The Peace of Utrecht. A historical review of the great treaty of 1713-14 and of the principal events of the War of the Spanish Succession

Preface

. No period of modern history, with the exception of that which comprehends the sway of Buonaparte, is more marked by momentous international events and changes than that which closed with the reigns of Queen Anne and Louis XIV. The Peace of Utrecht was the political culmination of that period. All the leading occurrences in Western Europe, for the prior fifty years, had a bearing and influence upon the terms of that great pacification. The personages who moved upon the historic stage of the time, were such as to give it marked dramatic effect and interest. Louis XIV. and his great generals, Villars, Boufflers, Vendome, Catinat and Vauban — Charles II. , the last of the Hapsburg Monarchs of Spain — the two contestants for the Spanish crown, Philip of Anjou and the Archduke Charles — the great statesmen prominent in the Treaty, Heinsius, Bolingbroke, Oxford and De Torcy — the three Emperors — the warlike German Electors — the politic and ambitious Duke of Savoy — the heroic William III. — the placid Queen Anne — the e.xiled tyrant, James — the un fortunate Pretender — the great leaders of the Allies, Marl borough and Eugene — and lastly, the political intrigantes, the Duchess of Marlborough, Madame de Maintenon and the Princess des Ursins — all of whom had, directly or remotely, a part in the contention over the Spanish Suc cession, or in the establishment of the Peace concluding it.

The aim of the following historical study of the " Peace of Utrecht " and the principal events that led to it, has been, to group together, in proper sequence, those events and the negotiations and compacts that followed, in such

PREFACE.

. IV form of narrative as may possibly prove interesting to the general reader, as well as to the student of political history. Much of the subject-matter of the volume has, of course, been previously considered in general histories, but in a cursory manner. Treatises and memoirs, (many of them now out of print), have, also, from time to time, appeared, relative to special matters connected with the subjects investigated. There also has been elaborate review, in several works, of the great military events of the war of the " Succession." So far as had been ascertained, however, there has been, heretofore, no treatment of the subject, embracing the events leading to the war, a chronological sketch of the military operations, the political intrigues and negotiations preceding and continuing during the war, the principal features of the Pacification, and the resulting political changes, combined in one review.

Some encouragement for the preparation of what follows has been gathered from the fact that there is manifested, at this time, a greater interest in matters of historical research, and, especially, in the particular treatment of eventful epochs. There is, in fact, no class of literature, that, to persons of culture and reflection, can exhibit more interesting features than that which chronicles the actual results of the various motives that have impelled humanity to shape the events that form the great eras and epochs of history. " History," says that elegant and philosophic writer, Mackintosh, "is now a vast museum, in which specimens of every variety of human nature may be studied." Even those readers who find their greatest entertainment in fictitious composition may take some interest in the perusal of a sketch of the period closing the 17th and beginning the 18th century, the events of which form a continuous political drama; and which presents occurrences as startling and personages as remarkable as any that can be found in that class of literature which is due exclusively to efforts of the imagination. The period of the four Georges, in England, has, in

PREFACE.

. V various treatment, enlisted the attention of readers, who seek entertainment as well as information from historical narrative ; but the period preceding it presents features of equal attraction and of broader aspect ; and, as the events and personages connected with the earlier period become more dim by time, the veil, almost of romance, seems to gather around them, and awakens a more curious interest. The word " Treaty" is used on the title-page, because the various compacts entered into, at Utrecht and Baden, be tween the allied States, respectively, and France, were of a comprehensive character, in carrying out the general pacifi cation, and in the adjustment of international interests be tween the States which had been engaged in a war that arose out of one momentous occurrence affecting them all.

There was, practically, but one treaty, although this was subdivided into the various compacts formulated, — each having a bearing on the others. It has not been found practicable to follow in either the Map, or the text, the forms of any one system of geograph ical nomenclature. The native or local names might not always be readily recognized by the general reader, and the more important of these have therefore been anglicized, while it has been thought best to give the others in the form used by the various authorities from which the material was derived. September, 1885. M CONTENTS.

