 125. The Working of the Ingots, 125, The Bessemer Steel Works at Barrow-in- Furness, 126.

Mr. Rowan's Investigations of the Flame Issuing from the Converters. ....... 127 The General Appearance of the Flame to the Eye, 128. The Appearance of the Flame as Examined by Means of the Spectroscope, I2g. Some Experiments with Coloured Glasses on the Flame, 132. The Converters in the Dowlais Works in South Wales, 136. The Manchester Steel Works, 136. The Neuberg Iron and Steel Works in Austria, 136. The Swedish Method of Conducting the Bessemer Process ......... 137 The Apparatus, 137. Stefanson's Improvements in the Converters, I3g. The Blast Engines Employed, 140. The Blast Regulators, 141. The Ladles, 141. The Moulds, 141. The Conduct of the Process 141 Eggertz's Colorimetric Method for the Determination of the Combined Carbon in Steel, 145. Determinations of Carbon in Various Kinds of Iron and Steel, 146.

The Fagersta Works in Sweden, 146. The Swedish Classification of Bessemer Steel, 147. Series of Bars of Bessemer Tool Steel Made at the Fagersta Works, 147. Testing the Quality of the Bessemer Steel by the Colour of the Slag CONTENTS. Mr. Bessemer's Description of his Process . . • I4§ Experiment of Manufacturing Iron into Endless Sheets, 164. Paper on the Value of Manganese in Producing Steel, and the Discovery of its Value in the Bessemer Process ......... 168 The Manufacture of Ferro-Manganese, 170. The Importance of Bessemer Steel in the Construction of Ships, 171. The Application of Steel for Projectiles, 172. Steel Employed in Railway Engineering, 173. Heaton's Process. ....... 176 Mr. Heaton's Suggested Advantages of the Process, 176. Apparatus, 178. Professor Miller's Preliminary Report, 182.

Analyses of the Pig-Iron Used, the Crude Steel and Steel Iron, 184. Analysis of the Slag, 185. Dr. Mallet's Opinion, 186. Mr. Kirkaldy's Tests of Heaton's Steel and Steel Iron, 188. Mr. Kirkaldy's Experiments on the Tensile Strength of Various other kinds of Iron and Steel, ig3. The Elimination of Phosphorus, ig5. The Cost of Making Steel and Steel Iron, or Wrought-iron, by Heaton's Process, ig7- The Uchatius Steel Process . : . . . 199 Sollingerhiitte (Hanover), 200. Wykmannshyttan in Sweden, 200. The Obuchow Steel Process ..... 200 Analyses of Obuchow's Cannon Steel, 201 C. Production of Steel by Fusing Pig-iron together with Wrought-iron 201 The Siemens-Martin Steel Process in Open Hearths . 201 History of the Process, 201. Mr. Siemens's Sample Steel Works, 204. Siemens's Regenerative Gas Furnace, 204.

M. Verdie's Works at Firminy in France, 208. Banbury, 2og. The Obersteiner Steel Process ..... 209 Gefle in Sweden, 2og. Hirschwang, near Reichenau, 2og. Stengel's Experiments, 210. II. Production of Steel from Wrought-iron by Cementation 210 Situation of the Establishments, 210. History of the Manufacture of Cement Steel, 210. Theory of it, 211. Properties of the Raw Cement Steel, 211. Mechanical Treatment, 212. The Materials for the Manufacture of Cement Steel . 212 Wrought-iron, 212. Puddled Steel, 214. Cementing Powder, 214. Fuel for Heating the Furnaces, 215. Cementation Furnaces ...... 216 Construction, 216. Cementation Pots, 218. One-pot Furnace, with Movable Roof, used at Hirschwang, near Reichenau, 2ig. Gas Firing, 220. CONTENTS. XIII Method of Conducting the Cementation Process . . 221 Charging the Furnaces, 221.

Process, 222. Examples of the Manufacture of Cement Steel . . 223 Furnaces Heated with Mineral Coal — Yorkshire. Furnaces Heated with Brown Coal — Leoben. Furnaces Heated with Wood — Sweden, Hirschwang, near Reichenau, 224. Friedrichsthal, 224. Production of Damasked Steel by Fusing Wrought-iron with Coal ....... 225 Characteristic of the Damasked Steel, 225. Varieties of Damasked Steel, 225. The Production of Indian Steel or Wootz (Natural Damask) 225 Wootz Ore, 225. Smelting of the Ore, 226. Converting the Wrought-iron into Steel, 227. Analyses of Wootz Steel, 228. The Production of Imitations of Damasked Steel . 229 Methods suggested by Luynes, Breant, Clouet, Hachette, and Mille. Mushet's Method, adopted at the River Don Steel Works in Sheffield, 22g. Moulds for Casting Steel, 230. Refining of Natural, Puddled, and Cement Steel . 230 Methods (Piling and Welding, or Re-melting), 230.

