Thayer Expedition. Scientific results of a journey in Brazil. By L. Agassiz and his travelling companions. Geology and physical geography of Brazil ... With illustrations and Maps

Front matter

C0AI_-B__D3 ON RIO CANDIOTA, EIO GKANDE DO SUL Œtjaper (Expchitioiu SCIENTIFIC RESULTS OF A JOURNEY IN BRAZIL. By LOUIS AGASSIZ AND HIS TRAVELLING COMPANIONS GEOLOGY AXD PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF BRAZIL. By CH. FRED. HAETT, PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY H» CORNELL UNIVERSITY. WITH ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS. BOSTON: FIELDS, OSGOOD, & CO. 1870. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by FIELDS, OSGOOD, & CO., in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. University Press: Welch, Eigelow, & Co., Cambridge. To PROFESSOR LOUIS AGASSIZ, Director of the Thayer Expedition*. My dear Sir : — I have the honor to offer you this volume on the Physical Geography and Geology of Brazil as a summary of the scientific results of my explorations as an attache of the Thayer Expedition, together with those of a second private expedition, — the natural outgrowth of the former, — made to continue investigations which I had been obliged to leave unfinished.

I take this opportunity of acknowledging my deep indebtedness to you for the interest you have taken in my scientific studies, for your constant wise counsel and advice, and for a thousand kind nesses received at your hands. With the highest consideration and respect, I have the honor to be, My dear Sir, Your former pupil, CH. FRED. HARTT. Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., May 30, 1870. This volume is the result of two journeys made by myself in Brazil. The first was undertaken under the direction of Professor Agassiz in connection with the Thayer Expedition in the years 1865 and 1866. On this journey I studied very carefully the Geology and Physical Geography of the coast between Eio and Bahia, going over a very large part of the ground on horseback or in canoe. As a sketch of the jour ney is to be found in the " Journey in Brazil," it is not ne cessary to repeat it here.

My companion was Mr. Edward Copeland, of Boston, one of the volunteer aids of the Expe dition, and I take pleasure in acknowledging my indebted ness to him for the very valuable assistance he rendered me. On this journey Mr. Copeland and I made very large collec tions of marine invertebrates and fishes, though we did not neglect to secure other objects of natural history. I hope that these collections will throw much light on the fresh water and marine animals of the coast, and, as they were made at frequent intervals between Bahia and Rio de Ja neiro, that they will prove valuable in the study of the distribution of these animals. My studies of the stone and coral reefs and of the geology of Brazil proved so very attractive to me that on the year following I returned to Brazil, and spent my vacation, several months, in examining PREFATORY XOTE.

Chapter I. The Province Of Rio De Janeiro

Page The Serra do Mar. — The Serra da Mantiqueira, and the Pico do Itatiaiossii. — The Rio Parahyba do Sul and its Tributaries. — Description of the Bay of Rio, its Islands, Tides, &c. — The Sugar-Loaf. — The Corcovado. — The Gneiss of Rio. — The Organ Mountains. — Geological Observations along the Cantagallo Railroad. — Drift Phenomena at Rio, Tijuca, and on the Dom Pedro II. Railroad. — Decomposition of Gneiss in situ and its Effect on the Forms of the Hills. — Recent Rise of the Coast. — The Coast between Rio and Cape Frio, its Lakes, Salines, &c. — Cape Frio. — Os Buzios. — Islands of Santa Anna. — Frade de Macahe. — Campos dos Goitacazes, their Lagoons, Canal, &c. — Rio Parahyba. — Sao Joao da Barra. — Sugar Plantations. — City of Campos. — The Rio MuriabA — Tertiary Beds. — Sugar Fazendas. — Sao Fidelis. — The Gold-Mines of Cantagallo. — Geological Notes on the Country between Sao Fidelis and Bom Jesus. — The Rio Itabapuana. — The Serra dTtabapuana. — The Garrafao. — Barra do Itabapuana 1