Chapter I

The Doctrine of the "Balance of Power" — The Preponderance of Power of Charles V. — Apprehension of the Power of Philip II. — The Adjustment of National Power in the General Interest — Elizabeth — Henry IV. — The Treaty of Westphalia I

Chapter II

Preliminary View of the great States of Europe that became involved in the War of the Spanish Succession — Charles V. — Philip II. — Germany and the Circles of the Empire— Spain — Holland — The Spanish Netherlands — England — France — Peace of the Pyrenees — Commencement of the reign of Louis XIV. — Colbert 3

Chapter III

Acts of Louis XIV. on assuming the Reins of Government — War against Spain of 1667 — The Triple Alliance — Peace of Aix-La-Chapelle — War against Holland, 1672-1679 — Declaration of War by England against Holland — Desperate Condition of Holland — William of Orange made Stadt-holder and Generalissimo — Frogress of the War — Peace made between Holland and England — Treaty of Westminister — Germany J and Spain unite with Holland — Peace of Nymeguen, 1678-1679 .

Chapter IV

Europe after the Peace of Nymeguen — Occupation of Strasburg by the French — Alliance of Germany, Spain, Holland, and Sweden — Entrance into the Netherlands by the French — The Truce of Ratisbon — Compact of Augsburg, 1686 — Bombardment of Genoa — Action of the French at Rome — War in 1688 — The Revolution in England — William of Orange becomes King — Louis' welcome of James II. — The Grand Alliance — Operations of the War — Capture of Mons and Namur — Louis at Gembloux — Defeat of William at Steinkirk and Neerwinden — Retaking of Namur by William — Proposals of Peace — The Peace of Ryswick, j 1697 — Policy of Louis — Geneial Results of the War . . . .23 CONTENTS. 37

Chapter V

Persecution of Protestants in France — Review of Sectarianism — Early Christian Sects and their Differences — The Reformation — Intolerance in England — Henry IV. — Mary — Elizabeth — St. Bartholomew's Eve — James I. and Charles I. — Intoleration in New England — The Thirty Years' Religious War — The Inquisition — The Edict of Nantes — The Protestants after the Death of Henry IV. under Louis XIII. — Suppression of their Political Power by Richelieu — Protestants driven into Exile — Their Condition under Mazarin — Action of Louis XIV. — Edicts from 1651-1659 and 1674 — New Oppression — Conversions — Barbar- I ous Cruelties— Letters of Madame de Maintenon on the King's Holy Zeal — Glorification of Louis as a Reformer — Formal Revocation of the Edict in 16S5 — Exultation at Court — Fulsome Panegyric by Bossuet — 1 Renewed Cruelties — Protestants Escape from France — Persecutions of the Dead — National and International Effect of the Revocation .

Chapter VI

The Spanish Succession — Charles II. of Spain — His Feeble Health — Ancient Laws of the Succession — Claims of the House of Bourbon — - Marriages of Louis XIII. and of Louis XIV. — Renunciations of the two French Queens — Claims of the House of Austria — Claims of Bavaria — Interests of England and Holland in the Succession — Claims of Savoy and the Duke of Orleans. . . . . 52

Chapter VII

Treaties for the Dismemberment of Spain, on the Anticipated Decease of Charles I. of Spain — Secret Treaty of 1668 between the Emperor and France— Prior Intrigues of Louis in Spain — First Treaty of Partition between France, England, and Holland, 1698 — Second Treaty of Partition between the same Powers, 1700 — Policy of the above Treaties — Feeling in England as to these Treaties — Protests of Spain — Action of the Emperor— Intrigues of the Emperor to Negotiate with France for the Dismemberment of the Spanish Dominions — Doubts as to the Sincerity of Louis in making the Treaties of Partition . . . .63

