Sheridan's Troopers on the Borders: a winter campaign on the plains ... With ... engravings

Preface

. pj^IVILIZATION extending in opposite directions, Westward across the great Valley of the Mississippi, and Eastward traversing the auriferous regions of the Kocky Mountains, presents two extensive fields of American Industry, approximating each other, and demanding a more convenient and rapid intercourse. Railways and Telegraphs have boldly penetrated the solitude of the Plains, and the wild Passes of the Mountains reverberate to the rumble of moving trains. The two oceans are already linked together by an Iron Highway. The savage, alarmed at this new encroachment, is ready at any moment for a desperate, probably a final effort to drive out the invadera of his hunting-grounds. Fearful of his future he opposes such en croachments, for in them he sees no benefit to the remnant of his race, who have taken refuge on tbe plains and in the mountains.

The struggle has come, to solve, for all time, the question whether the white or the red man shall prevail in the vast intermediate region between Eastern and Western civilization. The exigencies of modern civilization point to the inevi table doom of the aboriginal people of the United States. Their savage natures, incapable of restraint, render them by instinct foes to progress and the cause of humanity. As with tbe buffalo the approach of civilization is to them the knell of des truction. As the murderous bullet of the white hunter ruth lessly slaughters the buffalo, so the vices of civilization carry off those of the red men who have outlived their kindred. The following chapters contain a narrative of more than six months spent on the Southern Plains, observing the operations

PREFACE.

. 4 of the army personally directed by Major, now Lieutenant General Sheridan against the refractory savage on the Repub lican, the Arkansas and the Washita. The curiosity of friends, as well as a seeming general desire to know something more of the country constituting the unexplored hunting-grounds of the Comanche, the Kiowa, the mer ciless Cheyenne, and Arrapahoe, and these predatory people themselves, are the considerations that have induced me to give my somewhat rough and novel1 experience in this form. The campaign was an exceptional one. There was much in it that had never characterized any previous undertaking against the savages. The season of the year was against all precedent for active hostilities. Most of the country was entirely un known. These people, in a majority of cases, had come in con tact with but a few semi-savage traders, or with the white settler, during their murderous depredations upon his cabins.

The object was to show to the savages the ability of the " white man's soldiers" to brave the storms of winter, and to surmount this barrier, which had in former years protected them. In my narrative I have endeavored to combine useful information with entertaining reading. In this view I have given much of the soldier's life on the plains. Hoping, therefore, that this volume will possess some feature that will recommend it, and in a measure supply the wants of a large number of persons who appear to have suddenly turned their attention to the Indian and the country he inhabits, the writer submits these pages. I add my acknowledgments of the courtesy of F. C. Newhall, Esq., for the use of the admirable portrait of General Sheridan, found in the beginning of this volume. KEIM. Washington, D. C, 1870. CONTENTS.

Chapter I

On the Sunset side of the Missouri — Arrival at Leavenworth City- Still Westward - 9 CHAPTER n. Beyond the Pale of Civilization— The Plains— Buffaloes— A Fusilade — Hays City - - - - - . -16 CHAPTER ni. Fort Hays— Its Garrison— Sheridan— The Indians - - - 22

CHAPTER IV.

The Nomadic Tribes of the Plains— Events which Preceded the Outbreak of 1868 - - - - - - -27

CHAPTER V.

The Massacres on the Saline and the Solomon — War Inaugurated — Preparations for the Contest — Sheridan attempts peaceably to Check the Tribes in the South - - - - - 33

CHAPTER VI.

A Journey to the " End of the Track " — Immense Herds of Buffaloes — An Adventure — Arrival at Sheridan - - - - 37

CHAPTER VII.

A Night in a Frontier Town — Popular Diversions and Primitive Justice ------...42

CHAPTER VIII.

Off for Fort Wallace— Parting Civilities — Interesting Reminiscences — " What's the News V - 46

CHAPTER IX.

Forsyth's Battle of the Arrickaree Fork - - - - 50

CHAPTER X.

Sheridan Visits Fort Wallace — A " Norther" — Return to Fort Hays — " Underground Monitors" — A Ride on a Cow (Buffalo) Catcher — Volunteers called for — Indian Guides - - - - 58

CHAPTER XI.

An Old-fashioned Buffalo Hunt; — The Habits of the Bison or Buffalo - 65

CHAPTER XII.