Chapter II. Province Of Espirito Santo

Barreiras do Siri. — Itapiimerim. — Coast between Itap^merim and Benevente. — Benevente. — Guarapary ; Consolidated Beach, Corals, &c. — Rio Jecu. — Bay of Espirito Santo. — Nossa Senhora da Penha. — Victoria. — Decomposition of Gneiss and Formation of Boulders of Decomposition. — Recent Rise of the Coast — Corals, &c. of the Bay of Victoria. — Rio Santa Maria. — German Colonies. — Fisheries. — Sand Plains. — Tertiary Plain at Carapina. — Mestre Alvaro. — Serra. — Nova Almeida. — Rio Reis Magos. — Santa Cruz. — Basin of the Rio Doce. — Description of the River. — Guandii ; its Colony and Agricultural Resources. — Porto de Souza. — Geology of Vicinity. — Luxuriance of Vegetation on the Doce. — Woods. — Game. — Francylvania. — Climate of the Doce. — Linhares. — Lagoa Juparanaa. — The Future of the Doce. — American Colonists. — Salt Trade. — Barra Secca. — Sea-Turtles. — Consolidated Beaches and the Mode of their Formation. — Character of Coast between the Rivers Doce and Sao Matheos. — Rio Sao Matheos described. — Geological Features. — Fertility of its Lands. — Cocoa- Palms and their Distribution. — City of Sao Matheos. — Rio Itahunas. — Cliffs of Os Lencoes. — Coast between Itahunas and Rio Mucury . . .56 CONTENTS. XIV

Chapter III. Province Of Minas Geraes

THE MUCURY AND JEQUITINHONHA BASINS. The Basin of the Mucury. — Porto Alegre. — Description of the River below Santa Clara. — Luxuriance of Forest Vegetation. — Santa Clara. — Minas Geraes a Land-locked Province. — Want of Roads. — The Philadelphia Road and the Mucury Colonies. — Difference in Topography and Soils between the Tertiary and Gneiss Lands west of Santa Clara. — Urucu, its Dutch Colony, Soils, Climate, &c. — Philadelphia and its German Colonies. — Great Fertility of the Mucury Basin- — Character of Country between Philadelphia and the Head-waters of the Mueury. — The Basin of the Jequitinhonha. — The Rio Pardo. — General Geological Structure of the Jequitinhonha- Pardo Basin. — The Head-waters of the Setubal, their Geological Features and Catinga Forests. — Geological Excursion from the Fazenda de Santa Barbara to Alto dos Bois. — Difficulty of geologizing in Brazil. — The Bi-azilian Campos. — The Chapadas between Itinga and Calhao. — The great Calhao-Arassuahy Valley. — Magnificent View over the Valley from the Chapada at Agua da Nova. — Calhao and the Geology of its Vicinity. — Description of the Country between Calhao and Sucuriu. — The Chapadas. — Minas Novas, its Geology, Gold-Mines, &c. — Occurrence of Gold in Drift. — Gold-Mines of the Arraial da Chapada ; their former Richness : not yet worked out. — Decomposition of Clay Slates in the Minas Novas Region. — The Rio Arassuahy. — The Rio Jequitinhonha from its Confluence with the Arassuahy to the Sea described : its Geology, Vegetation, Commerce. — The Salto Grande 125

Chapter IV. The Islands And Coral Reefs Of The Abrolhos

The Geology of the Abrolhos. — Trap-bed, Fossil Plants, &c. — Land Fauna and Flora; Spiders, Lizards, and Sea-Birds. — The Cemetery of the Frigate- Birds. — The Whale and Garoupa Fisheries. — Importance of these Fisheiies. — The mythical Brazilian Reef. — The Coral Reefs and Consolidated Beaches confounded by Travellers and Writers. — The Authoi''s Discovery of the Porto Seguran Coral Reef. — Coral-building Corals found almost wholly to the north of Cape Frio. — The Fringing Reef of Santa Barbara ; its Structure and Life. — Corals found on the Reef. — Star-fishes, Ophiurans, &c. — Resemblance between the Echinoderms of the Abrolhos and West Indies. — The Chapeiroes. — The Parcel dos Abrolhos ; its Appearance ; forms a serious Obstacle to Navigation. — Safe Canal west of the Islands. — The Parcel dos Parades. — The Recife do Lixo. — Its great Extent. — The Submerged Border and its Coral Growth. — The Coral Fauna of Brazil. — The Millepores and their Stinging Propei-ties. — The Reefs of Timbebas, Itacolumf, Porto Seguro, Santa Cruz, Camamu, Bahia, Maceid, and Pernambuco. — The Roccas CONTENTS. XV 215