Chapter VIII

Beginning of Intrigues at the Spanish Court — Condition of Charles — Policy of the Queen Mother— The two Wives of Charles II. —Suspicion of Poison— The Policy of the Queen Consort— Sides taken by the Spanish Court Officials— Cardinal Portocarrero— The Grand Inquisitor and the Confessors— The King's Physicians— Incertitude of Charles— Death of the Queen Mother— French Diplomacy— The Marquis d'Harcourt CONTENTS. IX His Instructions from the French Court — His Intrigues and Munifi cence — Gradual Change of Feeling towards France — The Count Har rach, the Emperor's Ambassador — The Countess Berlips — Harrach's Instructions — Feeling in Spain — Harrach's Efforts — D'Harcourt's State Entry into Madrid . . . . . . . .. . -70

Chapter IX

Intrigues at the Spanish Court Continued — D'Harcourt's Efforts to Conciliate the Spaniards — He Gains the Countess Berlips — Brilliant Offers to the Queen — Her Changing Views — Change of the King's Confessor — Charles Visits the Tombs of his Ancestors for Relief and Meditation — France Preparing for War — She Assumes a Threatening Attitude — Feeble Condition of Spain — Despatch of Louis as to his Policy — Extracts from the Despatches of the Emperor's Ambassador — He is continually Foiled by French Intrigues — Suspicious Demeanor, towards him, of the Countess Berlips and the Queen — Complaints of the Count Harrach — Increasing Decrepitude of Charles — Departure of the Count Harrach — Will made by Charles in Favor of the Electoral Prince — Death of the Electoral Prince — Suspicion of Poison — Action of the Elector . . . .78

Chapter X

Intrigues Continued — Machinations of Cardinal Portocarrero — Incantations and Exorcisms to work upon the King — Despair of Charles — His Personal and Political Feelings Opposed — D'Harcourt's Departure — Departure of the Countess Berlips — The Pope Consulted — Will in Favor of the Archduke Destroyed — The new Will made by Charles in Favor of the Duke of Anjou — The Grief of Charles — His Desire to Change his Will — Deliberations of the Grandees — Decease of Charles — Announcement of the Will at the Spanish Court — Pleasantry of one of the Grandees — Mortification of the Ambassador of the Emperor — A Wcnder in the Heavens — Its supposed Portent 92

Chapter XI

Effect of the Will of Charles II. — The Action of France — Views of Louis — Feeling in Spain — Notification by the Junta to Louis — Deliberations in the French Council — Determination to Accept the Will — The Duke d'Anjou Summoned — Speech of Louis to him and to the Court — First Action of the Courts of Holland, England, and Austria — Louis' Letter to the States General — Action of the Spanish Provinces — Preparations for War in France — Recognition of Philip by England — Letter of William to Heinsius — Opposition of the Emperor — Menace to England — Recognition by Louis of the Son of James II. as King of England — Defiance to Holland — Circular-Letter of Louis to Europe — Object of Louis in Recognizing the Pretender X CONTENTS.

Chapter XII

Attitude of the other Powers of Europe against France — The Electors of Cologne and Bavaria — Action of Holland — Louis Takes Possession of the Frontier Towns of the Netherlands, and Removes the Dutch Troops — Hesitation of Holland to Declare War — Attitude of Savoy — The Elector of Brandenburg — The Circles of the Empire — Extract from a Pamphlet of the Time — The Pope, Venice, Genoa, and the Italian Princes ............ I0&

Chapter XIII

Attitude of England as to the Succession — William's War Sentiments — Opposition by the Tor)- Party to the War — England's Forces Increased — The Act of the " Protestant Succession " Passed — Effect of the Recognition of the Pretender by Louis — Change of Views in England — William Prepares for War — Death of William — Review of William's career — His Hostility to France — His Character and Disposition — His Qualities as a Soldier — His last Words . . . . . .114