Refining the Raw Steel by Welding and Hammering, or Rolling ........ 231 Piles, 231. Re-heating in Open Hearths, Hollow Fires, or in Reverberatory Furnaces, 232. Hammers, 233. Texture of Rolled and Hammered Steel, 233. Re-melting the Raw Steel (Casting Steel) . . . 233 History, 233. Raw Materials, 234. Admixtures and Fluxes, 235. Fuel and Crucibles, 235. Importance of Melting larger quantities of Steel directly in Reverberatory Furnaces instead of in Crucibles, 236. Its Disadvantages and Difficulties, 237. Requisitions in the Casting of the Steel . . . 237 Influence of High Temperature, 237. Blisters or Honeycombs, 238. Rising of the Steel, 238. Behaviour of Hard and Soft Steel, 238. Views of the Nature of Absorbed Gases, 238. Caron's View, 23g. Precautions for obtaining Sound Castings, 240.

Krupp's Method of Casting, 241. Messrs. Firth's Cast-steel Works, 242. The Examination of Cast-steel 242 Homogeneousness, 242. Strength and Tenacity, 243. Natural Hardness of the Steel, and its Property of Hardening combined with the requisite Elasticity", 244. Materials for the Manufacture of Cast-steel . . 246 Raw Steel, 246. Fuel, 247. Fluxes, 248. CONTENTS. Apparatus and Accessories 249 Melting Furnaces: — Charcoal Furnaces, 250. Coke Furnaces, 251. Furnaces using Mineral Coal as Fuel, 254. Furnaces Heated with Gas, 257. Siemens's Regenerative Gas Furnace, 257. Reverberatory Furnace at Montataire for Melting Steel without the Application of Crucibles, 258. Crucibles 259 Refractory Clays, 259. The Composition Used in Making the Crucibles . . 260 Composition Used in England, 260. Crucibles at the Rhenish Steel Works, 261.

Crucibles at the Sollingerhiitte in Hanover, 261. Plumbago Crucibles, 261. Preparation of the Clay used in the Manufacture of Steel-melting Crucibles ...... 261 Manufacture of the Crucibles in England, 261. The Manufacture in some German Steel Works, 263. Reichenau, 264. Dohlen, 264. The Form and Size of the Crucibles, 264. Annealing of the Crucibles, 264. Lids and Stands of the Crucibles, 265. Utensils and Tools ....... 265 Ingot Moulds, 265. Tongs, 266. Furnaces for Heating the Steel Ingots for the Purpose of Forging, 266. Apparatus for Condensing and Drawing-out the Steel Ingots, 266. Manipulation in Casting Steel ..... 267 Charging of the Crucibles, 267. The Charges Used at Hirschwang, near Reichenau, 267. Firing, 268. Pouring, 26g. Commencing a New Operation, 26g. Mechanical Treatment of the Steel Ingots . . . 270 Illustrations of the Manufacture of Cast-steel . . 271 Melting of Steel in Coke Furnaces : — England, 271.

Jullien's Calculation of the Manufacturing Cost of Cast-steel in Furnaces Carrying Two and Four Crucibles Respectively, 272. Dohlen, near Dresden, 272. Krupp's Steel Works in Essen, 273. The Steel Works of the Bochum Company at Bochum in Rhenish Prussia, 273. Steel Works at Sollingerhiitte in Hanover, 274. Melting of Steel in Furnaces Heated with Mineral Coal : — French Steel Works at Lorette, 275. Jullien's Calculation of the Melting Cost, 275. Melting of Steel in Furnaces Heated with Charcoal :— Hirschwang, near Reichenau, 276. Krems, 276. Melting of Steel in Siemens's Furnace, 276. Melting of Steel in Reverberatory Furnaces without the Application of Crucibles, 278. Hardening and Tempering Steel, .... 278 Modifications in the Steel caused by the Process of Hardening, 27g. Rules for the Process, 27g. Difficulties accompanying the Hardening, 280.

Table showing the Temper Colours and Articles for CONTENTS. XV which these Colours are suitable, 280. Heating the Steel, 281. Fluids employed for Cooling, 282. Dittmar's, in Sheffield, Mode of Hardening Cast-steel Files, 283. Hardening the Surface of Wrought-iron . . . 283 Welding Steel to Iron (Steeling of Iron) . . . 284 Welding Powders, 2S5. Regeneration of Burnt Steel ..... 286 Mixtures for Regeneration, 286.