Chapter V. Province Of Bahia

COAST SOUTH OF SAO SALVADOR. The Tertiary Lands between the Rivers Mucury and Peruhype ; their Vegetation, &c. — Colonia Leopoldina and its Codec Plantations. — Villa Vicosa. — The Canal joining the Rivers Peruhype and Caravellas. — Formation of * Beaches and Beach Ridges. — Coast between Caravellas and Porto Segui-o. — Monte Pascoal. — Porto Seguro and its Recife, or Consolidated Beach. — Santa Cruz and its Reef. — Coast northward to the Jequitinhonha ; the Lagoa do Braco, Campos, &c. — The Canal Po-assu and the Rio da Salsa. — Mangrove Swamps between the Jequitinhonha and Pardo. — Cannavieiras — The Salt Trade of the Jequitinhonha. — Description of the lower- Part of the Rio Pardo ; Cacao Plantations, &c. — Coast noithward to Ilhe'os. — Prince Neuwied's Description of the Country between Ilhe'os and Conquista, Possoes, and Cachoeira ; the Forests, Campos, Social Plants, &c. — Ilheos. — Rio and Lagoa Itahype. — Dead Coral Banks. — Rio das Contas. — Bay of Camamu. — Turva Deposits. — Villa de Camamii. — Coast northward to the Bahia de Todos or Santos. — The Bay of All Saints described. — Ilha Itaparica. — Rio Jaguaripe aud Nazareth. — Rio Pai-aguassii. — Description of River below Cachoeira. — The Train-road. — Sant' Amaro and the Agi-icultural Institute

Chapter VI. The Sao Francisco Basin

The Explorations of Halfeld, Liais, St. John, Allen, Ward, Burton, &c. — General Shape of the Basin. — Its uniform Width. — The Sao Francisco Valley hollowed out of a Series of horizontal Beds of Limestone and Sandstone. — The Chapadas. — The so-called " Serra " separating the Sao Francisco from the Tocantins Basin an irregular Strip or Table-land of Sandstone. — The Serras of Araripe and Dous Irmaos. — Table-topped Hills in the Valley of the Sao Francisco; Outliers of the Chapadas. — Doubts about the Age of the Sandstones and Limestones. — Limestones of the Rio das Velhas. — Remains of Extinct Quadrupeds in Brazil, spoken of by Cazal, Spix and Martius, &c. — Claussen's Discoveries in the Caves at Curvelo. — Dr. Lund's exhaustive Researches at Lagoa Santa. — Caves described; their Number, Extent.

Stalactites and Deposits of Bones in Saltpetre Earth. — Immense Quantities of small Bones brought in by Owls, &c. — Large Number of Fossil Animals discovered by Lund. — Former Existence of Megatheria, Mylodons, Mastodons, immense Armadillos and Cats, Horses, &c, in Brazil. — Remains of a Race of Man of high Antiquity. — Reinjiardt's Genei-alizations. — The Rio de Sao Francisco of the Sixteenth Class among the Rivers of the World, but third in Rank in Brazil. — General Description of the Stream. — Its Affluents, the Rios Para, Paraopeba, and Das Velhas. — The Rio das Velhas alone capable of being made navigable for Steamers. — The Sao Francisco navigable with but few Interruptions for two hundred and sixty-four Leagues below CONTENTS. the Rio das Velhas. — Cost of removing Obstructions. — Proposed Railway from Joazeiro to Piranhas. — Fertility of Low Lands of Sao Francisco Val ley. — Liais's Picture of the Campos 274

