Easy Lessons in General Geography, with maps and illustrations, etc

Preface

Loveli/s "Genebal Geogbapht " having already had such an extensive sale as to establish it in the favour of the educational public, it might be said that another work on the saaie subject was unnecessary; but the "Genebal Geogbapht" being considered by intelligent teachers as too far advanced for young beginners, the Author, at the request of Mr. Lovell, the enterprising publisher of a valuable series of School-Books for Canada, has consented to prepare, for use in junior classes, the following "East Lessons in Genebal Geogbapht. The East Lessons are intended to be merely introductory to the larger work; and they are designed as far as possible, simply to form a brief outline of that work. The Author has, however, adopted a slightly different plan (original so far as he has been able to learn) in the preparation of this book.

He has, in the first place, sought to embody, in easy and familiar language, a Conversational Sketch of each division of the subject to which the attention of the pupil is directed. He has then inserted a series of questions on the principal points of that sketch ; and has supplied, where deemed necessary, appropriate answers to those questions. These Conversational Sketches are also intended to promote another important object ; namely, the providing of easy Geographical Reading-Lessons for junior classes, which description of lessons is not to be found in the authorized National Readers. The " Conversational Trip " through each of the principal countries in the world, is designed to con nect, in the mind of the pupil, the objects and associations of travel with a geographical knowledge of the more important physical features of coast-line, mountain, river, &c. The Review -Lessons, in connection with these Conversational Trips, will tend to six the knowledge thus acquired, still deeper in the mind of the learner.

Aa already intimated, the general arrangement of these "East Lessons" is similar to that of the larger work ; and many of the definitions in the introductory part are the same. This will render the study of the "Genebal Geogbapht" itself more easy and agreeable to the pupil, while the disadvan tage of using an entirely new larger book will be avoided. The one gives a rapid and general view of the subject, suited to a beginner; the other is more minute and thorough, as well as better adapted to the more advanced pupil. Although the Author has no pecuniary interest in either the "East Lessons" or the "Genebal Geogbapht," he cannot but express his grateful thanks to those influential persons who have so kindly expressed to the publisher their high opinion of the Author's humble labours in the preparation of the latter work.

He is more than gratified, also, at the success which has attended the publication and sale of the "Genebal Geogbapht;" and for this reason he submits the present little work, with the antici pation and hope that it will meet with at least a portion of that favour which has been shown to his larger Geography. J. G. H. Toronto, 3rd October, 1862. Entered, according to the Act ot the Provincial Parliament, in the year one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, by John Lovell, in the Office ol the Registrar ot the Province ol Canada. EASY LESSONS IN GENERAL GEOGRAPHY. "HE HANGETH THE EARTH UPON NOTHING."— Job XXVi. 7. Fig. 1.— THB SUH, EARTH, MOOH, STARS, AND CLOUDS, IH THE HEAVENS.

Part I

[Before beginning our regular lessons, we shall explain a few things which boys andgirls see every day, but which they do not understand. "We hope that they will pay at tention to what we say, and try to remember it.] 4. The Sun always appears to rise in the east, and to set in the west. At noon it is high up in the southern sky, and then the shadows of houses, trees, &c, point toward the north. In the morning the shadows point to ward the west, and in the evening toward the east, 5. After 12 o'clock in the day, the Sun appears to come down lower and lower in the sky ; so that toward evening it seems to be very near the ground again. 6. By and by it goes quite out of sight ; and then (if the night is fine) the Stars, and per haps the Moon, appear in the sky. 7. The Stars are of different sizes: some twinkle very brightly, while others can scarcely be seen. 8.

The new Moon, when first seen, looks like a silver bow. Every night it rises later than on the previous one ; and for a fortnight it grows larger and rounder, until it is " at the full." After this it begins to get smaller CONVERSATION OR READING LESSON No. I. Introductory Sketch. 1. When boys and girls awake in the morning, that which helps them to see the things around them is the beautiful light of day. 2. At first they do not know where the light comes from ; but if they get up very early on a clear morning, they will see that it comes from the bright round Sun, which ap pears to be slowly rising out of the ground, or trees, or water. 3. As they watch the Sun, they see that it rises higher in the sky (as in Fig. 1), and gets brighter; so that in a short time they cannot look at it, for it dazzles their eyes too much.

