Britain and her Rivals in the eighteenth century, 1713-1789

Front matter

a By DB. WILHBLM BUSCH, Professor at the University of Freiburg in Baden. ENGLAND UNDER THE TUDORS. Vol. I., Henry VII. (1485-1509). Translated from tbe German by Miss Alicf. M. Todd and the Kev. A. H. Johsson, sometime Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, under the supervision of, and with an Introduction by, Mr. James Gauidxer, Editor of the "Paslon Letters." Demy Svo, cloth, price 16s. By LIEUT.-GEN. M'LEOD INNES, R.E., V.C. LUCKNOW AND OUDE IN THE MUTINY. A Narrative and a Study. With numerous Maps, Plans, etc. Demy 8vo, cloth, price 12s. net. By REV. CANON I. GREGORY SMITH, MA , LL.D. CHRISTIAN MONASTICISM FROM THE FOURTH TO THE NINTH CENTURIES OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA. Large crown 8vo, cloth, 14s. By A. J. BUTLER. DANTE: HIS TIMES AND HIS WORK. A Popular Treatise dealing witb the great Poet.

Crown 8vo, clotb, gilt top, price 3s. Gd. net. By C. F. KEARY, F.S.A. THE DAWN OF HISTORY. Crown 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6<J. London: A. D. INNES & CO., 31 & 32, Bedford Street, Strand. BRITAIN AND HER RIVALS. BY THE SAME AUTHOR. SEERS AND SINGERS. A Study of Five English Poets (Browning, Tennyson, Wordsworth, Matthew Arnold, and Mrs. Browning). Cloth antique extra, gilt top, 5s. " Never were great poets and their gifts to us dealt with in a more reverential and yet discriminating fashion. Comments and criticisms are alike delicate and suggestive. All followers of tbe great five should possess this little book, whose dainty get-up is still its least charm."— Pall Mall Gazette. VERSE TRANSLATIONS FROM GREEK AND LATIN POETS. Large post 8vo, buckram, gilt top, 5s. net. "A finely varied classical garland. . . .

We would fain have a whole book of Virgil from a translator who renders ' Inter Be coiisse viroB et cernere ferro' by 'Crash in the Btern arbitrament of Bteel.' . . . "Will not Mr. Innes gives us something more ambitious ? " — National Observer, October 20, 1894. "It iB not every lover of the classics who can be his own trans lator of them; it is not every translator who can be the publisher of his own translations. But Mr. Innes can, and he has admirably performed both functions." — Daily Chronicle. London: A. D. INNES & CO., 31 & 32, Bedford Street, Strand. BEITAIN AND HER RIVALS IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTUKY. 1713-1789. BY ARTHUR D. INNES, M.A., * SOMETIME SCHOLAR OF ORIEL COLLEGE, OXFORD. LONDON: A. D. INNES & CO., BEDFORD STREET. 1895.

Preface

. The eighteenth century is probably the period of English History with which Englishmen are least familiar. It lacks the pageantry and picturesqueness of earlier times, while the problem of the British Constitution was practically settled with the expulsion of the Stuarts. Consequently the years between the wars of Marlborough and the wars of Bonaparte are commonly regarded as uninteresting ; in spite of the fact that during those years was fought out the great struggle which in the end rent the British race in two, but not till it had secured to the English-speaking peoples the empire over North America and India ; an empire which resisted the mighty onslaught of Napoleon, has since expanded over Australasia, and bids fair to absorb no small part of Africa. If the history of this period is supposed to be uninterest ing, it ought not to be so ; for though it has unattractive features, dreary phases, and some sordid details, it neverthe less abounds in stirring episodes, and is perhaps richer than any other in political lessons of the highest import to-day.

Not the least striking of these lessons has recently been brought, none too soon, into special prominence by the invaluable volumes of Captain Mahan. It can hardly be said that historians have neglected the eighteenth century : the great work of Mr. W. H. Lecky is a standing proof to the contrary. But the curiously small space, relatively, allotted to it in popular or school histories is evidence of the extent to which it is commonly over looked ; or was at any rate overlooked before Professor Seeley, some twelve years ago, aroused a new interest in the

PREFACE.

