An account of the British Settlement at Aden, in Arabia

Preface

. THE following monograph has been prepared at the request of Dr. W. W. Hunter, Director-General of Statistics to the Government of India, and so far as the local circumstances of Aden permitted, upon the general plan drawn up by him for all India. Since the publication of the History of Yemen by Captain Playfair in 1859, no account of the Settlement of Aden, beyond the yearly Administration Reports, has been written, and it is hoped that this compilation will be found useful if not interesting. Several subjects have been treated very cursorily owing to the absence of reliable data, but this very incompleteness will serve a purpose, if thereby the investigation be induced of matters which have been briefly or imperfectly noticed. Several officers and gentlemen have afforded assistance in collecting materials, and it is desired here to fully recog nise the obligation due to them for their valuable co-operation.

The compilation has been prepared in the intervals of current duties, and it is entirely due to the consideration shown the compiler by Brigadier-General Schneider, the Political Resident, that any measure of success has been attained. The work has been divided into six parts, and it may not be amiss to say a few words regarding each.

PREFACE.

. VI Part I. has been compiled from the Records of the Aden Residency and other independent sources. Part II. is almost entirely the result of personal experience, observation, and inquiry. The materials for Part III. were obtained by a variety of inquiries, and a free use of all available authorities. Part IV. it is hardly necessary to notice. Part V. has been compiled from the Aden Residency Records and Playfair's History of Yemen. Part VI. is an attempt to introduce some items of information that seem worthy of record, but cannot appro priately be included in any of the other parts. The Map of the Peninsula has been corrected up to date. The Sketch Map showing the Kafilah routes has no preten sions to geographical accuracy, and is only intended to give a general idea of the relative positions occupied by the neighbouring tribes whose territories are not included in the map prepared under the superintendence of Major Stevens.

A list of the authorities consulted will be found in the Appendix, and if any plagiarism has been committed without acknowledgment, it must be set down to inadvertence. F. M. H. 1877. GENERAL CONTENTS. Map. PAGES Part I. — Geography and General Aspects : — Position, Limits, Area, and Population, Physical Aspects, Harbour, ..... Geological Notes, .... Climate, ..... Botanical Notes, .... The inhabited portion of the Peninsula, Water Supply, ..... I 1-2 2 2-3 3-6 6-7 7-9 9-21 Wells, io Aqueduct, io Tanks and Reservoirs, Rain-fall, 1 1 I3--J4 Condensers, Conveyance, 14-16 16-17 Possible sources of Supply, Toban, . . 17-21 18-19 Sahiba, ) > Rivers, Hussan, ) 19-20 Missana Spring, 20-21 Improvements under construction, Natural History, 21 21-25 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Part II.— The People Population, Different Races, Occupation, Material Condition, PAGES 26-27 27-28 28-36 36-43 Money-lending, Expenditure, Morals, 36-39 39-43 45 Dress, Arabs, Somalis, Jews, 43-46 43-45 45 45-46 46-48 Other Races, Food, 46 Europeans, Arabs, 46 47 Somalis, 47 Jews, 47 Indians, 48 Domestic Ceremonies, Arabs, Somalis, Jews, Other Races, 4S-54 48-51 51-52 52-54 54 Religion, 54-56 Games and Amusements, Ornaments, 56-58 58-62 Arabs.

Jews, . 5 8-6 1 6 1 Somalis, and Other Races, TABLE OF CONTENTS. IX Part III. — Chapter I. — Supplies:— Food Grains, PAGES 63-67 Rice, 63 Jowari, Wheat, Bajri, 63-65 65 65-66 Pulse, Maize, 66 66-67 Fodder, 67 Firewood, 6; Vegetables and Fruits, Domestic Animals, 67-69 69-72 Horse, Camel, Ass, . 69-71 71 71-72 Ox and Cow, 7- Sheep and Goat, Mule, 7- 72 Poultry, 72 Part III. — Chapter II. —Trade and Weights and Measures, Currency and Exchange, Communications and Conveyances, Manufactures and Industries : — Commerce 73-75 75-76 76-79 House-Building, 79-80 Mat and String Making, Weaving and Spinning, Oil Pressing, yo 8i 8i 8 1 Lime Burning, Charcoal Burning, 81-82 b TABLE OF CONTENTS. X Part III. — Trade and Commerce — continued. PAGES Potash Burning, Salt Drying, 82 82 82 Dyeing, Distilling, 82 Boat Building, Printing, 83-85 85 85-86 Manufacture of Soda and Aerated Waters, Photography, 86 Water Condensing, Manufacture of Ice, 86 86 Map showing Kafilah Routes, Kafilah Routes, .6 86-88 Imports and Exports, 88-98 Principal Articles of Commerce, Coal and Patent Fuel, Coffee, 99 99-100 100-103 103-105 105-108 108-110 110-116 116-117 1 17-1 19 1 19-12 1 Cotton (Twist and Piece Goods), Dyes, Feathers, Gums, Hides and Skins, Shells, Silk (Raw), Silk (Piece Goods) Spices, 121-122 122-123 Sugar, 123-125 126-128 Tobacco, TABLE OF CONTENTS.