Chapter XIV

The Duke of Anjou Departs for Spain — Farewell to his Relatives — Address to him by Louis — The Appearance and Character of Philip — Private Instructions to him from Louis — Enthusiasm of the Spainards — Philip Declines the Compliment of an Auto-da-fe — Calamity on the Entry of Philip into Madrid — Prognostics of Evil — Banishment of the late Queen— State of Spain . . . . . . . . .125

Chapter XV

Compacts of the Allies and Declarations of War — Manifesto of the Emperor and Compact with England and Holland of 1701 — Compact with Prussia — Influence of Marlborough, and Declaration of War by England — Formal Declaration of War by the Emperor and Circles of the Empire — Compact with other German States — Declaration of War by France — The Electors of Bavaria and Cologne — The War, 1701-1703 — Prince Eugene's Success in Italy — Marlborough's prompt Action — Capture, by him, of Fortresses on the Maas — Vendome's Successes in Italy — War on the Rhine — Iusurrection in the Cevennes — Holstein, Portugal, and Sweden Enter the Alliance — Cession of Spain to the Archduke, and his Manifesto — Savoy Joins the Alliance — War on the Rhine 131

Chapter XVI

War 1704 and 1705 — The Archduke Goes to Spain with an Army — His Manifesto to the Spaniards — Taking of Gibraltar by the English — War on the Danube— Battle of Blenheim— The French and Bavarians CONTENTS. XI Driven over the Rhine — Consternation at the French Court — Losses of the French — Vendome Successful in Italy — Siege of Gibraltar — War in Spain — The Electors of Bavaria and Cologne put under the Ban of the Empire — War 1706 to 1708 — The Battle of Ramillies — All Flanders Open to the Allies — Louis' Speech to Villeroi — War in Italy and Spain — Raising of the Siege of Turin — Triumph of the Archduke in Spain — He Enters Madrid — Philip Contemplates Leaving the Country — Battle of Almanza and Complete Defeat of the Allies, by Marshal Berwick — Philip Re-enters Madrid — War in Germany and Italy — The French Take Ghent and Bruges — Great Battle of Oudennarde — The French Retreat — Taking of Lisle — War in Italy and Spain — The Pope Takes Sides and is Defeated. ......... 142

Chapter XVII

The Severe Winter of 1708-9 in France — Terrible Suffering and Famine — Graphic Account of the State of France by the Due de St. Simon — Indignation of the People — Insults to the King and Nobility — The Patron Saint, St. Genevieve, Appealed to — Sacrifice of Plate and Jewels by the Court — France Worn out by the War — Deliberations in Council — Despondency of Ministers — Louis Offers to Withdraw his Grandson from Spain — Villars' Statement as to the Dejected Condition of the King 155

Chapter XVIII

First Overtures for Peace — Louis' Efforts in 1705 — Action by the Elector of Bavaria, 1706 — Negotiations at Moerdyk and Bodegrave in 1709 — Negotiations at the Hague by the Marquis de Torcy — Opposition to Peace by the Dutch — Preliminary Articles Drawn — Louis Rejects the Preliminaries and Resolves to Continue the War — Louis' Instructions to De Torcy as to Bribing Marlborough — Marshal Villars' Encouraging Letter to De Torcy — Louis' Letter to Villars, and Spirited Manifesto to his Subjects — Philip's Letter to Louis as to his Proposed Removal . 161

Chapter XIX

The War in 1709 — Active Preparations by France and the Allies — Operations on the Rhine— The Terrible Battle of Malplaquet— Detailed Description of the Battle 172

