Institutes of Moral Philosophy. For the use of students in the College of Edinburgh

Introduction

. l. Of knowledge in general - Page l 2. Of the objecls of study - - 2 3. Of the laws of nature - - 3 4. Of theory - Q 5. Of the causes that have retarded the progress of science j G. Of the maxims of reason to be followed inj peculation, as well as in common life 8 7. Of moral philosophy - - 10 8. Of pneumatics - - . - 11

Part I

The natural history of man. C U A P. I. History of the species. x. General arrangement - - i3 f 2. Of the form and aspect of man 14. 3. Man's residence , and manner of subsistence. - - - i5 4. Varieties of the human race - 16 b. Period of human life - - CONTENTS. Part I. 6. Dispqftion of man to society - 18 7. Of population - - 19 8. Varieties of choice and pursuit - 21 9. Arts and commerce - - ib. 10. Disparity and rank - - 28 11. Of political establishments - 3o 12. Language and literature - 33 Chap. II. History of the individual. l. General arrangement - - 35 2. Of consciousness 36 3. Animal fense and perception - 07 4. Observation - - - 44 5. Memory - ib. 6. Imagination - - - 45 7. Abstraction - - - l^j 8. Reasoning - - - 48 9. Foresight - - 5o 10. Propensity - ib. j j. Sentiment - - - hi 12. Desire and aversion. - - 56 l3. Volition - - - _ 5y Ch. I. &c. CONTENT S. V 59

Part II

Theory of Mind, Chap. I, General observations Chap. II. Examples of phystcal Law collected from the history of mind - 63 i. Laws of the understanding - ib. •j. Laws of the will - 66 Chap. III. The foregoing laws applied , &c. l. To Interest 70 2. Emulation - - - 72 3. Pride jd 4. Vanity fb 5. Probity 76 6. Moral approbation in general - 77 7. The objecl of moral approbation 80 8. The principle of moral approbation ib. VI CONTENTS. Part II. Chap. IV. Of the nature and future prospects of the human foul. j. Os the immateriality of the soul 84 2. Of the immortality os the foul 86

Part III

Of the knowledge of God. Chap. I. Of the being of God. J. Of the universality os this belief 87 2. Of the foundations of this belief 89 Chap. II. Of the attributes of God. 1. Of these attributes in general - 9a 2. Of the unity of God - - ib. 3. Of power - 93 4. Of wisdom - ib. 5. Of goodness - 94 6. Of justice - - 98 Chap. III. Of a future state - - "99 Ch. I. &c. CONTENT S. VII

Part IV

Of Moral Laws , and their most general applications. Chap. I. Definitions - ioi Chap. II. Of good and evil in general. j. General application of these terms 104 2. Of enjoyments and sufferings - ib. 3. Of perfeclions and defects - io5 4. Of prosperity and adversity - ib. 5. Os the question relating to the supreme or sole good - - - 106 6. Os the considerations from which an efimate may be made of what is most valuable in human life - - n3 Chap. III. Of the first principle or law of morality, 6rc, 1. Of the first principle of morality 12a 2. Application to the mind - - 124. 3. Of the degrees of happiness , and the aclual attainments of inen - 125 4.. Of opinions productive of misery , or that hinder improvement - Part V. VIII CONTENTS 5. Os opinions , or circumfances , productive of happiness , or that lead to improvement - - - i3o 6.

Application to external actions i3i 7. Diversity of opinions concerning the morality of external actions - l32 8. Causes of this diversity - - i33 9. Difference of the cafe - - i34 10. Difference of choice - - i35 11. Difference of interpretation - J 36 12. Fundamental laws of external action i38 l3. Different sanctions under which external actions are required, etc. - 139 14. Parties to whom laws apply - 140