XI Part IV. — Administration *. — PAGES System of Administration, . . . 129 Police, ...... 129 Civil and Criminal Justice, . . . 1 29-1 31 Prisons, . . . . 131 Municipal System, .... 132-135 Land Tenure, .... 135-136 Finance, ..... 136-137 Treasury and Account, . . . 137 Abkari Revenue, .... 137- 141 Military, ..... 141-142 Fortifications, ..... 142-143 Trooping, ..... 143 Marine, ..... 143-144 Royal Navy and Indian Marine, . . 144-145 Medical Aid, ..... 145-146 Contagious Diseases, . 146-147 Ecclesiastical Arrangements, . . . 147-148 Education, ..... 148-151 Post-Office, ..... 151-154 Part V — Political Relations and History :— The Arab Tribes Government have to deal with at Aden, .... 155-157 155-156 Abdali, Fadhli, Akrabi, 156 156-157 Other Tribes, TABLE OF CONTENTS. Part V — Political Relations and His TORY — continued.

PAGES Chiefs having Political Relations with the Aden Residency, who are entitled to Salutes, . 157-158 Abdali, and Fadhli, . . . 157 Makalla, and Shehr, . . . 157 Socotra, ... . 157-158 [ Somali and other African Tribes, . 158-159 History, . . . . . 1 59-171 Perim, ...... 171-172 Other British Possessions in the neighbourhood, 172 Massah Islands, Eibat Island, and Kuriah Muriah Islands, .... 172 Part VI. — Miscellaneous : — Language, . . . . 173 Foreign Consuls, . . . . 173 Ziarahs, or Visitations and Masjids, 1 73- 176 Natural Calamities, .... 176-178 Wrecks and Casualties, . . 178-180 Telegraph, . . . 1 81-183 Extract from an Arabic Work relating to Aden, 183-196

Appendix

. A. List of Authorities, B. Aden Act, . 197-202 203-206 C. Lighthouses, 207 D. Marine Department — Port Rules Index, .... 208-211 213-232 AN ACCOUNT OF THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN.

Part I

— GEOGRAPHY AND GENERAL ASPECTS. POSITION, Limits, Area, and Population. — Aden is a peninsula situated on the south coast of the Province of Yemen in Arabia Felix, and is located in latitude 12° 47' north, longitude 450 10' east. The British territory includes the peninsula, and extends to a creek named Khor Maksar, about two miles to the northward of the defensive works across the Isthmus. The adjoining peninsula of Jebel Ihsan, generally called Little Aden, is within British limits, as is also the harbour. The area of the land may be approximately stated at about thirty-five square miles. The population — exclusive of the garrison — was 19,289 in 1872. The inhabited peninsula is about fifteen miles in circumference, of an irregular oval form, five miles in its greater and three in its lesser diameter ■ it is connected with the continent by a narrow neck of land 1350 yards in breadth, but which is in one place nearly covered by the sea at high spring-tides, in fact would be, were it not for a causeway constructed for the convenience of the land traffic, and the passage of the Shaikh O'thman Aqueduct.

Physical Aspect. — Aden is a large crater formed of lofty precipitous hills, the highest peak of which has an altitude of 1775 feet ; these, on the exterior sides, slope towards the sea, throwing out numerous spurs, which form a series of valleys, radiating from a common centre. A gap exists opposite the fortified island of A THE BRLTLSH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. Seerah, the position of which would induce the belief that the circle was at one time complete, but that some convulsion of nature pro duced the gap. Harbour. — Bunder1 Tawayyi or Aden West Bay, more generally known as Aden Back Bay, is formed by the peninsula of Jebel Ishsan on the west and Jebel Shum Shum on the east. It is about eight miles broad from east to west, by four miles deep ; and is divided into two bays by a spit, which runs off half a mile to the southward of the small island of Aliyah : the entrance between Ras Salil on the west and Ras Tarshyne on the east is three and a third miles in width.