. story of the Expansion of England, by the book which bears that title. My object in writing this volume has been to present such an outline of this period as may serve to ordinary people, not historical specialists, as a groundwork for, and possibly an incentive to, further study. It was Sir John Seeley's work which suggested to me the need of such a volume ; and if I have succeeded in my aim, I should myself choose to regard this book as a tribute to his memory, though I never had the honour of his acquaint ance. But if I have not succeeded, I sincerely trust that some more able writer will renew the attempt with better results : since I am persuaded that, however interesting the wars of early monarchs may have been, however valuable a knowledge of the growth of the British Constitution may prove, both the interest and the value of the history of the growth of the British Empire should be at least as great to any man who is proud to call himself a citizen of that Empire.

In the preparation of this work, it would be impossible for me to say how much I owe to the various writers whose books I have consulted. But besides the more obvious volumes, such as those already referred to, I should like to direct the particular attention of students to Sir Alfred LyalFs admirable works dealing with the advance of the British in India. I have further to thank Messrs. • Longmans for their courtesy in permitting me to make special use of their maps for the Seven Years' War and the campaigns of Washington : and, finally, to acknowledge my great personal obligation to Mr. A. H. Johnson, of Merton College, Oxford, who very kindly read nearly the whole of my manuscript, and to whom I am indebted for many valuable suggestions and corrections. A. D. I. January, 1895. PAGE CONTENTS.

Prologue

. THE SITUATION AFTER UTRECHT. Resultsof thewar — Relative position of thefive oceanic Powers; in America, in India, in the South Seas— Possible combinations — Nature of the coming contest ; its conditions — Maritime strength ; of England, France, Spain— The German states— The French succession — The Italian duchies — English power of inaction 1

Chapter I. The Hanoverian Succession

1713-1716. Parties in 1713 — The Whigs — The Tories — Jacobitism— Party effects of Utrecht — The Commercial Treaty — 1714 : Bolingbroke's difficulties— Uncertainty of the party — The Schism Act — Fall of Oxford— The queen's death — Triumph of the "Whigs — The new king ; instability of his position — 1715 : Jacobite intrigues — Death of Louis XIV. — Mar raises the clans— The rising iu England — The collapse of Preston — Sheriffmuir — 1716: Break-up of Mar's army — After the 'Fifteen— Characteristics of the rebellion 12 b CONTENTS. X PAGE

Chapter II. The French Alliance

1716-1720. Establishment of the new dynasty — Drawbacks of the Hanoverian connection — 1716: The Whig disruption— Hanover and the Northern Powers — The French succession — The Triple Alliance — Alberoni and Elizabeth Farnese — Charles XII. — 1717 : Spain attacks Sardinia — Temporary compromise — Alberoni's intrigues — The Quadruple Alliance — 1718 : Spain attacks Sicily— Battle of Cape Passaro ; its effects — 1719 : Failure of Alberoni's schemes; his fall — 1723: The Duke of Bourbon regent in France — 1725 : Austro-Spanish Alliance —The Treaty of Hanover 28

Chapter III. Fleury And Walpole

1726-1739. Fleury — 1727 : Accession of George II.— 1731 : Treaty of "Vienna — Fleury's Bourbon policy — Walpole's objects — War of the Polish succession — British non-intervenlion — Results of the war — Spain and Portugal— The First Family Compact, 1733; its deficiencies as a plan; Fleury's real purpose; Walpole's place in it — Walpole's peace policy ; the alternative ; its weak point — Why the peace-policy broke down — The quarrel with Spain — Jenkins's ears — Preparations for war — Feeling in Eugland — Declaration of war _0

Chapter IV. The

PREMONITORY* WAR, AND THE END OF JACOBITISM. 1739-1718. Inefficient measures — Anson — Vernon — The German states — 1740 : Death of the Emperor — 1741 : Frederick of Prussia and Maria Theresa — War of the Austrian succession — 1742 : Peace of Breslau — The British navy — Its effects — Fall of Walpole— 1743 : Battle of Dettiugen— 1745 : Battle of Foutenoy — Jacobite schemes — James — Charles Edward — The conditions of the '15 and the '45 compared — Importance attached to the dynastic question — Danger of its remaining unsettled— Its intrinsic consequence— Attitude of CONTENTS. XI PAGE 54 English Jacobites — Landing of Charles — Capture of Edin burgh — Preston Pans — The march to Derby — Position of Charles— The retreat— 1746 : Falkirk— Culloden— The end of Jacobitism — The war in Europe, and at sea — 1748: Treaty of Aix-la Chapelle