Chapter VII. The Province Of Bahia, Interior

Journeys of Spix and Martius, Nicolay and Lacerda, Allen, and other Explorers. — Geological and Physical Features of Country between Malhada and Cachoeira, described by Von Martius. — Sandstones. — Remains of Mastodons found near Villa do Rio de Contas. — Immense Copper Boulder from Cachoeira. — Rev. Mr. Nicolay's Report of Journey from Cachoeira to the Chapada Diamantina. — Occurrence of Diamonds in Sandstones. — Limestones. — Sterile Plains. — Diamantiferous Sands of the Chapada. — The Diamond Mines of Sincora and Lencoes. — Annual Yield of the Provinces in Diamonds. — Mr. Allen's Report of a Journey from Chique-Chique, via Jacobina to Cachoeira. — Country between Chique-Chique and Jacobma an immense Limestone Plain. — The Chapada at Jacobina a detached flat-topped Mass of Sandstone. — Gneiss Hills. — "Lake Plain," east of Jacobina. — Knobs. — Potholes, probably of Glacial Origin. — Eastern Sandstone Plain. — Climate, Vegetation, &c. of Route. — Difference in Topography between Gneiss Regions of Bahia and the Mucury described and accounted for. — Former greater Extension of Forests. — Von Martius's Description of the Country between Cachoeira and Joazeiro. — Country near Feira da Conceicao. — Serra do Rio Peixe. — Rio Itapicuru. — Want of Rain at Queimados. — Serra de Tiuba. — Tanques and Fossil Bones near Coche d'Agua, Barriga Molle, and Neighborhood. — Monte Santo. — The Great Meteorolite of Bemdego. — Rock Inscriptions. — Villa Nova da Rainha. — Joazeiro to be the Terminus of Bahia and Sao Francisco Railroad. — Rio de Salitre. — Salt Licks. — Mr. Allen's Note on the Salt of the Sao Francisco Valley. — Saltpetre. — Geology of Country between Carunhanha and Urubu. — Change in Geological Structure, Climate, Vegetation, &c., below Urubii . 294

Chapter VIII. Province Of Bahia, Geology Of The Vicinity Of Sao Salvador

AND THE BiHIA AND SAO FRANCISCO RAILROAD. Topography of the Vicinity of Sao Salvador da Bahia. — The Upper and Lower Cities. — The Population, &c. — The Harbor. — The Commerce of the City and Province. — The Climate, &c. — The Bahia Steam Navigation Company. — The Bahia and Sao Francisco Railroad. — The Paraguassu Steam Tram-road. — The Gneiss of Bahia. — Decomposition. — Drift Deposits. — Consolidation of Beaches. — Stone Reef at Rio Vermelho. — Blown Sands covering the Drift of the Hills. — Mr. Allport's Description of the Cretaceous Beds of Monserrate and Plataforma. — Fossil Fishes, Croco- CONTENTS. XVII diles, &c. — Description of several Species of Fossil Mollusks. — Cretaceous Beds of Plataforma and Vicinity. — Prof. Marsh's Notice of the Reptilian Remains. — Fossil Fishes at Agua Comprida. — Gneiss at the Rio Johannes. — Taboleiros and Sand Plains of Camassari. — Peculiarities of the Topog raphy of the Tertiary Hills. — Tabatinga Clay. — Sand Plains and Ta boleiros of the Imbucahy. — Peat-Bog. — Drift. — Diamond-washings at Pitanga. — Cretaceous Strata at Pojuca. — Piassabas. — Campos of Ala goinhas. — Tertiary Hills. — Character of Vegetation 333

Chapter IX. The Provinces Of Sergipe And Alagoas, And The River Sao

FRANCISCO BELOW THE FALLS. The Province of Sergipe. — Its Division into Mattas and Agrestes. — The Rio Real. — Estancia; New Red Sandstone, Sugar Plantations, &c. — Sand Dunes. — The Rio Vasabarris. — The Rio Cotinguiba. — Aracajii. — Cretaceous Beds with Inocerami at Sapucahy. — Maroim. — Cretaceous Limestone with Ammonites. — " Fossil Turtles." — Sugar Plantations. — Messrs. Schramm and Company. — The Bar of the Sao Francisco. — Sand Dunes of the Pontal. — Character of the River below Penedo. — Aracare\ — Villa Nova and its Cretaceous Sandstones. — The City of Penedo and its Geology. — Its Commerce and Fair. — Notes on the Piranha and its Habits. — Propni. — Morro do Chaves and Cretaceous Fossils. — Traipii. — Iron Ore. — Campos, Vegetation, Cactuses, &c. — Pao de Assucar. — Cattle Fazendas — Piranhas. — County flat and covered by Boulders. — The River Valley a Narrow Gorge in a Gneiss Plain. — The Falls of Paulo Affonso. — Halfeld's Description. — Liais's Description. — Comparison between Paulo Affonso and Niagara. — Mastodon Remains from near the Falls. — Climate of the Sao Francisco below the Falls. — Steam Navigation. — Character of the Coast of the Province of Alagoas, South of Maceid. — The Lagoas. — The City of Maceid and the Geology of its Vicinity. — Tertiary Beds. — Harbor and Reefs 378