Chapter II. Fuel

Fuel 287 Explanation of the Term Fuel, 287. Occurrence of the Fuel, 287. Composition, 287. Behaviour of Raw Fuel at Higher Temperatures, 287. Flame, 288. Glowing Fire, 288. The Combustibility of Fuel, 288. Fire-places ......... 289 Fire-places without a Grate, 28g. Combustion in Horizontal Grates, 28g. Contrivances for perfect Utilisation of the Fuel on Horizontal Grates, 2go. Gas Generators, 2g2. Combustion in Miiller's Fire-places, 2g2. Combustion on Step-grates, 2g3- Reversed Combustion on Grates, 2g4. Drying the Fuel 296 Purpose of Drying, 2g6. Effect of Dried Fuel, 2g7. Drying Fuel in the Open Air 297 Wood, 297. Turf, 2g8. The Origin of the Turf in Ireland, 2g8. Drying Turf in Open Heaps, 300. Drying Turf on Racks, 300. Drying Non-bituminous Turf, 300. Drying Fuel in Kilns and Stoves .... 301 Requirements of the Apparatus used, 302.

Classification of the Apparatus, 302. Schwind's Views, 304. Examples of Drying Apparatus 304 A. Drying Chambers Heated by Radiant Heat . . 304 1. Apparatus provided with special Fire-place for Drying Wood 304 Neuberg in Styria, 304. 2. Apparatus for Drying Wood with the Application of the Waste Gases from Puddling Furnaces . . 305 Carlshiittes305. Vilotte, near Chatillon, 305. Konigsbrunn and Wunsiedel, 307. B. Drying Chambers Heated by Hot Products of Combustion which are conducted into the Chambers . CONTENTS. i. Drying Apparatus with a special Fire-place . . 308 Ireland, 308. Buchscheiden, near Klagenfurt, 3og. Rothehiitte in the Upper Hartz, 312. Frantschach, 312. Lippitzbach in Carinthia, 312. 2. Drying Apparatus Heated by the Waste Gases of other Furnaces ....... 3T3 Older Method used at Lesjofors in Sweden, 313.

Newer Method at Sweden, 314. Maximilianshutte, near Regensberg, 315. C. Drying Apparatus Heated with Hot Air . . 315 Freudenberg in Carinthia. 316. Zorge in the Hartz, 317. Kessen in Tyrol, 317. Brezowa in Hungary, 317. D. Drying Apparatus applying Radiated Heat and Hot Air in Combination ....... 318 Weber's Method, 318. Euler's Drying Apparatus, 318. The Assay of Fuel 319 The Chief Object of this Assay, 3ig. Determination of the Heating Power .... 320 1. Absolute Heating Power ..... 320 a. Rumford's Method 320 Results obtained, 320. Caloric Units, 321. Calorimeter, 322. b. Lavoisier and Laplace's Calorimeter . . . 324 The Method of Refrigeration ..... 324 The Method of Mixtures 325 c. Ascertaining the Relative Heating Powers . . 325 d. Methods of Karmarsch, Johnson, De la Beche and Playfair, Brix, and others ..... 327 Returns of Trials at Woolwich Dockyard . . . 327 The Theoretical Heating Power, calculated from the Composition of the Fuel ...... 331 Welter's Theory, 331.

Peter's Formulae for Calculating the Absolute Heating Power, 332. Forschammer's Method for Ascertaining the Comparative Caloric Power of Fuel, 332. Berthier's Method, 333. Comparison of the Theoretical Heating Power with the Practical Results ....... 333 Devices for increasing the Heating Power obtained in Practice ......... 334 Brix's Experiments, 334. Peter's Calculation, 334. Schinz's Statement of the Composition of Various Kinds of Fuel and their Heating Power, 334. 2. The Specific Heating Power ..... 335 Example, 335. Peters's suggestion, 336. CONTENTS. XVII Determination of the Pyrometric Heating Power . 336 Scheerer's Calculation, 336. Examples of this Heating Power, 336. Dalton and Grassi's Statements, 337. Heintz, Steinheil, and Exter's Views, 339. Schinz's Calculation of the Temperature of a Fire, 33g. Pyrometers ......... 340 a. Pyrometers Based upon the Modification of the Volume of any Substance 340 Mercury Pyrometers, 340.