Chapter I. The Coming Storm

1748-1756. Meauing of the last war : state of Europe after it— Importance of individuals — Pelham — Newcastle — Pitt — Affairs in America ; in India — Maria Theresa and Frederick — The new grouping of allies — Confusion in England— Frederick takes the initiative 71

Chapter II. The War In Europe

1756-1761. Interesting features of the war — Frederick attacks Saxony — ■ Capture of Dresden — 1757: The Austrian alliances — Position of Hanover — Battle of Prague — Battle of Koliu — Convention of Kloster Seven — Frederick's danger — Battle of Rossbach — Battle of Leuthen — -Russians and Swedes — Pitt comes into power — 1758 : Military position of Frederick — Battle of Zorndorf — Battle of Hochkirchen — Prince Ferdinand — 1759: Minden — Frederick's exhaustion— Battle of Kunersdorf — Capture of Dresden — 1760 : Battles of Liegnitz and Torgau — Campaign of 1761 82 CHAPTER HI. BRITAIN AND FRANCE. 1754-1761. British and French in America — Opening hostilities — Panic iu England — 1756: Byng at Minorca— Pitt in office— 1757; CONTENTS. PAGE 96 Coalition of Pitt and Newcastle — Pitt's naval policy — Effects of sea-power — Gibraltar— 1758 : The new maritime policy — Canada— Montcalm — Choiseul in France — 1759; Bosca wen and De la Clue — The Brest fleet — Battle of Quiberon, Nov. 28th — The French navy crushed — Wolfe in Canada — Effect of naval control — Wolfe takes Quebec, Sept. 18th — 1760 : Completion of conquest of Canada — Accession of George III. — Prospect of Spanish intervention — 1761 : Pitt resigns

Chapter IV. India Before The Struggle

1707-1740. Popular misconception of Indian history — Iudia not a nation — The Mogul empire — Principal Indian states —Four main divisions — Conditions of a European conquest — Sea-power the controlling factor — The rival European powers — Chartered companies : the Dutch ; the French ; the Euglish — Comparison of the French and English companies — French governors — La Bourdonnais — Ultimate certainty of English success Ill

Chapter V. India

: DUPLEIX. 1741-1754. Dupleix's scheme — Position of the rival companies — 1743 : Effect of the declaration of war between France and England — 1746 : Dupleix and La Bourdonnais — Capture of Madras — 1747 : Rupture between Dupleix and the Nawab — French military successes— 1748 : Pondicherry threatened by Boscawen — Effects of the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle — Influence of sea-power — New phase of the contest — 1749 : Rival claimants to native thrones — Plan of Dupleix — The English join in — Success of Dupltix— 1751 : Robert Clive — 1752 : Successes of Clive and Lawrence— Dupleix at bay — 1754 : His recall— The situation in 1754 CONTENTS. XIII

Chapter VI. India

: ESTABLISHMENT OF THE BRITISIs. 1754-1761. TA Renewal of hostilities— 1758 : Lally— 1759 : Siege of Madras- Colonel Ford— Isolation of Lally— 1760: Buttle of Wandewash— The French power crushed — Bengal — 1756 : The Black Hole — 1757: Clive and Watson at Calcutta— Intrigues against Suraj-ud-Daulah — Omichund — Battle of Plassey — 1759: Capture of Masulipatam — Clive's position — Shah Alum — The Dutch interposition — 1760 : Clive's application of Dupleix's policy — The new conditions 135

Chapter VII. The Winding Up Of The War

1761-1763. Position ot the combatants — 1762 : Withdrawal of Russia — Catharine of Russia — Recovery of Silesia — 1761 : Second Family Compact — 1762 : The WeBt Indies— Portugal- Bute's desire for peace — He alienates Prussia — 1763 : Peace of Paris — Triumphant position of Britain — William Pitt — Features of the war— British naval policy— Its effect- England's debt to Pitt 148