Part V

Of Jurisprudence. Chap. I. The foundations of compulsory lavr 143 Chap. II. The rights of men in general - 144 Chap. III. Laws of defence in general - - Ch. IV. &c. CONTENTS. IX Chap. IV. Difference of rights. l. General division - - 146 2. Rights personal - - ib. 3. Rights real - - - 147 4. Original rights - - ib. 5. Adventitious rights - - 148 Chap. V. Laws of acquisition in general - 149 Chap. VI. Law of occupancy - - i5o Chap. VII. Laws of acquisition by labor - i5i Chap. VIII. Law of acquisition by contract. 1. The obligations of contract - i53 2. Laws of contract in general - i54 3. Contracts of different denominations i56 4. The exceptions to contracts in general ib. 5. Exceptions peculiar to conditional and reciprocal contracts - - 160 Chap. IX. Law of acquisition by forfeiture - 16a CONTENTS.

Part VI X Chap. X. Of the law of acquisition as applicable to particular rights. 1. Of possession - - - i63 2. Os property' - - - - ib. 3. Os command or service ■- - 16^ Chap. XI. Of the law of defence. j. Os the means of defence in general 167 2. The cafe of parties stranger s to each other - - - - 168 3. Cafe of fellow-citizens - - 169 4. Cafe of nations - - 171 5. Conclusion of jurisprudence - 173 P A R T VI. Of Casuistry. Chap. I. Of the sanction of duty in general 175 Chap. II. Of the sanction of religion - - 177- C H A P. III. Of the sanctions of public repute - Ch. IV. &c. CONTENTS. XI Chap. IV. Of the sanctions of conscience - 181 Chap. V. Os the tendency of virtue in external actions. 1. Of the different branches of virtue 182 2. Duties referred to probity - - 184 3. Duties referred to prudence - 189 4. Duties referred to temperance - 191 5. Duties referred to fortitude - 193 6. Uses of casuistry - - - 194 7. Os merit and demerit - - 195

Part VII

Of Politics. Chap. I. Introduction „■•'-.- jgy Chap. II. Of public œconomy. 1. Os national resources in general 199 2. Of populoufnefs - - 200 3. Of riches ■•* 202 4. Of revenue • - CONTENTS. Part VII. XII Chap. III. Os political law. l. Os the object os political law - 21 3 2. Os the frst principle os the political law of nature - 214 3. Os the people - - - - 2i5 4. Osthesasety os the people in general ib. 5. Os the political happiness of the people 219 6. Of the preferable institution or form of government -' - - - 220 7. Of the ft distribution of trust and office 229 8. Conclusion. - INSTITUTES O F MORAL PHILOSOPHY.

INTRODUCTION.

. Section I. Of Knowledge in general r . _T\ll knowledge is either that of particular facts, or that of general rules. The knowledge of facts is prior to that of rules ; and is the first requisite in the practice of arts , and in the conduct of affairs. A general rule is the expression of what is common, or is required to be common, in a number of particular cafes. General rules are the result os observa tion , or will ; and consequently are derived from mind. 1 Bacon's novum organum. Practice, or conduct of any sort, though regulated by general rules, has a continual reference to particulars. In speculation, we endeavour to establish general rules. In practice, we study particular cafes, or apply general rules to regulate our conduct. Sect. II. Of the Objects of Study. X hese are, History, Science, and Art.

History is the knowledge of particulars in detail. Science is the knowledge of general rules , and their applications. Art is the application of knowledge to practice. Any general rule , expressing what is fact, or what is right , is termed a law of nature. A general rule , when applied to explain or regulate particulars, is termed a principle; and explanations or injunctions from principle, are termed theory or fyfem. The particulars to be explained are termed phenomena. Method in science is of two kinds; ana lytic, and synthetic. Sect. 3. PHILOSOPHY. 3 Analytic method , is that by which we pro ceed from observation of fact, or right, in par ticular cases , to establish general rules. ' Synthetic method, is that by which we proceed from general rules to their particular applications. The first is the method of investigation.