Chapter X. Province Of Pernambuco

The Limits, Area, &c. of the Province. — Its Topography, Geology, Climate, Soils, &c. —The Rivers. — Productions of the Province. — The City of Pernambuco or Recife. — Derivation of these Names. — Situation of the City. — The Stone Reef. — The Port formed by it. — Shallowness of Water along this part of the Coast. — Pernambuco a Calling Station for Foreign Shipping. — The Pernambuco and Sao Francisco Railroad. — Table of Heights along the Line. — Island of Itamaraca. — Fossiliferous Limestones. — Fertility of the Island, Cocoa-Palm Groves, &c. — Fernando de Noronha. — Darwin's Description of the Geology of the Island. — Its Dryness and Sterility . . CONTENTS. XY111

CHAPTER XL THE PROVINCE OF PARAHYBA DO NORTE.

Limits of the Province. — The Serra or Plateau of the Cairiris Velhos. — The Climate, Productions, &c. of the Province. — Fertile Lands found only along the Coast. — The Rio Parahyba do Norte, its Navigability. — The City of Parahyba. — The Consolidated Beach at the Mouth of the River. — The River and Town of Mamanguape. — The Geology of the Vicinity of Parahyba. — Cretaceous Limestone with Fossils. — Observations of Professor Agassiz and Mr. Williams. — Mr. Williams's Observations on the Geology of the Country between Parahyba and the Gold-Mines of Pianco. — Mode of Occurrence of the Gold. — "The Tasso Brazilian Gold-Mining Company (Limited)" 440

Chapter XII. The Province Of Rio Grande Do Norte

Limits of the Province, its Position, Mountain, and River Systems, &c. — The Rio Piranhas. — Vegetation. — Productions. — The Carnahuba Palm and its Uses. — Cochineal. — Cattle. — Climate. — Natal. — Geology of the Province

Chapter XIII. The Province Of Ceara

Geographical Position and Limits of the Province. — The Serra da Ybiapaba. — Its Topography and Geological Structure. — Serra de Araripe. — River Basins. — General Sketch of the Geology of the Province. — Climate. — Character of the Soil. — Productions. — City of Fortaleza — Population of the Province. — Gardner's Sketch of the Geology of Ceara. — Character of Country in the Vicinity of Aracaty. — Description of Country between Aracaty and led. — Serra de Pereira. — Villa do Ico and Vicinity. — Country between Ico and Crato. — Gold Washings. — Crato. — Serra de Araripe. — Villa da Barra do Jardim. — Description of Fossil Fish Locality. — The Fishes noticed by Spix and Martius and Others, and described by Professor Agassiz. — Glacial Phenomena of Vicinity of Fortaleza spoken of by Professor Agassiz. — Mammalian Remains. — Minerals. — Meteorolites 456

Chapter XIV. Province Of Piauhy

Geographicnl Position, Limits, &c, of the Province. — The Rio Parnahvba and its Tributaries. — Description of its Basin. — General Geological Structure and Topography of the Province. — Table-topped Hills of Sandstone. CONTENTS. XIX The Serra dos Dous Iramaos and its Structure. — Discussion of Gardner's Observations on the Geology of Piauhy and Ceara. — Gardner mistaken in referring the great Sandstone Sheet to the Cretaceous. — Sandstones probably Tertiary. — Their great Extension over Brazil. — Distribution of the Cretaceous Beds in Brazil. — Climate of Piauhy. — The Campos Mimosos and tlie Campos Agrestes. — Peculiarities of their Vegetation. — Productions of the Province, Population, &c 473

Chapter XV. The Provinces Of Maranhao, Para, And Amazonas

Sandstones of the Coast of Maranhao. — The Interior composed of Metamorphic Rocks. — Gold-Mines of Turi and Maracassume". — Climate of the Province. — Rains. — Cities of Maranhao, Caxias, &c. — Poi'oroca or Bore at the Mouth of the River Mearim. — Professor Agassiz's Sketch of the Geology of the Amazonian Valley. — His Theory of the Mode of Deposition of the Amazonian Beds. — Discussion of this Question. — Cretaceous Rocks in the Amazonian Valley 484