Chapter XX

The French Driven back from Flanders— Defeat of the Allies in Spain- Renewed Efforts by Louis for Peace — The Negotiations at Gertruydenberg — Humiliating Requisitions of the Allies — Louis alone to Remove his Grandson — Spirited Response of the French Agents — Louis Rejects the Conditions — Address by the English Ministry to the States General CONTENTS. —Marlborough and Eugene Oppose any Peace, and Propose to March into France — Madame de Maintenon's Meddling in the War — The Condition of Spain— Letter of the Queen to Louis— Resolve of Philip and the Spaniards to Fight to the Last— War in 1710-1711— Philip again Driven from Madrid— His Refusal to Abandon his Crown— Vendome sent to Spain — Victories of Brighuega and Villaviciosa— Philip Re enters Madrid— War in Flanders— Taking of Bouchain— Taking of Rio de Janeiro ...'...••■•■ *°7

Chapter XXI

Change of Administration in England — Long Continuance of the Whigs in Power— Influence of the Marlboroughs — Growing Dislike of the Queen to them — Mrs. Hill Supplants the Duchess — Dr. Sacheverell's Sermons and Tory Utterances— His Trial— Sympathy of the Mob— The Queen Favors the Tory or Peace Party— Opinions throughout the Country as to Peace — Triumph of Sacheverell — Removal of Whig Ministers — ■ Dissolution of Parliament — Results of the New Elections — The Tories in Power 199

Chapter XXII

Negotiations for Peace between England and France — Indirect Approaches by England — The Abbe Gaultier — His Interview with De Torcy — Secret Negotiations — Prior Sent to France — Death of the Emperor Joseph I. — Effect of his Decease on Peace Negotiations — Negotiations Continued — Attitude of Austria— The Emperor's Manifesto — The Dutch still Opposed to Peace — Action of the British Parliament — Final Agreement by the Cabinets of England and Holland, to Make Arrangements for a Permanent Peace — The 12th of January, 1712, Fixed on for the Peace Session — Speech of Queen Anne — New Peers Created — Personal Views of St. John — Extract from a Tory Pamphlet — War of the Pamphleteers ........ 207

Chapter XXIII

Opposition of Marlborough, Prince Eugene, and Heinsius to Peace — Charges in England against Marlborough — He is Dismissed from all his Employments — The Duke of Ormond Replaces him as Commander-in-Chief — Plans of Marlborough and Eugene to Prevent Peace — Action of the Envoys of Germany, Holland, and Hanover, in England — Departure of Prince Eugene from England ...... 221

Chapter XXIV

The Congress at Utrecht — The City of Utrecht — Regulations for the Sessions — Forms to be Observed — The Mode of Procedure — The States Represented — The .\mbassadors and other Personages — Opening of CONTENTS. XIII 249 Conferences — Etiquette Observed — Opening Address by the Bishop of Bristol — Reply of the French Ambassadors — The Demands of the Various States — Effect, in England, of the French Demands — Opposition in Parliament — Protest of the Pretender ..... 226

Chapter XXV

The Sudden Decease of the Duke and the Duchess of Burgundy and the Duke of Brittany — Consternation and Grief throughout France — Grave Suspicions of Poison against the Duke of Orleans — Character of the Duke and the Duchess of Burgundy — Eloquent Eulogy by St. Simon — Depression and Grief of Louis XIV. — Interview of Villars with the King — Effect of the above Events on the Congress — Renunciation Required of Philip to the French Crown — Louis Delays Action — Action of Philip — He Agrees to the Renunciation — Summary of the Renunciations by Philip and the French Princes — Subsequent Endorsement thereof by the French Parliaments ..... 238

Chapter XXVI

War during the Progress of Negotiations — Action of the Duke of Ormond Commanding the English and other Contingents — St. John's Instructions to him — Ormond's Secret Advices to Villars — Ormond's Contemptible Position — His Inaction — Protest of the "Lords" — Speech of Lord Halifax — Ormond Withdraws his Troops, and an Armistice Proclaimed by Queen Anne — Indignation of the Allies — Mortification of the English Troops — Continued Negotiations in the Summer of 171 2 — The War Maintained by the Emperor — Quesnoy Taken by Prince Eugene — The English Troops Occupy Dunkirk — New Demands by England — Heinsius still Opposed to Peace — Louis Hastens the Negotiations — He Urges Villars to Fight a Battle — The Decisive Battle of Denain, July, 1712 — Marchiennes, Douay, Quesnoy, and Bouchain Taken by Villars — The Quarrel between the Lackeys of the French and Dutch Ambassadors at Utrecht — Its Effect on Negotiations,