EAST LESSONS IN GENERAL GEOGRAPHY. again ; until at last it disappears, and cannot be seen again until the next month. 9. The Moon has no light of its own: it gets all its light from the Sun. It has always the same shape, and is nearly round. As how ever it is quite dark itself, we can at first only see as it were a narrow strip of the silvery bow : this is that part of it upon which the Sun shines. 10. Each night we see a little more of this silvery part ; until at last the Moon is " at the full," and then we see what is called a " Full Moon." brighter than the light of the Stars, that we cannot see their little twinkle. Many of the Stars are a great deal larger than this whole Earth ; but as they are so very far off, they appear like mere specks, and we can only just see them. Others, from their being nearer to us, are brighter than the rest. 15.

The Earth turns round once in about 24 hours. An imaginary line through the centre of the Earth (on which the Earth turns) is called its axis. The ends of this axis are called poles. Turning 12 hours toward the Sun makes it light; turning 12 hours from the Sun makes it dark. But as the north and south ends (or poles) of the Earth turn very slowly to or from the Sun, months (instead of hours, as with us) of light, twilight, darkness, and then twilight, light, &c, again, succeed each other there continually. As we come away from the north and south poles, the days and nights become more of an equal length. When the days are long, the nights are short ; and when the nights are long, the days are short. While we have day, other places have night ; and while we have night, other places have day. 11.

Although the Sun and the Moon appear to be about the same size in the sky, they are not so in reality. The Moon is only the one fortyninth part of the size of our Earth ; while the Sun (which is so very far off that it does not look very large) is 500 times greater than the Earth, the Moon, and all the Stars which revolve around it put together. 12. The Moon looks much larger than any of the Stars, because it is much nearer to us ; but many of the Stars are hundreds of times larger than the Moon. Boys know how large a kite or a balloon looks when it is on the ground, and how small it looks when high up in the air : it is just so with the size and appearance of the Sun, Moon, and Stars. 13. Now it will seem strange to our little reader to hear that the Sun does not rise at all (though it appears to do so) ; but that it is the turning round of the Earth which makes the Sun appear to rise.

For as the Earth (which is like a great ball) is constantly spinning round like a top, each part of it turns toward the Sun as it moves. Thus that part of the Earth on which a boy or girl lives, begins every morning to approach the Sun. At noon we are as near the Sun as we can be during the day. We then begin to turn from it, and at midnight we are as far away as we can be during the night. Other places on the Earth, in their turn, get near and far from it also. 14. It will surprise little boys and girls to ; know that not only the Sun and the Earth, ! but the Moon and the Stars also, never leave the sky at all, though they are all constantly changing their positions there. During the j daytime the light of the Sun is so much EXAMINATION OR REVIEW LESSON No. I. The Earth and its Appearance. <">.

Where does the light of day come from ? A. From the Sun, which appears to rise up in the sky every morning. Q. In what direction does the Sun appear to travel in the sky ? A. From east to west, along the southern sky. Q. When the Sun is out of sight at night, what do we see if the sky is clear? A. The Stars; and also the Moon at her regular times of appearing. Q. Does the Sun rise every morning, as he appears to do ? A. No : it is the Earth which turns round and brings him into view every morning. Q. Where are the Stars during the day ? A. In the sky ; but as the Sun shines so brightly, they cannot be seen. Q. Whence do the Moon and Stars get their light? A. The Moon gets her light from the Sun • SKETCH OF TIME AND ITS DIVISIONS. bountifully supplying our daily wants. The Autumn also reminds us of the close of life ; for then the leaves wither and fall from the trees, and the birds take their flight to lands where summer is just commencing. 7.

Winter comes; and with it frost, snow, and storms. We then seek warmth and pro tection from the cold ; and cattle seek shelter. This is the time for skating and sleigh-riding. The long winter evenings, too, bring with them time to prepare for school, as well as to enjoy the reading of pleasant books from the school or the home library ; for good boys and girls read and study, as well as play. 8. The regularity with which these Seasons come round, should remind us of God's faithful promise to Noah (of which the beautiful rain bow is the token), that he would never again destroy the World and its inhabitants with water ; but that " while the earth remaineth, seedtime and harvest, and cold and heat, and summer and winter, and day and night, shall not cease." — Genesis viii. 22. but the Fixed Stars, which are very far off, have light of their own, and are supposed to be other Suns.

Q. Are the Stars as large as the Moon? A. Many of them are in reality much larger than the Moon, but they all appear smaller because they are much farther off. Q. How long does it take the Earth to turn round once ? A. About 24 hours ; giving us on an average about 12 hours of day and 12 hours of night. CONVERSATION II. Sketch of Time and its Divisions. 1. Most boys and girls know what is the meaning of day and night. A day and a night form part of a week, a week forms part of a month, and a month forms part of a year. 2. Every year begins on the first day of January. There are 365, or rather 365^, days in a year. To make up for the quarter-day, one whole day is added to the February of every fourth year, and this is called "leap-year." The 365 days are divided into 12 months, of nearly 30J days each on an average. 3.