The Buffalo Herd— Its Organization— A Brute Army— The Antelope — Popular Buffalo Hunts - - - - - - 70

CHAPTER XIII.

Carr's Gallop along the Republican — Arrival of Osage Warriors - 77

CHAPTER XIV.

A War Dance— Ready to Take the Field - - - - 82 v CONTENTS. VI

CHAPTER XV.

Departure for the Seat of War in the South— Mule Driving as an Art— Arrival at Fort Dodge— Camp South of the Arkansas— Bluff Creek— Letters for Home - - - - - - 88

CHAPTER XVI.

Camp on the Cimmaron— Bad Water— Hunting Parties— Sunset on the Plains— A Night Alarm— Notes of War on the Canadian - 91

CHAPTER XVII.

A Snow Storm— Custer takes the " War-path "—Sheridan's Policy in a Nut-shell— Building a Fort— The Volunteers Snowed-up— Relief Sent— A Thanksgiving Dinner - - - - - 101

CHAPTER XVIII.

The Battle of the Washita - - - - - - 110

CHAPTER XIX.

Return of the Troopers from Battle— A Scalp Dance— Safe Arrival of the Volunteers — A General Expedition - - - -121

CHAPTER XX.

A Fresh Start— The " Outfit "—Indian Philosophy— The Gypsum Country — Camp on the Canadian — The Washita — California Joe - 128

CHAPTER XXI.

A Visit to the Field of the Battle of the Washita— Recovery of the Bodies of Elliott and his men — Fiendish Mutilation — The Bodies of a Woman and Child Found ------ 141 CHAPTER XXn. Again on the March — A Snow Storm — The Flight of the Savages — Wild Turkeys — Satanta and Lone Wolf receive Hospitalities - 152

CHAPTER XXIII.

Fort Cobb — Arrogance of the Savages — The Peneteghtka Coman- - ches — Kiowa Duplicity — Two Chiefs in Trouble — Some of the Fugitive Bands come in — Condition of the Troops — Our Camp - 161

CHAPTER XXIV.

A Visit to a Comanche Village — The Chief's Lodge — Christmas Day in Camp— The Indians drawing Rations - - - -167

CHAPTER XXV.

Early Explorations on the Plains — The Spaniards — The French — The Americans — The Occupants of the Country — The Comanches - 175

CHAPTER XXVI.

Tribal Traditions, Continued — The Kiowa — The Cheyenne and Arrapahoe — The Dog Soldiers — The Apaches (Lipans) — Intercourse of the Five Tribes with each other ----- 183

CHAPTER XXVII.

Rivalry between the Mountain and Plains Tribes — Hostility against the Reservation Indians— The Indian Pony — Physique of the Savage — Physiognomy — The Sexes — Dress — Ornaments — Paint — Subsistence — Tribal Organization — Justice - CONTENTS. VII

CHAPTER XXVIII.

The Indian Village — On the Move — A Stampede — The Wigwam — Superstitions — Cooking — Food — Domestic Uteusils - - 201

CHAPTER XXIX.

Social Affairs — Marriage — Morals — Parental Affection — Children- Names — The Council — War — Tactics — Camping — Signalling — The War Pony 210

CHAPTER XXX.

A War Party — Strategy — Prisoners— Torture— Mutilation of Bodies — Victory — The Return — Rejoicing — Intellectual Development of the Savage — Language — Oratory — Sign Language - - 218

CHAPTER XXXI.

Indian Hieroglyphics — Traditions — Fables — Religion — Death — Burial — Mourning — Festivities — Music — Amusements — RaciDg — Trading — Implements - - - - - - 223

CHAPTER XXXII.

An Exploring Expedition to the Witchita Mountains - 231

CHAPTER XXXIII.

Legends of Medicine Bluff 238 CHAPTER XXXrV. The Proposed Site of a New Post — Ruins of an Indian Village — Caught in a Storm — A Race for Life ... - 245

CHAPTER XXXV.

News from the Bascom Column — Distribution of Annuity Goods — Moving Camp — Tidings from Carr — Ascent of Mount Scott — An unpleasant Predicament ------ 252

CHAPTER XXXVI.