Guyton's Pyrometer, 341. Neumann and Petersen's Pyrometer, 341. Stohrer's Pyrometer, 341. Kahl's Pyrometer,34i. Wedgwood's Pyrometer,34i. Air Pyrometers, 342. b. Pyrometers Based upon the Fusibility of Known Alloys 343 Prinsep's Pyrometer. 343. Violette's Method, 343. Appolt's Method, 344. c. Electric Pyrometer 345 d. Hydro-Pyrometers ....... 345 Table Showing the Heating Power of Fuel and the Melting- Points of Various Metals and Metallurgical Products, &c 345 I. Compact Fuel 347 A. Wood 347 The Composition of Wood, 347. Non-uniform Distribution of the Components in one and the same Tree, 347, Hard and Soft Wood, 347. Inorganic Substances in Wood, 348. Influence of Floating Wood, 34g. Analyses of Various Kinds of Wood, 351. Heating Power of Wood . . . . . -351 Table showing the Heating Power and Specific Gravity of Various Kinds of Wood, 351.

Value of Wood ........ 352 Mode of Buying Wood, 352. Properties of Wood 353 The best time for Hewing Wood, 353. Application of Wood . . . . . -353 Practical Results 354 Determinations Made by the Polytechnic Society of Hesse, 354. Determinations Made in the Salt Works at Artern, 354. Karmarsch's Statements, 354. Table showing the Comparative Value of Various Kinds of Wood, 355. Table showing the Order of Various Kinds of Wood with regard to Producing Flame, 356. Petot's Experience, 357. Scheerer's Statements, 357. Le Play's Statements, 357. The Power of Radiation in Wood, 357. Brix's Experiments, 357. Table showing the Quantity of Ash in Wood, 358. Tables showing the Quantity of Ash, Chemical Composition, and Potash in Various Kinds of Wood and Plants, 358. Grobner's Comparison of the Heating Power of Wood, 35g. C CONTENTS.

XVIII Charcoal ......... 359 Purpose of Carbonisation, 35g. The Earliest Method of Charring Wood, 35g. Method in Norway, 361. Mode in Southern Europe, 361. Operation, 361. The Charring of Wood in Mounds, 367. Charring in Ovens, 367. Mode in America, 367. Ovens Used in Sweden, 370. Chabeaussiere's Kiln, 371. Foucauld's Oven, 372. The Yield of Charcoal, 374. The Cost of Making Charcoal in America in Pits as well as in Ovens, 378. Properties of Charcoal, 380. Composition of Charcoal, 384. Heating Power and Specific Gravity of Various Kinds of Charcoal, 385. Practical Results with Regard to the Effect of Charcoal, 386. Turf 388 Formation of Turf, 388. Classification of Turf, 388. Quality of the Varieties of Turf, 38g. Composition of Turf 390 Value and Adaptability of Turf, 3gi. Marsilly's Statement, 3g2.

Methods of Condensing Loose Turf .... 392 a. Condensing Turf without Pressing it 392 Trituration of the Turf, 3g2. Elutriation of the Turf, 3g3. Exeter's Method, 393. Herbert's Method, 394. b. Condensing Turf in the Wet Way by means of Pressing 394 Different Opinions on this Method, 394. Properties of Pressed Turf, 3g5- Mannhardt's Method, 3g5. Lithuanian Method, 3g6. c. Condensing Turf in the Dry Way .... 396 Gwynne's Principle, 3g6. Advantages of this Method, 3g6. Results with Condensed Turf at Weyherhammer, 3g7. Comparison of the Heating Power of Pressed Turf to that of Mineral Coal, 397. d. Condensing Turf by means of Centrifugal Power . 397 The Adaptability of the Turf Depending on the Amount and Nature of the Ash, 397. The Use of Turf 398 Ransko in Bohemia, 398. Weyhammer in Bavaria, 398.

Carinthia, 398. The Heating Power of Turf ..... 399 Berthier's Results, 400. Griffith's Results with Peat from Ireland, 400. Practical Results concerning the Application of Turf . 401 Karmarsch's Experiences, 401. Observation on the Dublin Steamers, 401. Williams's Results, 401. Karsten's Statements, 401. Rose's Statements, 402. Winkler's Experiences, 402. Eiseler's Ascertainments, 402. Heeren's Results, 402. Brix's Experiments, 402. Vogel's Experiences, 402. Experiences made on the Bavarian Railways, 402. Table Containing Tunner's Theoretical Calculation Comparing Turf with Wood and Charcoal, 402. Statements from Ure's Dictionary, 403. CONTENTS. XIX Turf Charcoal 405 Application of Turf-Charcoal, 405. Methods of Charring Turf, 405. Quality of Turf-Charcoal, 406. Charring Peat at Dartmoor, 406.