Chapter I. The Constitution

1714-1760. George I. -1716: The Septennial Act— 1719: The Peerage Bill — Walpole — George II. and Queen Caroline — From Walpole to the coalition — Ministerial responsibility — George III. — Attack on the Whig oligarchy ; by Pitt ; by George III. ; by the democrats CONTENTS. PAGE

Chapter II. England

1714-1760. Whigs and Tories— 1720 : The South Sea Bubble— Towshend and Walpole — Walpole's finance — 1733 : His excise scheme — His opportunism — His attitude to the Nonconformists — Causes of his power — His opponents — System of corruption — Results' of his rule— 1713: The Pelhams — Influence of Pitt 170

Chapter III. Scotland

1707-1760. Scotland at the Union — The clans— The Lowlands— Scots and English — Religious and educational legislation — The Union — Effects of the 'Fifteen — Discontent with the Union — Effects of the 'Forty-five— Heritable jurisdictions : in the Lowlands ; in the Highlands — Break-up of the clan system ; result — Progress made possible — Scots in England . . . 181

Chapter IV. Ireland

1714-1760. Scotland and Ireland compared — The Catholic population — Commercial repression — Landlords and tenants — Representation — Education — Catholic inaction— English control ■1724 : Wood's half-pence — Signs of revival 193

Chapter V. Greater Britain

1714-1763. The American colonies — Colonial constitutions — The colonial theory — Dangers from the French — Results of the great war — Restrictions on trade — Attitude of Walpole — Change in the situation — India — Bieak-up of the Mogul Empire — CONTENTS. XV PAGE Disorganisation of native powers — Rivalry between French and English— Three stages of the contest— The British advance inevitable — The new order 202

Chapter VI. Europe

1714-1775. The Anglo-French alliance — The Bourbon union— Fleury and Walpole — The French error — WalpoL's error — Tangles of French policy— From Walpole to Pitt — Fleury's sucCp-ssorB — Pitt and Choiseul — Subsequent isolation of England — Development of French naval policy — Difficulties and opportunities of France 212

Chapter I. Eute To

NOTtTH. 1760-1770. Bute— His antagonism to Pitt— 1761 : Fall of Pitt— 1762: Fall of Newcastle— Bute's triumph— 1763 : His fall— The Triumvirate — The Bedford ministry — Wilkes — 1765: The Stamp Act— The Regency Bill— The King and the Belfords — The Rockingham ministry — 1766 : Pitt takes office — Pitt becomes Earl of Chathim — His plans — His illness — 1767 : Charles Townshend — 1768 : Chatham's resignation — Anti-colonial ministry — 1769: Re appearance of Chatham — 1770: North's ministry 221

Chapter II. King, Parliament, And People

1760-1774. Ministerial fluctuations— Break up of the Whigs — Corruption— The king and his ministers— Parliamentary representation —Wilkes and liberty— 1763: The North Briton— Number CONTENTS. XVI PAGE 45 — Arrest of Wilkes on a general warrant — His release — He is expelled from the House — Attitude of the King — 1768-69 : The Middlesex elections— Effects of the contest— 1771 : Attitude of the City of London— Restriction of privileges — The press and the law of libel— Increasing power of the press — Junius 233

Chapter III. The Breach With America

1763-1774. The bond with colonies — Effects of the past war — Influence of distance — 1765 : George Grenville and the Stamp Act — Theory of Taxation — Mutual obligations — Claims and counter-claims — Action of the colonists — 1766 : Repeal of the Stamp Act — Difficulties of the problem — Logic versus compromise — Grenville's want of tact — The standing army — The Rockingham concessions — 1767: Townshend'a new taxes — Renewed irritation — Strength of the anti-colonial party — Disturbances at Boston— 1773: The Whately correspondence — Repressive measures — The Quebec Act — Unanimity of the colonies — The Continental Congress — 1774 : Preparations for war — Action of the British Opposisition — North's conciliatory bill — Its futility 24C

Chapter IV. India

1761-1773. Clive's work — 1761 : Paniput— British misrule in Bengal — 1765 : Clive returns to India — His reforms — The Diwanee — Foreign policy — 1767: Clive leaves India — Madias and the native powers — Need of a new constitution — Parliamentary inquiry 1773 : Lord North's Regulating Act 262