Rambles among the Witchitas — A Hunt by Moonlight — Mr. Carr — A Honey Tree — Researches of the Volunteers — A Rattlesnake Den — A Prolific Arrapahoe ------- 263 CHAPTER XXXVn. Closing Events — The Tribes Coerced into Obedience — A Deputation — An Indian Council — An Elk Hunt — An Indian Love Affair - 272 CHAPTER XXXVIH. The Administration of Indian Affairs ----- 282

CHAPTER XXXIX.

The Administration of Indian Affairs, Continued ... 291 CHAPTER 3XL. Opening of Spring— Off for Camp Supply - - - - 298

CHAPTER XLI.

Homeward Bound— An Agreeable Surprise— Civilization Once More A LETTER FROM LIEUTENANT GENERAL SHERIDAN. The following letter was received from Lieutenant General Sheridan as this volume was about going to press. The author is induced to publish it, in this connection, in view of its accord with his own views expressed on the Indian policy. Headquarters Military Division of the Missouri, Chicago, Ills., April 28, 1870. Mr. De B. Randolph Keim. Dear Sir : I have carefully read the proof-sheets sent me of your forthcoming book, (Sheridan's Troopers on the Bor ders,) and think well of it. I may say in reference to the management of Indians, the reservation system is the only one offering any prospects of success, but all experience bas shown that the wild Indian will not adopt it until he is forced to do so.

All the tribes on tbe Northern Pacific coast had to be subdued and forced on the reservations, which was accomplished between the years 1 855 1860, Then peace ensued. Latterly the same policy has been pursued in regard to the Comanches, Kiowas, Cheyennes, and Arrapahoes. After the wild Indians are put upon the reservations a strong military force will have to be kept there to protect the agents and others required in the work of civilization, and also for the subordination of tbe Indians, and their protection against the encroachments of the white settlers, who otherwise would take possession of their lands. Very truly, yours, P. H. SHERIDAN, Lieutenant General. SHERIDAN'S TROOPERS ON THE BORDERS.

CHAPTER I. ON THE SCNSET SIDE OF THE MISSOURI

— ARRIVAL AT LEAVENWORTH CTTT — STILL WESTWAItD. fESS than a year and half ago, one midnight, the writer of these pages entered the distant western town of Leavenworth in the state of Kansas. Three sooty lanterns cast a dubious light upon a dozen passengers groping their way amongst threshing machines, barrels and boxes, towards a rickety and battered coach. Said coach had the appearance of having migrated, by slow stages, all the way from the Atlantic sea-board, keeping pace with the ad vance tide of civilization, and shunning railroads as relentless intruders. The coach bad, evidently, last seen paint east of the Alleghany mountains, and in its western march of progress had become quite bare of those embellishments which, doubtless, formeily attracted so much attention and observation among the children.

In the dim flicker of lanterns it was a spectre of a coach. About an inch of caudle, stuck to the floor, in the front end, was suggestive of the necessity of haste, or the inevitable and speedy succession of darkness. The interior cushions and fittings had the appearance of the coach being converted, nightly, into a sleeping apartment. In this ma chine, the writer and his fellowtravelers set out for the hotel about a quarter of a mile distant, on the top of the bluff. A crack of the whip, and a few words of encouragement from the driver, fired the quadrupeds in front with astounding vivacity. They bounded off, over several rail-road tracks, into several ruts, altogether with such unexpected velocity, that the hulk of the coach groaned and labored, pitched and rolled, like a ship at sea, while the occupants, baggage and all, were jostled about in the most unsatisfactory manner.

Arriving at the hotel the nightly nuisances, at all hotels, were still about gazing at each individual as he blinked out of the dark ness, into the office. Knowingly they watched each stranger put his name upon the register, and immediately after rushed up to farther gratify their sense of importance and provincial curiosity. The writer having been provided with apartments, impressed into his service a yawning, half-a-sleep negro, who just at this timely moment made his appearance through a window looking into the coat-room. Led off by this same sable youth, he soon found himself comfortably, (that is for nearly fifteen hundred miles west of Atlantic tide water,) provided for the recuperation of his physical forces. Wonderful indeed it was to reflect upon tbe sudden transi tion and great lesson of the age.