Chapter XVI. Provinces Of Goyaz And Matto Grosso

The Geographical Position of the Province of Goyaz. — The Chapada da Mangabeira. — Geology of the Vicinity of Natividade. — Gold-Washings of the Serra da Natividade, the Arraial da Chapada, and the Arraial da Couceicao. — Structure of the Serra at the Town of Arrayas. — The Serra Geral. — Subterranean Streams. — Western and Southern Goyaz composed of Metamorphic Rocks. — Distribution of Gneissose and Granite Rocks in Western Brazil. — The Montes Pyreneos and their Height. — The Rio Araguaya and its Navigation. — Dr. Couto de Magalhges. — Ilha do Bananal. — Note on Piranhas. — Gold, Diamonds, Iron, and Chrome Ores. — Climate, Forests, Population, &c. — The Western Part of the Plateau of Brazil composed of undisturbed Beds of Sandstone, &c. — The Amazonas-Paraguay Water-shed a Plain without Serras 496

Chapter XVII. Provinces Of Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catharina, And Rio Grande

DO SUL. The Serra do Mar of Sao Paulo a Plateau. — Its Character. — Drainage in the Provinces of Sao Paulo and Parana to the Westward. — Eastward-flowing Streams of no Importance — The Sao Paulo Railroad. — Description of the CONTENTS. XX 632 Country, along the Railway between Santos and Sao Paulo by Major 0. C. James. — Geology of Vicinity of Sao Paulo. — Mawe's Description of the Gold-Mines of Jaragua, and the Method of extracting the Gold. — Country westward to Campinas. — Iron-Mines at Ypanema. — Serra Arassoiava or Guaracoiava. — Climate, Products, &c. of the Province of Sao Paulo. — General Topographical Features of the Province of Parana, its Climate, Productions, &c. — Matte or Paraguayan Tea. — Tea-Planting in Brazil. — Rivers. — Colonies. — Paranagua. — Coal Basin on the Rio Tuberao in the Province of Santa Catharina. — General Description of the Physical Features of the Province and that of Rio Grande do Sul. — History of the Coal-Mines of Brazil — Observations of Perigot, Bouleich, Avii-Lallemant, Plant, &c. — Description of the Coal-Fields of the River Jaguarao. — Engineer McGinty's Report on the Candiota Coal. — Coal Basin on Rio Sao Sepe*. — Basin near Sao Jeronymo , 505 3

Chapter XVIII. The Gold-mines Of Brazil

Geological Distribution of Gold in Brazil. — Gold in Gneiss, at Jaragua, Cantagallo, Pianco, and elsewhere. — The richest Deposits found in Veins traversing Clay Slates. — Character of Auriferous Quartz. — Granular Quartz, or Cacd. — Gold when associated with Sulphides rarely visible. — The auriferous Iron Ore, Jacutinga. — Gold-Mines of Sao Joao d'El-Rei. — The Morro Velho Mine, Mode of Occurrence of the Gold, Method of Extraction, Yield, &c. — The Gongo Soco Mine. — The Rossa Grande Gold-Mining Company. — Mines at Morro de Santa Anna, Congonhas do Campo, Sao Vicente, Cata Branca. — The Gold-Mines of Brazil not yet fairly developed .

Chapter XIX. Resume Of The Geology Of Brazil

Eozoic Rocks and their Distribution in Brazil. — Absence of Limestones. The Silurian Age in Brazil. — The auriferous Clay-Slates of Jlinas probably Lower Silurian. — Note on the Silurian of the Andes. — The Distribution of Marine Animals in the Palæozoic. — The Devonian Age in Brazil and South America. — The Carboniferous of Brazil and Bolivia. — The New Red Sandstone. — The Cretaceous, its Distribution in Brazil and South America. Several distinct Periods represented. — Tertiary Rocks. — Drift. — The Glacial Phenomena of Patagonia.— Tapanhoacanga. — The Drift of Rio and of the Region of Decomposition. — The Drift of the Dry Region of Bahia, Sergipe, and Alagoas. — Examination into the Merits of the various Theories proposed to account for the Formation of the Brazilian Drift. — The Theory of Subaerial Decomposition. — Wave Action during a Subsidence. — Wave Action during Elevation. — All these Theories unsatisfactory. — The Glacial Hypothesis the most reasonable CONTENTS. XXI 577