The depths of water in the Western Bay are from three to four fathoms, decreasing gradually towards the shore ; across the entrance the depths are four and a half to five fathoms, and at a distance of two miles outside ten to twelve fathoms ; bottom, sand and mud, both inside and outside the bay. There are several islands in the inner bay; the eastern and principal, named Jazirah Sawayih,2 is 300 feet high, and almost joined to the mainland at low-water springs ; the others are named Marzuk Kabir, Kais-al-Hamman, Kalfatain, and Faringi • on the sand-spit, at the north side of the entrance into the inner bay, are two small islets named Jamah Aliyah ■ opposite Ordnance Bay, about two cables distant from the shore, is the island Shaikh Ahmad or Flint Rock, with a channel of two fathoms. Geological Notes.3 — The varieties of rock met with in both peninsulas are very numerous ; there are perfectly compact lavas of brown, grey, and dark green tints, sometimes containing crystals of Anjite, and not unfrequently those of Sanidin, and there are rocks exhibiting every degree of vesicularity until we arrive at lavas resembling a coarse sponge, and passing into scoria..

The vesicles are in some specimens globular, and in others flat and drawn out. In some places the lava is quite schistose, and might be easily taken for metamorphic rock. Volcanic breccias are also met with, as near the Main-pass, where fragments of dark green lava are imbedded in a reddish matrix. Tufas are also present, but appa rently to a limited extent. Pumice 4 is found in many places, and is exported in considerable 1 See Gulf of Aden Pilot. - Generally called Slave Island. 3 Abridged from the Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, volume vii. part iii. * In 1876 nearly 4000 tons were sent to Bombay by the contractor of the CLIMATE. 3 quantities to Bombay. Obsidian is to be met with occasionally in the seams. Secondary and accidental minerals are not numerous ; Chalcedony is common, lining cavities in the rocks • and thin seams of Epidote occur, as also of Gypsum.

Climate. — The climate during the north-east monsoon, or from October to April, is cool, and in the months of November, December, and January, pleasant and agreeable. During the remainder of the year hot sandy winds, known as ' Shamal ' or north, indicating the direction from which they come, prevail within the crater ; but on the western, or Steamer Point side, the breezes coming directly off" the sea are fairly cool, and that locality is accordingly much preferred by European residents. The months of May and September are especially disagreeable, those being the periods of the change of monsoons, when the wind almost entirely ceases, and the air is close and oppressive, more particularly during the earlier part of the night • towards morning a cool and refreshing land breeze generally springs up.

Aden is not usually considered by medical men to be an unhealthy station, but it is a well-ascertained fact that long residence impairs the faculties and undermines the constitution of Europeans, and even natives of India suffer from the effects of too prolonged an abode in the Settle ment. The prevalent diseases are malarious fever, generally con tracted elsewhere, scurvy, dysentery, ulcers (supposed by some to be of a specific character), phthisis, and rheumatism. Experience has shown that in the case of Europeans, recovery from any disease, wound, or fracture, is very tedious, and it is advisable that patients should be removed to a more genial climate as soon as any signs of sinking or depression appear. It is only within the last three years that any attempt has been made to obtain an accurate register of the births and deaths that take place in the Settlement, and the result for the year 1875-76 is given in the accompanying Table :— ' Prince's Dock ' at that port.

A fee of one rupee per ton is levied on all pumice exported, and the proceeds are credited to the municipal fund. The chemical analyser in his report to Government for the year 1872-73 remarks, — ' With reference to the Aden pumice, it was found that this differed from ordinary pumice in containing gypsum or hydrated sulphate of lime. In the specimens examined the quantity of this constituent was found to be 1 8 '68 per cent. Aden pumice has for some time been used in the Bombay Reclamation Works as a constituent of the cement employed in making concrete blocks, and in hydraulic work generally, and has been found to give admirable results. ' Register of Deaths showing Races. Note. — The deaths that take place in Aden are very greatly increased from the following abnormal causes : — Persons suffering from disease are brought in from the interior to be cured ; others are landed during the pilgrim season with small pox ; if a European dies at sea in the vicinity he is brought into Aden to be buried ; Somali mothers take no trouble with their children, and many die in infancy.