The 12 months are divided into what are called four Seasons. Thus March, April, and May are called Spring ; June, July, and August, Summer; September, October, and November, Autumn, or " the Fall," — for in these months the leaves fall ; and December, January, and February, Winter. 4. We all welcome the Spring ; for during this Season the grass and the flowers spring up on the earth, the leaves bud on the trees and plants, and the migratory birds come from the warm South to build their nests and to sing their merry songs. The farmer, too, is busy in ploughing, sowing, and planting. 5. The Summer, when not too hot, is very pleasant. The days then are the longest of the year, and boys and girls can play and enjoy themselves to their hearts' content. The flowers are fragrant and beautiful, and all nature seems alive.

EXAMINATION LESSON II. Time and its Divisions. Q. Name the principal divisions ot time. A. Seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, and years. Q. Can you repeat the time-table ? A. Yes: 60 seconds make 1 minute. 60 minutes " 1 hour. 24 hours " 1 day. 7 days " 1 week. 4 weeks " 1 lunar* month. 13 lunar months, or *) - , • •-, 12 calendar months, j make ** cml year" Q. How many daye and weeks are in a year? A. 365J days, or 52 weeks. Q. How many days are there in each month? A. Thirty days hath September, April, June, and November : February hath twenty -eight alone, And all the rest have thirty-one ; But leap-year coming once in four, February then hath one day more. Q. Into how many seasons is the year divided ? A. Into four, called Spring, Summer, Au tumn, and Winter. 6. The Autumn brings with it the rich reward of the farmer's industry.

Fruit, grain, and vegetables are generally gathered in rich abun dance ; reminding us of God's goodness in * From the Latin word Ituna, the Moon. EASY LESSONS IN GENERAL GEOGRAPHY. Q. Name the months in each season. Q. What is General Geography? A. The Spring months are March, April, and May ; Summer, June, July, and August ; Autumn, September, October, and November ; Winter, December, January; and February. A. A general description of the Earth. Q. What is the Earth? A. The great Globe on which we live. Q. Who made the Earth? Q. Describe, in your own words, the seasons of Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter. A. " In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth." — Genesis i. 1. Q. What promise did God make to Noah in regard to the certainty ofthe return of these seasons? Q. What appearance does the Earth present to ub?

A. It appears to us to be nearly flat, and to be covered overhead with a lofty sky, which seems to over-arch us like a dome. CONVERSATION Til. Sketch of Geography. 1. The word Ge-og-ra-phy (which is derived from two Greek words) means a " writing _.bout the Earth." We now understand Geog raphy to be a description of the Earth, of its people, and of its products. 2. If the Earth were an immense flat surface (which it looks like, and which people in the olden times used to think it was), we could see a great deal more of it at one time than we do ; and with a telescope we could see more still. But the Earth is an immense round ball shaped something like an orange. 3. This can be proved if we stand on the shore of a lake or of the sea and look at a ship coming toward us. At first we can just see the top of its masts, then the hull or body of the ship, and afterward the full size of the ship.

This varying appearance which a ship or any other moving object has from the shore, is the same all round the Globe. (See Fig. 2.) 4. For convenience, Geography has been divided into three parts. The first part is called Math-e-mat-i-cal or As-tro-nom-i-cal Geog raphy, because it relates to the connection of the Earth with the Sun, Moon, and Stars; the second part is called Phys-i-cal Geography, because it relates to the land and water divisions of the Earth's surface ; and the third part is called Po-lit-i-cal Geography, because it relates to the various nations on the Earth, and to the boundaries of different countries. Q. Is this a correct description ofthe Earth? A. No : the Earth is rounded like an orange, as shown in Figures 1 and 2 ; and has the sky on all sides of it, as shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.— ROTUNDITT OP THE EARTH ILLUSTRATED. Q. How can we prove that the Earth is round? A. By the appearance of a ship at sea. At first we can only see the top of its masts ; but afterward, as it comes nearer, its full size. Q. Into how many branches is Geography usually divided, and name them ? A. Three, — Math-e-mat-i-cal or As-tro-nom l-cal, Phys-I-cal, and Po-lit-i-cal Geography. Q. What is Mathematical or Astronomical Geography? A. A description of the Sun, Moon, and Stars ; and of the Earth, as one of the planets in the Heavens. Q.tiWhat is Physical Geography? A. A description of the natural divisions of land and water on the Globe. EXAMINATION LESSON III. What Geography Teaches, Q. What is meant by the Natural Divisions ofthe Earth ? A. The divisions formed by nature, such as Islands, Lakes, Seas, Oceans, &c. Q. What is this book intended to teach you?