In the brief space of four days, traversing six States of the Union, and a distance of twelve hundred and thirty-five miles, I now stood upon the west bank of the Missouri. Less than twenty-five years ago to accomplish this same distance would have been tbe toil of months. A century ago civilization had not yet ventured away from the Atlantic seaboard. Such has been the marvelous pro gress of American Industry and Enterprise. Opulent cities and thriving towns and villages, linked together by a net-work of iron highways and electric wires, now cover all the vast region sweeping away from the Alleghanies to tbe confines of the great plains in the very heart of the continent. Thus remote from the older seats of civilization and settlement is the town or city, I believe is the term, intended to dig nify the place, of Leavenworth.

It is a fine, thrifty community, with a population of about fifteen thousand souls. It is beauti fully located on a series of bluffs, overlooking the muddy waters of the Missouri. It possesses some very fine buildings. The Public School would compete with any structure of the kind in a city ten times the size. The new Catholic church bears the same relation to Leavenworth notions of the wonderful, as the great organ does to tbe extreme ideas of Boston. The building is really an ornament and an enterprise of just pride. Leav enworth society, properly speaking, is good, and is principally composed of the old settlers, persons of moderate means generally, but hospitable. The transient circles are composed of interlopers, government contractors, Indian agents, and Indian feeders. The place is a famous winter resort for Indian men, and is a sort of general base of operations for anything that turns up in wbich the government is a principal party.

Several miles out of town, on a bluff overlooking tbe Mis souri, is situated Fort Leavenworth. This is one of the early posts built when civilization with feeble steps, began its march across the continent. Fort Leavenworth is now properly a station for troops and depot for the supply of the posts on the upper Missouri and on the Plains. It is therefore easy to account for the class of people, generally "sharpers" who make their "stopping place" at Leavenworth or as it is some time, symbolically represented " llworth." The fort is made up of a collection of barracks, officers quarters, an arsenal, stables, hay stacks and board piles. The buildings are well constructed and substantial. To prevent encroachment the government re tained a large plot of ground probably over a thousand acres, known as the "Reservation."

As the country around has be come well settled, for several years past a number of patriots and public economists have been at work with Congress trying to effect tbe passage of a bill authorizing the sale of the premises. It will prove a large profit to some one or set of worthies, who always display so intense an interest to relieve the government of a share of its responsibilities. The day after my arrival at Leavenworth I rode to the Fort to make inquiries about tbe proper objective point, in view of the particular part I proposed to play in the campaign, as well as to learn tbe whereabouts of the Commanding General. All information I readily obtained from the Assistaut Adjutant Gen eral of the Department, General McKeever, who had been left to take charge of the office work at head-quarters, while the general himself was in the field.

Owing to the hostilities on the plains, the troops had been almost entirely withdrawn from Fort Leavenworth, leaving but a detachment of the Fourth Artillery as a garrison. In other respects the place was quite lively. Generals Card and Morgan, the former Chief Quartermaster, and the latter chief Commissary of the Department, were up to their ears in business, making contracts for forage and other supplies and organizing the necessary transportation. From what I learned, Leavenworth was no point to serve my ends, so the next day I took the train on the Kansas Pacific Railway on my route further west. The same night I was delayed at the town of Lawrence, a neat flourishing place, forty miles from Leavenworth, and on the trunk road connecting with the Missouri Pacific Railroad at Kansas City.

This town and Leavenworth are rivals for fame and import ance. Leavenworth has the advantage of the proximity of a military post, Lawrence can claim the work shops of the Kan sas Pacific railway. If the public economists, already spoken of, succeed in selling the government reservation, Leavenworth " stock" is bound to decline. Lawrence has a little chapter of history, also, to which the people revert with a sort of mixture of sadness and pride. The town and its people were well nigh destroyed by the notorious guerrilla Quantrell, and was again reduced to a dilapidated condition by another raiding party from Missouri. Lawrence is a smaller town than Leavenworth aud with fewer fine buildings. The next morning at ten o'clock I resumed tbe journey west ward by rail. The train was composed of a number of stock cars, laden with horses destined to the various posts to furnish a remount for the dismounted men of the cavalry regiments, a few freight cars carrying quarter-masters and commissary stores and two passenger cars.