The second of communication, or of the enlargement of science. Argument is of two kinds: A priore , and a posteriore. By an argument a priore the fact is proved from the law. By an argument a posteriore, the law is proved from the fact. Sect. III. Of the laws of Nature. IVJ.OST subjects in nature may be considered under two aspects. i . In respect to the fact , or to their actual state. 2. In respect to the excellence os which they are susceptible. Any general expression of the fact , or of the excellence required, may be termed, a Law of Nature. The laws of nature are either physical or moral. A physical law is the general expression .of a fact, uniform to a certain extent, in nature. A moral law is a general expression of the excellence required in any subject; more par ticularly, of the rectitude required in human affairs.

Plivsical laws state what is uniform, more especially in the operations of nature. In every operation , men are disposed to apprehend an operating power or cause. Causes are of two kinds: Efficient, and sinai. The efficient cause, is the energy or power producing an effect. Although the nature of this energy is not known in any case whatever, yet in every operation we consider that as the cause which precedes or attends the operation , and to which the effect is always proportional. The final cause , is the end or purpose for which an effect is produced. In supposing final causes, we suppose the existence os mind. Physical science is the knowledge and ap plication of physical laws , or of efficient causes, jo explain and account for appearances. Sect. 3. PHILOSOPHY. 5 Moral science is the knowledge of what is right and proper in the actions and characters of men.

A physical law exists so far only as it is the fact. A moral law exists in being obligatory. The subjects from which physical laws are collected, may be classed under sour principal heads : Mechanism, vegetation, animal life, and intelligence. It has not hitherto been made appear, although sometimes attempted , that these operations can be comprehended under the fame physical laws. The phenomena of vegetation are not com prehended under any known law of mecha-* nifm , much less those of animal life or in telligence. The subjects of moral science are, any mat ters of choice, together with the nature and actions of free and voluntary agents. The immediate use of physical laws , is theory. The immediate uses of moral law, are choice , practice , and conduct. Sect. IV. Of Theory. X hysical science consists in theory.

Theory consists in referring particular operations to the principles, or general laws, under which they are comprehended; or in referring particular effects to the causes from which they proceed. To investigate or to point out any general rule or law of nature, in which any parti cular fact is comprehended, is to account for that fact. Thus Sir Isaac Newton accounted for the planetary revolutions, by showing that they were comprehended in the laws of motion and gravitation. To pretend to explain phenomena , by showing that they may be comprehended in a supposition or hypothesis, or by applying to them metaphorically, the language proper to any other subject, is illusory in science. Thus the vortex of Descartes , being a mere supposition, could not explain the planetary mo tions; and the terms, idea, image, or picture Sect. 5.

PHILOSOPHY. 7 os things, being terms merely metaphorical, cannot explain human knowledge or thought. All phenomena, though not comprehended under any known law, are proper materials of natural history. All facts that cannot be explained by any rule previously known, or better known than the facts themselves, may be termed ultimate facts. It is evident, that all theory must rest on ultimate facts. To require explanation or proof a priore for every fact, were to suppose that human knowledge requires an infinite series; which is impossible. Sect. V. Causes that have retarded the progress of Science. l. J. he necessary avocations of human life. 2. The love of system , and impatience of delay, in the study of particulars. 3. Emulation of speculative men , and desire to supplant each other as sounders of sects. 4.

Prejudice , national or personal. 5, The difficulty of penetrating appearan ces, to discover what operations are like, what different. 6. Affectation of acutenefs , or novelty in contesting the evidence of ultimate facts. 7. Vain desire of accounting for ultimate facts. The principal errors of human reason are, on the one hand, a rash assent, without pro per evidence, and, on the other, indiscrimi nate scepticism, or the despair of knowledge. Sect. VI Maxims of Reason , to be followed in speculation, as well as in common life JCjVERY inquiry proceeds upon a supposition that some measure of knovvledge is attainable in the subject to which the inquiry refers. If we despair of knovvledge , we shall cease to inquire. The evidence of reality is various and un equal in different instances; but, in the uni verse, is sufficient to open our view iJB^$ie order os Nature , and , in matters of import ance to human life, is sufficient to decide our conduct.