Chapter V. Ireland

: THE POLITICAL REVIVAL. 1760-1776. The Catholics— The Whiteboys— The Irish constitution— Short parliaments — Habeas Corpus — The Judges— Corruption — CONTENTS. XVII PAG E Summary of grievances— The Undertakers— 1767 : Lord Townshend Viceroy— 1768 : The Octennial Bill— 1772: Harcourt vieeroy — 1773: The absentee tax— Commercial relaxations — Attitude of Parliament— Effects ofthe colonial quarrel 271

Chapter I. The Outbreak Of War

1775-1777. The colonial theory — Separation not desired — Eve of war — Battle of Lexington — The war commenced — George Washington—Battle of Bunker Hill— The "Olive Branch"— Washington before Boston — American expedition to Canada — Washington's difficulties — 1776: Evacuation of Boston — The Southern States — Slackness of the British — Widening of the breach — Washington at New York — Lord Howe's arrival — Declaration of Independence — The armies before New York — Failure of negotiations — Washington driven back — British success — 1777 : Recovery of Washington — British plan of campaign— Burgoyne's expedition— Surrender of Saratoga— Capture of Philadelphia — Importance of Saratoga 280

Chapter II. The French Intervention

1776-17S0. Strength of the anti-colonials in England — Continental opinion — Attitude of France — Turgot — Vergenues — Spain — Strength ofthe Bourbon powers — French volunteers— Secret support of Americans by France — Effects of Saratoga — Colonial Confederation — 1778 : France declares war — North's conciliatory bills — Chatham's last speech — Congress rejects overtures — Changed conditions of the war — Evacuation of Philadelphia — Lord Howe and D'Estaing — Battle of Ushant CONTENTS. PAGE — Clinton's embarrassments — Cornwallis in the south — 1778-9: D'Estaing at Savannah — Pjsition ofthe British in 1780— The War in the West Indies— 1778 : Santa Lucia captured — 1779: D'Estaing and Byron— 1780: Arrival of De Guichen and Rodney 295

Chapter III. The Struggle For Life

1779-1783. Spain joins the allies — Naval superiority of the allies — 1780 : Rodney and the Spanish Fleet— Rodney and De Guichen iu , the West In li, s— July, 1780: The situation— The Northern Army — 1780-1: Cornwallis in the >outh — 1781: Cornwallis retreats lo Yorktown— 1780 : The aimed neutrality — War with Holland— 1781 : Arrival of De Grasse in the West Indies — His failure to crush the British fleet — July : position of the British in America— The opposing fleets at the Chesapeake— Surrender of Yorktown— Change in British sentiment — Strength of the rival navies — 1782 : Siege of Gibraltar— The relief by Lord Howe— 1781 : Suffren sails for India — 1782-3 : Suffren and Hughes — 1782 : De Grasse and H'lod at St. Kitt's — Arrival of Kodney — Battle of The Saints — Results of the struggle — Desire for peace — Preliminaries signed — 17S3: Final treaties 310

Chapter IV. The Retention Of India By Warren Hastings

1772-1785. The northern provinces — The Mahrattas — The Nizam — Hyder Ali— The sea— Bengal— Hastings and Oudh— 1773: The Rohillas — 1774: Aspects of the Rohilla war— Policy of Hastings — 1774 : Bombay and the Mahrattas — Action of Hastings — 1777 : French overtures — Bombay blunders — Goddard and Popham— French declaration of war, 1778 — Hyder Ali; his annoyance — 1780: He falls on the Carnatic —1781 : Eyre Coote— Critical position of the British— 1782 : CONTENTS. XIX PAGE Arrival of Suffren — The Mahratta pacification — Death of Hyder Ali — 1783 : Peace with France, and end of the crisis — Summary 327

Chapter V. Indian Administration Under Warren Hastings

1772 -1785. Objects of North's Regulating Act ; its provisions — The Supreme Court— Confusion of authority — 1774 : The new members of council— 1775 : The council and Oudh— Nuncomar — 1777 : Hastings becomes predominant— 1780 : Duel of Hastings and Francis — 1778 : The Madras council— Financial difficulties of Hastings —The council and the judges — The Rajah of Benares— 1783 : The Oudh begums— 1784— The work of Hastings ; his retirement 340