As time wore on and the train sped over its iron path, the evidence of civilization became more rare. The country began to present that monotonous configuration incident to the plains generally. During the day we passed Fort Riley, at the mouth of the Republican river. This fort is one of the old time military establishments of the plains. Built ou a high ridge it commands a vast stretch of vision. In early days, though not many years ago, this fort was the centre of military operations on the plains. It was then far beyond the very utmost limits of civilization, and was only reached by the slow means of wagon transportation. It was here for a long time the exten sive trains loading for New Mexico fitted out. The glory of the old post has departed. Frontier settlements have sprung up around it in the fertile vallies of the Kaw and the Republi can.

The wolfs mournful howl no longer is heard. The whistle of the locomotive breaks upon the air suggestive of the miraculous transformation. There was a time when the trooper arrayed for battle might have been seen leaving the protecting walls of Riley to scour the surrounding country in pursuit of a savage foe, or returning to rest from the fatigues of his task, profitless in honors or promotion. To-day the decrepit and exhausted cavalry horse here finds rest and abundance. A squad of infantry soldiers to watch the premises constitutes the garrison. Further west we passed a hotel, a few shanties and a number of cars upon a side track. The country for some distance was covered with herds of cattle, each with its herders, like so many mounted maniacs darting about, yelling furiously, and cutting right and left with their enormous whips.

This point was recorded upon the " schedule " under the sentimental name of Abeline, and I learned was the great rendezvous and shipping post for Texas cattle. Annually immense droves are brought here across the plains, from a distance of not less than five hundred miles and shipped to the eastern markets — St. Louis, Chicago, and the great cities of the Atlantic. Towards evening an odd buffalo or a small herd of antelopes appeared in the distance, but not in sufficient proximity to get even a good sight. At eight o'clock the train reached Fort Harker. Here we were delayed some minutes awaiting the special train of tbe commanding general from the west. We then pushed on to Ellsworth, three miles further. Owing to hostilities and the presence of Indian war parties along the line of road beyond, the running of trains except by daylight had been abandoned.

We were therefore booked for the night. Leaving the train and walking a few hundred feet across an open space covered with boxes, broken barrels, tin cans, and every other variety of rubbish, we reached the " first class " hotel, known as the Anderson House. We were received at the door by a wizen-faced, spare individual, who was after wards found to be the proprietor. The hotel was a frame struc ture about forty feet front and two stories in height. The accommodations were not of the most commodious character, though this inconvenience was obviated by the hospitality, for a pecuniary consideration, of the citizens of the place. Those who could not be accommodated at the hotel, were taken in tow by a seedy African and escorted to some neighboring house or tent to be provided for. Being the first to reach the hotel I had the first chance of accommodation, and was accordingly assigned to room No. 1.

The other passengers were provided for to the extent of five persons in three rooms. The rest of the passengers, now reduced to twenty, either were billeted on the citizens or slept in the cars. After a supper on buffalo steak, antelope ham, soggy bread, and a cup of warm water, flavored with a grain of coffee or a leaf of tea, the passengers gathered in the hotel office, a small room eight by ten and furnished with a counter and several dilapidated chairs. The proprietor presided. Seating himself on a three-legged chair and cocking his feet on tbe stove he entertained himself spinning yarns laudatory of his own prominent career, throwing in occasionally a bit of history connected with the laying out and subsequent growth of the town of Ells worth. He had not only purchased the site of the town and sold much of it out in small lots, thereby greatly expanding his financial condition, but was also justice of the peace, and in his own idea, the most important personage on the plains.

Ac cording to his accounts, when the railroad was being constructed up to that point, some preliminary buildings having been thrown together in anticipation of that event, the population consisted of rather a miscellaneous assortment of human beings. Nor was the order of the place any better. Shooting at each other upon trivial grounds was a common pastime, and to kill on an average a man a night was an expected and ordinary occurrence. Drinking shops and gambling dens were the only profitable places of public amusement. Since the railroad had been pushed further west, the town bad become quite orderly and the population had at the same time suffered a material diminu tion. During the night our attention was several times attracted outside by violent yells, accompanied with salvos of uproarious oaths and the usual demonstrations of the scientific use of the fist, but as no one was killed the reputation of the place was not effected, and the parties were allowed plenty of room to finish it out in true frontier style.

A notification that the train would depart at four o'clock in the morning, put a period to the edifying talk of the proprietor, as he found his last listeners were about to try the experiment of slumbering upon all his terrible stories. One rough old cus tomer delivered his valedictory by informing tho proprietor, " that it would be just as much as his life was worth to let him miss the train."