It must be noticed, however, that the mortality in the case of Euro peans, although much increased by the deaths amongst the passengers and crews of vessels, amounts to 23*2 per iooo only. The total number of Europeans in the settlement, inclusive of military and followers, is upwards of 1300. Too much reliance should not be placed on the thermometrical readings given in the subjoined statements, as there is no meteorological station,1 and no one is intrusted with the particular duty of superintending the registration of meteorological phenomena. The average temperature during the year at the three military positions, based on the recorded observations of three years, is as follows : — 1 During the year 1849 a meteorological observer was stationed at Aden, and the records of his labours were compiled under the auspices of the Bombay Geo graphical Society (Proceedings of Bombay Geographical Society, May 1850).

It would be interesting, were it hereafter possible to obtain any reliable observations, to compare the results, in order to ascertain if there be any truth in the assertion made by ' the oldest inhabitant ' that the climate of Aden has much altered, especially of late years ; this has been attributed, and apparently without sufficient grounds, to the construction of the Suez Canal. Death: Iirths. o o. 13 E u OJ __ c "os'rt O S* "I So 8'? <8 O 3 3 o H If c V O OJ ft 38-06 per 1000 s V e os o H 70 234 I64 22 375 865 237 117 354 a r, a. o c s mi w II oji O sn O w !<3 I SI ►J c ed i o ■s s Pi OS mC O 5 o H 16 51 868 29 2 20 745 2 CLIMATE. Camp. 1873-74. 1874-75- 1875-76. Months. E i 'x s 5 £ 3 v E E x W 2 i 'o s c 5 e a E 'a s J 3 April, May, June, July, August, September, October, . November, December, January, .

Botanical Notes.1 — The vegetation of Aden closely resembles that of Arabia Petræa ; it is eminently of a desert character, the species being few in number (only 94), and being quite dispropor tioned to the number of general and natural orders. Most of the species are limited in the number of individuals, a few only of the more arid forms predominating. Dipterygium glaucum, six or seven species of Caparidaceæ, Reseda Amblyocarpa, Cassia pube scens and obovata, Acacia eburnea, and a few Euphorbiaceæ, are the only common plants, and some of these are so plentiful that in many places they abound to the exclusion of all others. All the species are more or less peculiar in their habits, and some are so strange as to constitute the anomalies of the natural orders to which they belong. As examples may be enumerated — Sphærocoma Hookeri, among Caryophyllaceæ, Adenium obesum, with its almost globular fleshy trunk, naked brand-lets, bearing a tuft of leaves and umbel of beautiful flowers ; Moringa aptera, in which the leaves are reduced to long sub-rigid raches ; the prickly Jatropha spinosa, and, strangest of all, the Æluropus Arabicus, a grass with short spiny 1 Abridged from the yournal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society.

Here foliage is reduced to a minimum, and the superfluous moisture given off by leaves in less arid climates is stored up in fleshy stems against seasons of long con tinued drought. With the exception of some Reseda Amblyocarpa and Caparidaceæ, all plants have either glaucous whitened stems or are completely covered with a hoary pubescence. Aridity, while reducing the amount of cellular tissue, has also favoured the pro duction of spines ; and though in many cases the development has not attained actual spinosity, still in rigid or distorted branches and asperities of stem and leaf, bears witness to the modifying influence of the climate. Of the ninety-four known species that constitute the flora, sixteen bear sharp thorns in some part of their structure. Several species yield gums or resinous matter, and many are characterised by more or less pungency or aromatic odour, qualities always possessed by plants of desert regions.1 The Inhabited Portion of the Peninsula. — The town and part of the military cantonment are within the Crater, and conse quently are surrounded on all sides by hills, save on the eastern face, where a gap exists.

Ibn Batuta 2 describes Aden as a large city without either seed, water, or trees, but it is not so absolutely destitute of vegetation as might be inferred from this account. Some of the remains of its former magnificence are still visible in the ruins of the forts which crown every summit and the far-famed tanks.3 At present the town of Aden consists of about 2000 white-washed houses built of stone and mud, divided into streets and lanes ; it is nearly 1400 yards broad.* Many of the houses are double-storied but none are noteworthy for their architecture. The whole town 1 With regard to the absence of vegetation an attempt was made in 1875 to naturalise the 'Casuarina lateriflora,' iooo plants of which were sent from Reunion by Mr. Perry, H.B.M.'s Consul there, but the experiment proved unsuccessful, and General Schneider reported that it was doubtful whether abundant vegetation would prove an altogether unmixed benefit, as it might render the climate more moist.