Chapter XXVII

The Feeling in England during the Negotiations — Resolutions in the Two Houses of Parliament — Addresses Sent to the Queen — Public Opinion — Extracts from Dr. Arbuthnot's Celebrated Satire, in Behalf of the Tories 261

Chapter XXVIII

Continued Negotiations during the Summer and Autumn of 1712 — The French Plenipotentiaries Become Exacting — Arrogant Speech by them CONTENTS. XIV 1 to the Dutch Envoys— St. John's Private Negotiations with De Torcy — He is Created Viscount Bolingbroke— His Secret Mission to France— Bolingbroke's Despatches to Prior— Pretensions of France — Intrigues of the Dutch — New Delays by France — Further Despatches to Prior — Ultimata of England— Perplexity of the Plenipotentiaries — The Treaties finally Signed 275

Chapter XXIX

Digest of the Text of the Various Treaties — Treaty with England, Holland, Portugal, Prussia, Savoy, and other States at Utrecht — Subsequent Treaties between England and Spain; Germany and France — The Barrier Treaty — Holland and the Emperor — Spain and Portugal — Memorial of the Protestants. ........ 284

Chapter XXX

Reception of the Treaty of Utrecht — Views in Germany — Sentiment in England and Holland — Opinion of Louis XIV. and the Marquis De Torcy — Views of Historians and Others — Views in Favor of the Peace — Bolingbroke's Reflections upon it — Macaulay's Views — The Clause in the Treaty with Great Britain Recognizing the Protestant Succession 302

CHAPTER XXXL

After the Peace — Queen Anne — Her Address to Parliament — Action of that Body- — Quarrel between Oxford and Bolingbroke — Death of the Queen — Disgrace of Oxford and Bolingbroke — Ormond, Strafford, and Prior Indicted for High Treason — Atterbury's Punishment — Maryborough,^ Return — The Rancor of the Powers Continued — Attempts to Violate the Treaty — Philip's Efforts to Regain his Dominions — Alberoni's Schemes — The Triple Alliance — The Quadruple Alliance — War renewed — Repression of Philip ........ 325

Chapter XXXII

The Declining Health of Louis XIV. — Efforts to Divert him — Attacks on Jansenism by Louis and the Jesuits — Death of the Duke de Berry — Last Malady of the King — His Affecting Interview with his Great-grandson — His Speech to his Ministers — His Last Words — His Character — The Views of St. Simon and Voltaire on his Character and Reign — Effects of his Reign on France ...... CONTENTS. XV

Chapter XXXIII

The Doctrine of the Balance of Power as specially Recognized in the Treaty of Utrecht — The Provisions therein as to the Doctrine of Free Ships making Free Goods — The Provision for the Demolition of the Harbor of Dunkirk Made a Precedent during the Civil War in the United States — The Recent War of the Spanish " Succession." . . . 354

Chapter XXXIV

The Arbitrament of Arms .......... 378 Appendix . Great Treaty.

Chapter I

The Doctrine of the " Balance of Power." — The Preponderance of Power of Charles V. — Apprehension of the Power of Philip II. — The Adjustment of National Power in the General Interest. — Elizabeth. — Henry IV. — The Treaty of Westphalia. THE BALANCE OF POWER. The political doctrine of the maintenance of a " Balance of Power," among nations, although often attacked as un wise, is one founded on a natural principle. It has, at times, been made the pretext for aggression by a nation, when jealous of another's power, or when ambitious of aggrandizement. The fundamental principle, however, that bases the doc trine, is that of sel (^protection — a right as natural and just for nations as for individuals. To this right is appended the moral obligation of interference for the protection of the weak against the strong.