Chapter II. Beyond The Pale Of Civilization

— THE PLAINS — BUFFALOES — A FUSILADE — HATS CITY. r-rf^, Y three o'clock the next morning the passengers were ÆK rallied at the hotel, by two colored boys who patrolled j^3?P the town for that purpose. All bills had been settled in v^£jR "advance." The landlord a few moments before the starting of tbe train, informed us that "the cooks had overslept themselves, we would have to excuse them but it would be im possible to get breakfast before tbe train left;" with a parting benediction upon the landlord's head most of the passengers retired to an adjacent "rum mill" and "stowed away" a "slug" or two of "mountain dew" to keep up their spirits. Being thus provided they got on the train, a few minutes ahead of time. The locomotive whistled "up breaks" and away we started westward. We were now fairly upon the vast expanse of country known as the Plains.

The last traces of civilization had disappeared, unless we except the Iron road over which we were running, at the rate of twenty miles an hour, instead of by the earlier emi grant train, at the same rate per day. This made the wildness and solitude of the surroundings even more effective. Far in advance the road could be traced winding along over the rolling waste, rarely a straight line for any considerable distance, but taking advantage of natural depressions, avoiding the higher Bwells, thus saving time, labor, and capital. Nowhere were to be seen grateful visions of farm houses, gardens, fields of waving grain, green pastures, and cattle, or sheep. The country was one vast sweep, extending as far as the eye could reach. Even that luxuriant natural growth, known popularly as the "Prairie Grass" which was found further east, had given place to a new variety.

An occasional wood-pile or water-tank, watched by two or three men and a squad of soldiers constituted the railway stations. A dilapidated freight car answered the double purpose of sleeping quarters and defence for the railway employees, while the soldiers occupied a few tents outside. The reader has frequently heard ofthe great American Plains yet very few have ever seen them and consequently the idea the term conveys is any thing but a correct conception of their natural character or their vast extent. Four hundred and twenty two miles west of the Mississipi.at St. Louis, or the ninety sev enth meridian, these Plains properly begin. For a distance of nearly five hundred miles westward, or to the one hundred and fifth meridian, this vast and monotonous region stretches away to the base of the Rocky Mountains.

It extends from the Red River in the south, to the Nebraska or Platte in the north, a distance of fully five hundred miles, or from latitude thirty-four to forty one degrees. This immense region embraces the western portion of the Indian Territory, western Kansas, southern Ne braska, eastern Colorado, eastern New Mexico and north-western Texas. With the exception of the beautiful and fertile strip of country between the Red and the Washita rivers and a few is olated and limited vallies, the country presents no features of configuration to interest the eye and no qualities of soil to invite the settler. Wave after wave rolls in endless sameness, an ocean of earth, terminating where its billows strike the immense moun tain walls on the west. The soil generally is composed of an ex tremely sandy loam, with extensive patches of gravel, red clay and shale.

Here and there are met surface indications of large beds of gypsum, and strata of sandstone and limestone. Five large streams having their fountains within or near the spurs ofthe Rocky mountains, flow the entire width ofthe Plains, from west to east. These are the Republican, the Arkansas, the Cimmaron, the Canadian and the Red. There are four lesser streams, the Solomon, the Smokey Hill, the north Fork of the Canadian and the Washita. Besides these, innumerable tribu taries answering more the purposes of an extensive system of drainage during the rainy season, than permanently flowing cur rents, are to be found every where. A peculiar feature of all the plains streams, is the effect of the seasons upon their size. During the summer the largest rivers dwindle into utter insignificance and the fact that they were ever anything more, is only observable by their dry sandy bed covered when the streams are swelled by the melting snows and spring rains.

When the larger streams are effected by the ex cessive lack of rain, it is easy to imagine that the tributaries and smaller water courses are lost entirely, lt frequently happens that the water loses itself in the sand and at intervals of a few miles will rise again to the surface, forming a chain of ponds with no apparent communication with each other. In some of the streams the water is exceedingly impregnated with alkaline substances and is very unpalatable, as well as injurious to either man or beast. This is particularly the case with the Cimmaron region. Timber is the rare exception, rather than the common representative of the vegetable kingdom of the plains. The traveler pursues his way for mile after mile, without seeing a single tree, nor even a shrub. Where trees are found at all, is upon the banks of some of the larger streams and then a very sparse growth.