In 1877, during the months of February and March, many parts of the settlement were covered with a green mantle of portulaca. Rain fell in frequent showers during those months. 2 Travels of Ibn Batuta, translated by the Rev. Samuel Lee, B.D., London, 1829. • 3 Playfair. 1 This does not include cantonment limits. (See Plan.) has been rebuilt since the British occupation. The dry bed of a water-course runs down to the sea from the valley in which the tanks are situated, and divides the town into two nearly equal parts. It serves to carry off the surplus of water when the reservoirs have been filled to overflowing. The only building of any pretension in the Crater is the Court house and Treasury office • the barracks are commodious but not handsome ; the Protestant church,1 situated on a hill, has some slight claim to honourable mention.

The mess-houses of the two regiments 2 stationed in the Crater are substantial and commodious buildings. There is a Roman Catholic establishment denominated the ' Good Shepherd ' Convent, which gives shelter to emancipated slave girls. It is superintended by a mother superior and a Roman Catholic clergyman, who is also connected with the French missions in Abyssinia.3 There are three outlets from the Crater ; to the south, a gate protected by a drawbridge leads into Hokkat Bay, where the English Cemetery * is situated, and further south lies the promontory of Marshag, on which is placed a lighthouse.5 A few houses have been erected on the higher parts of this Cape, in the belief that they afford a cool residence in the hot weather. A tunnel leads from the Crater into the Isthmus6 position.

To the northward lies the Main Pass through which the harbour is reached. A steep hill forms the approach to this entrance on the town side, and on the harbour side a considerable decline has to be traversed by tortuous windings before the sea-level is reached ; however, the road is good, and finally turns off in a westerly direc tion.7 About half a mile from the foot of the Main Pass lies the village of Maala. It consists partly of houses built of stone, but chiefly of mat huts, occupied by Somalis. Here is situated a Custom-house for the registration only, of trade, and a pier runs out from the fore- 1 Erected in 1869. 3 British and Native. 3 See Part IV. — Ecclesiastical Arrangements, p. 147 4 Opened in 1866. 5 See post, Appendix C, p. 107. 6 For a description of the Isthmus position, see under Fortifications, p. 142. 7 A road leading from the interior, and which is connected with one of the gates of the Isthmus position, here joins the main road.

At the limit of the fortifications there is a pier of obstruction and Barrier Gate. (See Plan.) shore, alongside which native craft can lie and discharge cargo on payment of a small fee. Proceeding along the road about a mile to the westward, another pass has to be crossed where a spur of the main chain of hills runs down to the sea. After a few windings in and out along the water's edge, Steamer Point is arrived at, where there is a crescent1 consisting of some fair-sized stone houses nearly all double and some treble-storied. Behind these again are several streets of double and single-storied houses reaching to the hillside. Here are two hotels,2 a police station, and the residences of a few consuls.3 Close by lie the coal grounds of Government and the various steam navigation companies which have depots at Aden.

Not far from the crescent to the north-westward is the landing-pier, covered in by a cast-iron shed,4 with corrugated roof, where six twelve-pounder guns are placed for saluting purposes. Beyond and close to the sea-shore are situated a few buildings, including the Police Court and Post-office. From nearly opposite the latter a pier runs out terminating in a handsome cast-iron jetty,5 serviceable for landing at all times of the tide. Above this part of the road, on a spur which is connected with the more lofty hills in the interior of the peninsula, barracks, a hospital, and other public buildings have been erected, as also the residences and offices of the Harbour master, the Peninsular and Oriental and Messageries Maritimes Companies' agents. On a conical hill about a quarter of a mile beyond the Post-office stands the station flagstaff, below which lies the Protestant church.6 Near this the road crosses the spur on which the barracks, etc., are situated, and after traversing in a south-westerly direction a plain of about 500 yards in extent, it terminates on Ras Tarshyne, on which headland are built the Residency and the mess-house and quarters of the officers of the Royal Artillery.