Experiments Made in Ireland, 407. Results obtained by Sir Robert Kane, 408. Kiln for Making Turf-Charcoal at Crouy, 410. Vignoles's Process for Charring Peat, 411. Rogers's Method Adopted in Ireland, 411. Practical Results 412 Scheerer's Experience, 412. Berthier's Results, 412. Stockhardt's Results, 412. Overmann's Statements, 412. Brown Coal ........ 413 Occurrence of the Brown Coal, 413. Classification of Brown Coal ..... 413 Lignite, 413. Bituminous Wood, 414. Earthy Brown Coal, 414. Common Conchoidal Brown Coal, 414. The Chief Brown Coal Mines of Europe . . . 414 Chemical Composition of Brown Coal . . . 415 Properties of Brown Coal ...... 417 Heating Powers of the Various Kinds of Brown Coal . 417 Employment of Brown Coal 418 Practical Results 419 Brown Coal Charcoal ....... 420 Mineral Coal 422 Occurrence of the Coal, 422.

Views Concerning the Formation of Coal, 422. Table Showing the Difference between Wood, Brown Coal, and Anthracite, 423. General Statement of the Geological Conditions of the Coal-measures of Great Britain .... 424 Tables Showing the Increase and Vast Importance of British Coal, 43°- Foreign Coal Fields 432 North America, 432. British America, 435. Nova Scotia, 435. Newfoundland Coal Field, 435. Greenland, 435. Arctic Ocean, 436. Russian America, 436. Oregon Territory, 436. United States of Columbia, 436. Mexico, 436. Texas, 436. South America, 436. Venezuela, 436. Peru, 436. Chili, 436. Brazil, 437. The West Indian Islands, 437. Barbadoes, 437. Trinidad, 437. India, 437. Queensland, 43g. Japan, 43g. Borneo, 43g. China, 43g. Coal Fields of Europe : — Belgium, 440. Netherlands, 441. France, 441.

Spain, 441. Portugal, 442. Italy, 442. Germany, 442. Hungary, 444. Austria, 444. Bohemia, 444. Sweden, 444. Denmark, 444. Russia, 444. Turkey, 444. Smyrna, 444. Greece, 444. CONTENTS. XX Classification of Coal 445 Bituminous Varieties .....•• 445 Pitch or Caking Coal, 445. Cherry Coal, 445. Splint or Splent Coal, 445. Cannel Coal, 446. Jet, 446. Flint Coal, 446. Flew Coal, 446. Albert Coal or Albertite, 446. Non-Bituminous Varieties 44^ Anthracite, 446. Culm, 446. Fossil Coal, 446. Recent Coal, 446. Technological Classification 447 1. Anthracite 447 Description of Anthracite, 447. Occurrence of Anthracite, 447. Formation of Anthracite, 447. Culm, 448. Trade in Anthracite, 448. Anthracite in England, America, &c, 448. Its Application, 44g. The Produce of Anthracite Coal in South Wales, 449.

The Number of Blast Furnaces in the United States of America, 449. Tables Showing the Increase of Production and Consumption of Anthracite in the United States, 450. Overmann's Statements, 450. Analyses of Anthracite, 452. The Specific Gravity, &c, of Various Kinds of Anthracite and Anthracitic Coal, 453. Analyses of Bituminous and Anthracitic Coal, 454. 2. Bituminous Coal ....... 454 Properties and Applicability of this Coal, 454. Analyses of the Newcastle and Lancashire Coal, 455. The Westphalian Coal, 455. Its Composition, 455. Bituminous Coal near Dresden, 455. Composition of the Bituminous Coal in France, 455. 3. Sinterkohlen (Slightly Bituminous Coal) . . 455 Description, 455. The Coal of Upper Silesia, 456. The Coal of Zwickau, 456. French Coals, 456. 4. Coal Rich in Oxygen (Sandkohlen) . . . 456 Description, 456.

Composition, 456. Examination of the Various Kinds of Coal . . . 456 Washing Coal 457 Berard's Apparatus, 457. Mr. Herbert Mackworth's Patent Coal Purifier, 463. The Advantages of this Machine, 464. Composition, Heating Power, and Specific Gravity of Coal : 467 Table Showing the Composition, Heating Power, and Specific Gravity of Various Kinds of Coal, 467. Table Showing the Calorific Values of a Variety of British Coal, 468. Table Showing the Mean Composition of Average Samples of Coal, 468. The Ash of Coal, 470. Potash in Coal, 470. The Relative Value of Coal, 470. Employment of Coal 470 Artificial or Patent Fuel ...... 471 Wylam's Patent, 471. Warlich's Patent, 472. Wood's Fuel, 472. Bessemer's Fuel, 472. Grant's Patent, 472. The Advantages of these Artificial Fuels, 472. Artificial Fuel on the Continent, 473.