In the great wars in which the nations of Western Europe were engaged, during and since the days of Charles V., the question of the balance of power either was originally involved or became an essential consideration in the conse quent terms of pacification. Before that time, the isolation of nations, the extent of land as compared with their population, and, in fact, their mutual ignorance of each other, restricted the views as well as the amuition of the great states; and the difficulties of communication and the inefficient nature of the arms of warfare limited their powers of aggression. GREA T TREATY. 2 Since the period of Charlemagne, the nations had been in a formative state. The various dynasties had not become permanently strengthened in their possessions — thrones had been insecure ; — territorial limits had been undefined — and the various struggles between kings, nobles and people, in efforts to enlarge or diminish their respective powers, had much engaged each country in its own affairs and kept it comparatively free from international contests.

The quarrels of dynasties, the antagonism of rulers, the repugnance of races, the struggles between the Papal and Imperial power, the claims to some portion of another's territory, contests with Turk and Moor, the rancor between rival Popes, the attempts at aggrandizement of great families, the struggles for independence by the smaller communities, and the assertion of their privileges by burghers against feudalism, had, at times, caused prolonged contests : but, in general, their duration was brief, their aims were not extensive, and their results circumscribed. Each great ruler had, for the most part, sufficient to occupy him in contests with his own feudatories ; in centralizing, uniting and holding his own realms, and in there strengthening his power. It was not until nations became strong, compact and integrated within themselves, that the rulers of modern Europe could afford to be widely ambitious.

The extension of national domain by the absorption of foreign territory, and the efforts to prevent this, did not enlist the attention of rulers, as a matter of international regard, until the overbalancing power of Charles V. aroused the apprehension of Europe ; and the doctrine of the bal ance of power came to be recognized as one, in which all the States, even the smallest, had an interest. History showed that the great power wielded by that Emperor, and by his son Philip had been fraught with danger. It had disturbed the peace of Europe and embroiled the relations and imperilled the existence of minor States. While the extensive rule of Charles V. had excited the particular apprehension of France against Germany, the attack on England, by Philip II. , and the oppression of the Netherlands by that monarch and his successors, had made THE BALANCE OF POWER. 3 the necessity of a restriction of power particularly apparent to both England and Holland ; and the smaller States of Europe, and the Pope himself, saw that it was necessary for their peace and safety and for the public tranquillity, that neither the dominion of the Empire nor of France should unduly preponderate.

It was necessary that those great sovereignties should mutually balance and check each other ; and that some principles of national right and national morality, to protect the weak and restrain the strong, should be asserted and maintained, by mutual com bination, and even, if necessary, by force of arms. The question of the political balance of States entered thereafter, largely into all matters of European polity; and, in the making of treaties and settlement of dynasties, the question of territorial dominion often involved far reaching international considerations. The ideas of the adjustment of national power in the general interest, and for the preservation of national independence, took prominent shape in European politics in the period of Queen Elizabeth's reign in England, and of that of Henry IV. in France.

Each of those sovereigns, motived by apprehension of the aggrandizement of the House of Austria, had enunciated views and initiated de signs which had for their object the regulation of govern mental interests with regard to the general welfare. A plan introduced by Henry, at the instigation of his wise minister, Sully, was of an extensive international char acter ; whereby there should be an alliance of all the States of Europe, both large and small, with a view to the settle ment of all questions between nations by arbitration, through a joint accord. Thereby, it was designed to prevent the aggressions of ambition and to maintain a public tranquillity. But neither the state of European political thought, then, nor the advanced moral conscientiousness among rulers, would permit the success of such golden measures; — nor indeed, would success attend them now — and the sword is still, as ever, the arbiter of political right.