A. General Geography. THE HEMISPHERES I I I Q. What is PoUtical Geography? A. A description of the various political divi sions of the World, and of the extent of differ ent countries. Q. What is meant by the Political Divisions ofthe World ? A. Those divisions of the World which have been formed by man ; such as King-doms, Em pires, and Re-pub-lics. CONVERSATION IV. EXAMINATION LESSON IV. Something about the Hemispheres. The Hemispheres. 1. The Earth is also called a Planet, a World, a Ball, a Globe, and a Sphere. It is called a planet because it moves through the Heavens ; it is called a world because it is an inhabited part of God's great Creation ; and it is called a ball, globe, or sphere because it is rounded in shape. 2. As the Earth is shaped like a ball, we have to picture it either on a globe, or by a drawing called a map.

As we turn round a globe, we can see each side of it; but on a map we have to picture each side separately. 3. As we cannot make a drawing or picture large enough to show every river, mountain, sea, ocean, or city on the Earth in its full size, we have to represent them on a map. But as the Earth is round, we can only show, on a drawing, half of it at one view. Such a drawing is called a hem-i-sphere, or half a sphere. On this drawing we put a number of round or curved lines to show that the Earth is round, and to point out where each place on its surface is situated. (See Fig. 3.) 4. These hemispheres have various names. The two usually shown on a map are called the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. These hemispheres show all the world east and west of Europe, where Geography was first taught.

The Northern and Southern Hemispheres show those parts of the Earth north or south of the Equator, — of which we shall hear by and by. If you look on the map, or on the fol lowing figure, you will see all the land and water divisions in each hemisphere. Q. What is the Earth called? A. A Planet, a World, a Ball, a Globe, or a Sphere. Q. How is the World pictured to us ? A. Either on a globe or by a map. Q. Which is the most natural way of showing us the whole Earth ? A. On a globe ; for we can then see its different sides, and how the land and water are connected. Q. How is the Earth, when it is shown on a map, made to look like a hall? A. By means of the curved or circular lines which are drawn upon it to make it appear round, as on Fig. 3. Q. How is it that we can only see one-half of the round World on a map ?

A. Because as the paper is flat, so the sur face of the map is flat also, which makes it impossible to show on it in one picture more than half of a round body. Q. How, then, is the other half of the whole World shown ? A. By means of a second map, which shows the other half. Q. What are these halves called ? A. Hemispheres, or half-globes. Q. Which two are most generally shown or used in Geographies ? A. The Eastern and Western Hemispheres. Q. Why are they called the Eastern and Western Hemi spheres ? A. Because the chief part of the land and water described in them lies to the east and to the west of Europe, where Geography was first taught. EASY LESSONS IN GENERAL GEOGRAPHY. Q. Name and point out the principal capes. Q. Name and point out the principal straita. Q. Name aud point out the different zones and tropies.

Q. Name and point out on the map the principal countries in this hemisphere. Q. Name and point out the great oceans on the map. Q. Name and point out, also, the position of the principal sea named. Q. Name and point out the positions of the principal bays and gulfs. if Name and point out the larger islands and island groups on the map. Q. Name and point out the equator the two poles, and the two circles. Q. Name and point out the great mountn-rangea on the map. Q. Name and point out the principal rivers. THE HEMISPHERES Q. Name aud point out on the map the continents and | principal countries iu this hemisphere. Q Name and point out the great oceans on the map. O Name and point out, also, the positions of the prineipalseas O Name and point out the positions ot the principal b nd suits a7Q* Name aud point out the principal islands.

Q. Name and point out the principal capes. Q. Name and point out the different zones and tropics *j. Name and point out the equator, the tv poles, and the two circles. 9- Name and point out the great mountain-ranges on the map. 9- •Name a"*d Point out the principal rivers. Q. Name and point out the principal straiWor channel. i O. Why is one of these divisions called also the Ola World? A. Because the Old World was first known to our forefathers, and in it man was created. Q. Why is the other division called tbe New World? A. Because the New World, discovered (it is said) by the Northmen about 800 years since, was re-discovered by Christopher Columbus and his companions only about 400 years ago. Q. How do the proportions of land and water on the Eastern and Western Hemispheres compare ? A. The Eastern Hemisphere, or Old World, contains more land and less water than the Western Hemisphere.