Appendix

. ON THE BOTOCUDOS. Origin of the Name Botocudo. — Stature. — Physical Form and Characteristics. — Manner of Wearing Hair. — Lip and Ear Ornaments. — Professor Wyman's Description of Skull of Botocudo from Sao Matheos. — Comparison with other described Botocudo Skulls. — Color of Botocudo. — Manner of Painting the Body. — Dislike to being clothed. — Bows and Arrows described. — Gerber's Enumeration of the Tribes. — Von Tschudi's Description of the Tribes. — Ranchos and Huts. — Food. — Mode of procuring Fire. — Manufactures. — Marriage Customs. — The Botocudos cruel Husbands. — Facility with which Wounds heal. — Treatment of Children. — Religious Ideas. — Belief in the Bad Spirit, Janchon. — No Belief in a Supreme God. — Burial Customs. — War Customs. — Cannibalism. — Dance. — The Botocudos fast disappearing. — Botocudo Character. — Geographical Distribution of the Botocudos. — Peculiarities of their Language, Pronunciation, Grammatical Structure, &c. — Botocudo Vocabularies LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Coal-Beds on Rio Candiota, Rio Grande do Sul . . . Frontispiece. Map of Part of Province of Rio de Janeiro Page 5 The Sugar-Loaf, Corcovado, and Gavia, from Sao Domingo . . 10 Section at Praia Grande 13 The Organs 16 Section along the Line of the Cantagallo Railroad . . . .22 The Cascatinha at Tijuca 27 Section of Drift at Bennett's, Tijuca 28 Boulders at Tijuca 30 Ideal Section of Drift-covered Gneiss Hill 31 Diagram to show Contrast in Moulding between Drift-covered and Bare Surfaces 34 Coast just East of Rio 37 Cape Frio • 39 One of the Islands of Santa Anna 42 Frade de Macahe' 43 Looking up the Rio Parahyba from above Campos .... 49 The Pedra Lisa 54 Serra of Itapemerim, seen from the Sea 58 Coast South of Guarapary 61 Bay of Esprito Santo, looking up to the Pao de Assucar, and City of Victoria 66 Monte Jutuquara and Gneiss Hills near Victoria .... 67 Fortaleza de Peritininga 68 Boulder of Decomposition, Victoria 69 Decomposing Surface, Ilho do Boi 70 Nossa Sexhora da Penha, Victoria 70 Ancient Sea-Level on Pao d' Assucar, Victoria 71 Arrangement of Littoral Fauna at Villa Velha .... 73 Morro de Mestre Alvaro 80 Coast between Victoria and Rio Doce 85 Rio Doce at Porto de Souza 92 View on Rio Doce 94 Looking up the Dock from near Linhares LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

XXIII Lagoa Juparanaa, looking towards the Outlet .... 102 Lagoa do Aviso 103 Fazenda of Campo Redondo, Sao Matheos 120 Santa Rita River Valley 143 Corrugated Quartz Veins at Minas Novas 158 Island of Santa Barbara dos Abrolhos 175 The Islands of the Abrolhos from the South .... 176 Recife do Lixo 202 Section across Border of Lixo Reef 210 Profile Sketch of River Valley near Porto Seguro . . . 225 Monte Pascoal from the Sea 226 Section across Stone Reef at Porto Seguro 229 Bays of Santa Cruz and Cabral 233 View of the Coast South of the Rio de Contas .... 260 Map of Camamu Bay 262 Map of Bahia and Vicinity 267 Ground View of the Lapa Vermelha 282 Section of Rio Sao Francisco Valley 310 View of Valley Walls near Jacobina 313 Knobs near the Serra da Terra Dura 315 Sections of several Cuttings on the Bahia and Sao Francisco Railroad 355-367 Tertiary Hills near Pojuca Tunnel 371 The Taboleiros near Alagoinhas 376 Sand-dunes at the Mouth of the Rio Real 380 Bar of Rio Cotinguiba 382 Maroim 384 Villa Nova and Penedo 3W Traipi! from near Marcacao 407 Looking down the River from Pao d'Assucar 410 Cattle Fazenda and Garden near Pao d'Assucar .... 411 View near Allegria 412 View looking up towards Piranhas 413 Cachoeira de Paulo Affonso 415 Pernambuco 434 Island of Fernando de Noronha 438 Mouth of Rio Parahyba do Norte 443 Sketch-Map of the Rio Parahyba do Norte 444 Mouth of Rio Grande do Norte 455 Cutting on the Sao Paulo Railway, showing Drift lying on Decomposed Rock 608 Botocudo Man and Woman 681 Skull of Botocudo GEOLOGY Atf D PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF BRAZIL.