Chapter VI. Ireland

: THE VOLUNTEERS. 1776-1784. 1778 : Relaxation of the penal code — Demand for free trade — Rise of the volunteers — Effect of the movement — 1779 : Demand for redress of grievances — Free trade granted — 1780: Demand for legislative independence — Grattan — The Mutiny Bill — The Mutiny Act made perpetual — 1781 : Lord Carlisle Viceroy — Reception of the news of Yorktown — The volunteers at Dungannon — 1782 : The Constitution of 1782 — "Simple Repeal" — 1783: the Renunciatory Act— Grattan and Flood — The Bishop of Derry — The volunteer convocation in Dublin — Demand for parliamentary reform — Rejection of the Reform Bill 352

Chapter VII. The Conflict Of Parties

1772-1784. King George's rule, through North — Catholic emancipation — 1780 : The Gordon riots— Strength of the ministry— Parliamentary corruption — Economic reform — 1782 : North resigns CONTENTS. XX PAGE — Second Rockingham administration — Fox and Shelburne — Measurts of reform — The Shelburne ministry — 1783: Coalition of Fox and North — The ministry of Portland — Fox's India Bill; it arouses violent opposition — Interven tion of the King — The Younger Pitt Prime Minister— 1784 : Government in a minority — Pitt's increasing popularity — Dissolution — Pitt's triumph 364

Epilogue

. BEFORE THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 1784-1789. William Pitt — Foreign affairs — The Commercial Treaty with France, 1786 — Pitt's finance ; taxation; loans; sinking fund — End of Parliamentary reform, 1785 — The Regency Bill, 1788 — Ireland : reform — Progress — Commercial restrictions — Pitt's proposals; their lailure, 1785 — India — Pitt's India Bill, 1784— Concluding remarks 376 LIST OF MAPS At the End of tlie Volume. The World, showing Distribution of Colonial Possessions in 1714 and 1785. Europe [Western], 1714. Europe [North Central] ; for the Wars of Frederick the Great. i India : showing the Mogul Empire. India [Southern]. India : Bengal, the Upper Provinces, and Mahratta Dominion. {America [North and Central]. America : United States and Canada. i America : New York and Philadelphia, ( The West Indies, 1778.

Plan for Siege of Queuec CHRONOLOGICAL CHART OF ALLIANCES AND WARS, 1716-1749. u 16 j 17 ■ 18 i 19 ;' 20 ■ 1 I 2 j 3 \ 4 : 6 I 6 ■ 1 \ 8 \ 9 \ 30 \ 1 \ 2 j 3 \ 4 I 5 j 6 ■ 1 \ 8 j 9 j 40 • 1 i 2 ■ 3 i 4 • S j 6 : 1 : 8 General. ■ England and France in Alliance. ■ j I First Family Compact. ■ Premonitory Wars. ■ England. Stanbope Whigs. W a 1 p o 1 e. : Pelham. ■ France. : Orleans Regency. Fleury. 1 : Pompadour. : Spain. Alberoni. ■ Spain turns to Austria. Spain draws to France. Bourbon Alliance. : Wars. Spanish Wars. War of Polish Succession. : Anglo - Spanish War. ■ Austrian Succession War. : : : ; [France v. England. I The I 'Forty! Five. I IDupleix; 1st. Period. India. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE FOR THE GREAT WAR, 1756-1763. Italics denote British or Prussian reverses. The War- Year. Belligerents.

Ministers. in Europe. Sea and Canada. in India. 1756. 0) , e3 •V r. Saxony taken. __?yw$r at Pcwi Mahon. Black Hole. 1757. 3 Prague. KLolin. Olive in Bengal. , Mastenbeck. Blockade Plassey. •a a o s .."...•o a : 3 .2 s .1 ...-N — to Rossbach. Leuthen. of 1758. Zorndorf. Frekch Fort St. David lost. Sochkirchen. Ports. 1759. Minden. Madras relieved. a Kunersdorf. Dresden lost. Lagos. Quebec. Quiberon. Masulipatam. Patna relieved. Maxen. Dutch expelled. 1760. ■a 3 Lieguitz. Britain Wandewash. Torgau. MISTRESS 1761. a -3 t_ Silesia lost. OF THE 1'ondicherry taken. Kirchdenkern. Seas. West L762. ... g • ;s s . „• _d 3 '£ si '3 P5 " -^ a. •••X 3 P. Burkersdorf. Silesia recovered. Indian Conquests. L763. ed Pea .ce of Pai r i s. BRITAIN AND HER RIVALS. COERIGENDpA Page 9, eight lines from bottom, for "grandfather" read '"greatgrandfather." 295, heading, for " 1789 " read " 1780." BRITAIN AND HER RIVALS IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.