Fig. 4.— NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN HEMISPHERES, OB NORTH AND BOOTH POLAR PROJECTIONS. the Equator. It contains the chief water divisions of the Globe. O. Name, and point out on the map, the great land divisions in the Eastern Hemisphere. ■p. What circle and tropic are wholly in this hemi sphere. A. The Antrarc-tic Circle and the Tropic of Capricorn. A. Europe, Asia, Africa, and the island continent of Aus-tra-li-a, which is part of O-ce-an-1-.i [o-she-]. Q. What are these great land-divisions called? Q. What is the peculiarity of climate in the Southern Hemisphere ? A. In the Southern Hemisphere it is mid summer in January, and mid-winter in June. A. Con-ti-nents ; except Oceania, which con sists of great numbers of islands scattered over the ocean. Q. Into what other Hemispheres is the World some times divided ?

Q. What are the proportions of land and water on the Western Hemisphere ? A. Into the Land and Water Hemispheres. Q. Describe the Land-Hemisphere. A. The Western Hemisphere, or New World, contains a great deal more water than land. A. The Land-Hemisphere has Western Eu rope for its centre. It contains nearly all the land on the Earth's surface. Q. Name and point out the great land-diviBions in the Western Hemisphere. A. North and South America. Q. Name and point out the two great clusters of islands ia this Hemisphere. A. The West-India Islands and the islands of Oceania. Q. Into what other hemispheres can the World be divided ? A. Into the North Polar or Northern, and the South Polar or Southern, Hemispheres. Q. Describe the North Polar or Northern Hemisphere. A. The Northern Hemisphere includes all those regions lying between the North Pole and the Equator.

It contains the principal land-divisions of the Globe. Fig. 5.— LAND AND WATER HEMISPHERES. Q. Point out and name from Fig. 6 the principal land division in the Land-Hemisphere. Q. What circle and tropic are wholly in this hemi sphere ? Q. Describe the Water-Hemisphere. A. The Water-Hemisphere has for its centre an island south-east of Australia. It contains nearly all the larger oceans and islands on the surface of the Globe. A. The Arc-tic Circle and the Tropic of Cancer. Q. Describe the South Polar or Southern Hemisphere. A. The Southern Hemisphere includes all those region* lying between the South Pole and Q. Point out and name from Fig. 6 the principal oceans n the Water-Hemisphere. SKETCH OF THE MARINER'S COMPASS. 11 Q. Describe it as it appears at present. CONVERSATION V. A. It consists of a smill bar of magnetized steel, called a needle, to which is attached a circular engraved card (Fig. 6), the whole being balanced on a pivot so as to turn round freely.

Sketch of the Mariner's Compass. 1. At first when persons wished to go by sea from one place to another, they had to keep in sight of land ; or by watching the Sun by day and the Moon or Stars by night, they could steer the ship correctly. When they could not see the land, the Sun, the Moon, or the Stars, their risk of being lost was generally very great. 2. This difficulty lasted a long time. At length, Marco Polo, a celebrated Venetian trav eller, brought from China, in the year 1260, a curious instrument, afterward called a mari ner's compass, which consisted of a piece of lodestone placed upon cork and allowed to float on water. In this position the lodestone would turn toward the north. Q. In what direction does it point ? A. To the North, as shown in the engraving. Q. Of what use is the compass?

A. It enables sailors and travellers to find their way across water and land ; for as it al ways points in one direction, the position of any other place can easily be distinguished or known. Q. Name the four principal points ofthe compass. A. North, South, East, and West. 3. Since Marco Polo's time, the compass has been greatly improved. It now consists of a piece of steel suspended on a point or pivot. This steel, when once touched by pieces of lodestone or magnet, continues to vibrate or turn until it points toward the north, or North Mag-net^ic Pole, to which it is attracted by a strong but unseen influence called Mag-net-ism. SOUTH Fig. 7.— POINTS OP THE COMPASS SHOWN ON A MAP. Q. How are these points shown on a map ? A. The North is shown at the top, and the South at the bottom ; the East at the right hand, and the West at the left hand.

Q. Name the other parts of the compass as shown in the engraving. Fig. 6.— THE MARINER'S COMPASS, A. North-East, South-East, North-West, and South-West. EXAMINATION LESSON V. Q. Why are the East, West, North, and South called the cardinal or chief points of the compass ? The Mariner's Compass. Q. What is the Mariner's Compass? A. Because in the East the Sun appears to rise ; in the West he appears to set; and because one end of the needle of the compass points to the North, and the other to the South. A. An instrument chiefly for use mariners or sailors. at sea by over broken rocks, it is called a " Torrent" ; and when over low rough rocks or large stones, it is called a Rapid " ; but if it suddenly falls from a great height, as in the Niagara River, it is called a " Fall" or " Cat-a-ract."