Chapter I. The Province Of Rio De Janeiro

The Serra do Mar. — The Serra da Mantiqueira, and the Pico do Itatiaiossu. — The Rio Parahyba do Sul and its Tributaries. — Description of the Bay of Rio, its Islands, Tides, &c — The Sugar-Loaf. — The Corcovado. — The Gneiss of Rio. — The Organ Mountains. — Geological Observations along the Cantagallo Railroad. — Drift Phenomena at Rio, Tijuca, and on the Dom Pedro II. Railroad. — Decomposition of Gneiss in situ and its Effect on the Forms of the Hills. — Recent Rise of the Coast. — The Coast between Rio and Cape Frio, its Lakes, Salines, &c. — Cape Frio. — Os Buzios. — Islands of Santa Anna. — Frade de Macahe*. — Campos dos Goitacazcs, their Lagoons, Canal, &c. — Rio Parahyba. — Sao Joao da Barra. — Sugar Plantations. — City of Campos. — The Rio Muriahe. — Tertiary Beds. — Sugar Fazendas. — Sao Fidelis. — The Gold Mines of Cantagallo. — Geological Notes on the Country between Sao Fidelis and Bom Jesus. — The Rio Itabapuana. — The Serra d'ltabapuana. — The Garrafao. — Barra do Itabapuana.

The province of Rio de Janeiro is almost entirely com posed of gneiss, and this gneiss region is mountainous and high. The Serra do Mar, skirting the coast of the province of Sao Paulo, enters the southwest corner of the province of Rio, and, composed of a great number of parallel ridges, often much broken, traverses it from one end to the other. These mountains form the edge of the great Brazilian plateau, which consists along its eastern border of a broad band of gneiss. The course of the Serra do Mar is approximately east-northeast, so that, as the coast of the VOL. I. 1 A ■2 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. province of Rio de Janeiro runs eastward from Sao Paulo to Cape Frio, the Serra do Mar, on entering the province of Rio, trends gradually away from the coast, passing by the head of the Bay of Rio.

The gneiss plateau is bor dered in the eastern part of the province by low plains, tertiary and recent. The minor ridges of the grand Serra do Mar break down abruptly on the edge of these low grounds. In the western part of the province, where the Serra skirts the coast, that coast is often high, bold, very irregular in outline, and bordered by numerous rocky islands. South of the Serra do Mar, at Rio, lie several isolated mountains and ranges of hills, really belonging to the same great mountain system, but separated from the plateau by low plains similar to those north of Cape Frio. To the northwest of the Serra do Mar, and separated from it in part by the valley of the river Parahyba do Sul, is another great mountain range called the Serra da Man tiqueira, which is also composed of gneiss, and belongs to the same system of upheaval as the Serra do Mar.

This range separates itself from the coast range near the city of Sao Paulo, and, lying inside the Serra do Mar, skirts the coast to a much greater distance to the north than the latter does. The ridge properly called the Serra da Man tiqueira accompanies the northern part of the province of Rio for a few miles, when the province boundary line leaves it and runs off to the eastward. At a distance of four or five miles from the northwest corner of the province, in the Serra da Mantiqueira, is the Pico do Itatiaiossu, which appears to be the highest point in Brazil, and, according to the Revista Trimensal do Inslituto Historico e Geographico Brasileiro, has an altitude of about 10,300 feet.* It is said to be volcanic in structure, and two craters are reported to exist on it, to gether with sulphur springs and sulphur deposits. f I have never seen the Itatiaiossu, but I have the strongest doubt as to its being a volcano.