The Eastern Telegraph Company have erected handsome premises on Ras Baradlee to the south. Water Supply. — The supply of water is a most important pro- 1 Called after H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, in memory of his visit to the settlement in November 1875. 2 Hotel de l'Univers and HOtel de l'Europe, both kept by Frenchmen. '■> See post, p. 173. 4 Erected in 1876. 6 Erected in 1876. 6 Erected in 1863 out of funds contributed half by Government, and half collected by public subscription. See Ecclesiastical Arrangements, p. 147. blem ; it has caused anxiety to both ancients and moderns, and is derived from four sources : — (a.) Wells, (b.) Aqueduct, (..) Tanks and Reservoirs, (d.) Condensers: — (a.) Wells. — These may be divided into two classes, those within, and those without British limits. Water of good quality is found at the head of the valleys within the Crater and to the west of the town, where wells are very numerous; they are sunk in the solid rock to the depth of from 120 to 190 feet; in the best the water stands at a depth of 70 feet below sea level ; the sweetest is the Banian Well, situated near the Khussaf Valley ; it yields a daily average of 2500 gallons; the temperature of the water is 102° Fahrenheit, the specific gravity •999, and it contains 1*16 parts of saline matter in every 2000 gallons.

Outside of British limits, close to the village of Shaikh O'thman, and on the northern side of the harbour, there is a piece of neutral1 ground, where the bed of a mountain torrent meets the sea.2 From wells dug in this watercourse a limited supply of water may always be obtained. It is brought over to the southern side of the bay in boats, and it is also conveyed in leather skins on camels round by land across the isthmus into the Settlement. Water of a fair quality is also obtained from wells in the village of Shaikh O'thman, and is carried into Aden by land as above described. During the hot season these two3 latter sources of supply yield no inconsiderable portion of the quantity of water used by the civil population, as may be gathered from the fact that during the year 1875-76, 71,910 camel-loads4 of water passed the barrier gate.

(b.) Aqueduct. — In the year 1867 the British Government entered into a convention with the Sultan of Lahej, by which they obtained permission to construct an aqueduct from two5 of the best wells in the village6 of Shaikh O'thman, seven miles distant. The water is received inside the fortifications into large reserve tanks, and it is thence distributed to the troops and establishments, and also to the 1 Nominally British property, and called the Hiswah. 2 After very heavy rains on the neighbouring hills, the flood occasionally empties itself into the harbour by this outlet. 3 Hiswah and Shaikh O'thman Wells. 4 Or upwards of 3,500,000 gallons. 5 Burgess and Key's water-lifts are used at the Shaikh O'thman wells with a minimum of labour and a maximum of lifting power. They are admirably adapted for the East. 6 See ante. public in limited quantities, at one rupee per ioo gallons.

This water is very indifferent in quality, and is only fit for the purposes of ablution. The Sultan of Lahej receives half the profits realised by the sale of the aqueduct-water, his share being seldom less than 1 200 rupees per mensem, and he is therefore pecuniarily interested to a considerable extent in the protection and preservation of this source of supply. The aqueduct cost 2,96,933 rupees to construct, and the original intention was to extend the work up to Darab, eight miles farther inland. This latter place is situated on the bank of the torrent, the outlet of which, on the northern side of the harbour, has been already referred to, and the object was to take advantage, before the thirsty sands had time to drink it up, of the heavy rainfall in the months of May, June, July, August, and Sep tember on the hills some twenty miles farther inland.

(c.) Tanks and Reservoirs.1 — The expediency of constructing reser voirs in which to store rain-water has prevailed in Arabia from a very early date. These are generally found in localities devoid of springs and dependent on the winter rains for a supply of water during the summer months. The most remarkable instance on record is the great dam of Mareb, built about 1700 B.C. This doubtless suggested similar reservoirs in other parts of Arabia and the neighbouring coasts of Africa, which have usually been subject to it. All the travellers who have penetrated into Yemen describe many such in the mountainous districts, while others exist in the islands of Saad-ad-din, near Zaila ; in Kotto in the Bay of Am philla ; and in Dhalak Island near Massowah. Those in Aden are about fifty in number, and if entirely cleared out would have an aggregate capacity of nearly thirty million imperial gallons.

There is no certain record of the construction of these reservoirs, but it is probable that they were first commenced about the second Persian invasion of Yemen in 600 a.d.2 It is certain that they cannot be attributed to the Turks, as the Venetian officer who de scribed the expedition of the Rais Suliman in 1538, the first occasion of Aden being conquered by that nation, says — ' They (the inhabitants of Aden) have none but rain-water, which is preserved in cisterns and pits 100 fathoms deep.' Ibn Batuta also mentions 1 The description of the tanks has been abridged from Playfair's History of Yemen. 2 See Part VI.— Translation from Tarikh et Mostabsir, pp. 183 seq. this fact as being the case in his day. Mr. Salt, who visited Aden in 1809, thus describes the tanks as they existed at that period — ' Amongst the ruins some fine remains of ancient splendour are to be met with, but these only serve to cast a deeper shade over the devastation of the scene.