PROLOGUE.

. THE SITUATION AFTER UTRECHT. ltosults of the war — Relative position of the five oceanic Powers; in America, iu India, ia the South Saas— Possible combinations — Nature of the coming contest ; its conditions — Maritime strength ; of England, France, Spain— The German states— The French succession — The Italian dushies— English power of inaction. The war of the Spanish succassion, which was terminated by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, was, on the face of it, concerned with the balance of power in Europe : and, being essentially European, England's share in it has an appearance of wantonness ; and her withdrawal from it, of rational prudence. But, in fact, the interests ultimately at T]ie stake, as concerned England, were not European, elusion of It did not matter very greatly which of the tlle war countries of Europe was strongest ; but it did matter very much whether France and Spain should act independently or in concert as the rivals of England beyond seas.

The war gave us a great deal. It gave us Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, and the invaluable naval stations of Gibraltar and Minorca in the Mediterranean. But the peace which established a Bourbon on the throne of Spain prepared the way for that union of those two powers which it had been i;

PROLOGUE.

. the precise purpose of Whig statesmen to prevent. For France and Spain were now the two rivals of Great Britain in colonial enterprise ; they stood second to her as naval powers : in combination they might endanger her naval supremacy, and, with it, her colonial expansion. The rivalry in oceanic commerce and colonial expansion is the true key to the political history of the century. It is often obscured, because the ostensible motives of states men frequently have very little to do with the ultimate interests at stake. Probably there was uo one of the Powers which had definitely grasped the fact that a struggle for transmarine empire was approaching. Till Pitt came into power, no single statesman appears to have fully realised it. In Eng land men's minds were fixed on the question whether the Stuarts were coming back again.

The ambition alike of France and of Spain was for continental aggrandisement in the first place. Nevertheless, nothing was more certain than that sooner or later commercial rivalry would lead to a desperate struggle for transmarine, and therefore for naval, supremacy. Five Powers, in effect, shared the oceanic commerce at this time. But of these five, Portugal had already fallen The rival 0Vl^ °^ a" c^iance °f competition, and Holland had oceanic reached the limits of her capacity for expansion. Powers ; gpaiu had already secured for herself territories so vast and so rich that she had no need to go farther afield ; but, as a great monopolist, she was iu constant danger of having her monopolies interfered with, and any attempt at such interference would tend to produce a serious collision.

In the relations of Spain, France, and England lay the causes which were certain to lead to a great struggle. For wherever the English flag had been planted, the ia French flag was floating not very far off. In America ; North America the greater part of the contineut was disputed territory. Modern statesmen are attempting ■ \ to solve in Africa a problem of a somewhat similar character by the system of definitely limited spheres of influence. It is conceivable that a precise and complete treaty of parti tion might have made it possible to avoid the great collision. But, at that day, statesmen at home paid so little attention to colonial matters that such a method of averting hostilities never came within the range of practical politics. More over, modern methods of arbitration had not been estab lished ; while the difficulty of rapid communication with the mother country must in any case have seriously interfered with the prospset of composing incidental quarrels between rival colonists : nor is it at all probable that any scheme of partition could have been proposed to which both sides would have agreed.

The American seaboard from the St. Lawrence to Florida was inhabited by highly organised British colonies. But on the north in Canada, on the south in Louisiana, the country was French. Inland lay a vast unconquered territory, which English and French both coveted. Both desired to expand, but neither could do so unless at the cost of the other. Even the limits of what each might already claim for her own were unsettled in Nova Scotia and in Georgia. The rights of the rival nations in regard to fishing and to various privileges were subjects of constant dispute. So that between French and British colonists there existed an abundance of those minor sources of friction which are so often the occasion of conflicts in which far larger issues are at stake. It is difficult for a rivalry on so large a scale to be conducted without an appeal to force.