Sect. 6. PHILOSOPHY. 9 All evidence may be referred to sour titles , Consciousness , Perception , Testimony , and Inference. l. It is the first maxim of reason, that no thing is to be admitted without that degree of evidence with which it should be attended, if true, and that, with this degree of evidence, nothing is to be rejected. 2. That nothing be assigned as a law of nature , until it be known as a fact in nature. In general , it is safer to direct our early studies to the investigation of the laws of na ture, than to the assignment of causes. In the latter, we are more apt to acquiesce in partial representations , hypotheses , or unconfidered appearances. 3. That facts, uniform as far as our know ledge of the subject extends, be deemed universal laws of nature respecting such subject. 4.

That partial laws be not extended beyond the conditions and limitations under which they are known to take place. 5. That like phenomena be referred to the fame laws* 6. That no proof or explanation be required of ultimate facts. Sect. VIL Of Moral Philosophy. jt\lthough Moral Philosophy is not the knovvledge of what is, but rather of what ought to be ; yet , before we can ascertain rules of morality fitted to any particular nature, the fact relating to that nature should be known. Before we can ascertain rules of morality for mankind , the history of man's nature , his dispositions, his specific enjoyments and sufferings, his condition and future prospects, should be known. From a proper collection os such materials, we should be able to ascertain what is best for mankind , and to assign to every particular in human life its comparative value, and real place in the estimate of human affairs.

This, however, is not to be done without a fair enumeration of the articles which men are disposed to think of importance. Pneumatics , therefore , or the physical science of mind , so far as it is to be collected from human nature , is the foundation of moral philosophy. Sect. 8. PHILOSOPHY. 11 Sect. VIII. Os Pneumatics. JLneumatics treat physically os mind or spirit. This science consists of two parts. The first treats of man; the second, of God. That part which treats of man, may contain the history of man's nature , and an explanation or theory of the principal phenomena of human life. . That which treats of God, contains the proofs of his existence , attributes , and go vernment. As the observation os particulars in every subject, ought to precede the attempt to establish general rules, the history of man's nature is the foundation of every science relating to him.

This history consists of facts, of which some occur on a general view of the species; others occur to the individual , in recollecting what passes in his own mind. The first may be termed, the history of the species; the second, that of the indi vidual. MORAL PHILOSOPHY. In the theory of human nature are solved questions relating to the characters ol men , to the nature and future prospects of the hu man soul. INSTITUTES 0 F MORAL PHILOSOPHY Part I. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN 3. Chap. I. H ISTO RY OF THE SPECIES. Sect. I. General arrangement. X he history of the human species contains the following articles : 1. The form and aspect of man. 2. His residence, and manner of subsistence. 3. The varieties of his race. 4. The period of his life. 5. His disposition to society, - See Buffon's Natural History.

MORAL Part I. 14 6. Population , or the generations and num bers of mankind. 7. Varieties of choice and pursuit. 8. Arts and commerce. 9. Disparities of rank and estimation. 10. Political establishments. 11. Language and literature. Sect. II. Os the form and aspect of Man. \_ he human form is erect , furnished with articulations and muscles fitted to retain this posture, and to move it with ease and safety. The hand and the arm of man is an instru ment and a weapon, not a prop or support to his body. His form and posture are well fitted to ob servation, to the use of reason, and to the practice of arts. His aspect is expressive of his thoughts , sentiments , and intentions. It is calm or agi tated; mild or fierce; languid or ardent ; doubt ful or decided; timid or intrepid. His natural expressions consist of actions, ges tures, smiles, frowns, tears, looks, together with changes of color; and exhibit, on the whole, a variety, and a grace , which either do not take place , or are not observed in other animals.

He is naked and unarmed; but, by his invention , qualified to supply these defects. The finas cause appears to be , that his talent for invention should be employed. Sect. III. Man's residence , and manner os subs 'fence. V^Jther animals have their ranges on the earth, beyond which they do not willingly stray , or beyond which they are not qualified to subsist. Some subsist only in the hot climates , others in the cold or the temperate; but man resides equally in every climate, and can subsist on great varieties of food , both animal and vegetable. He either accommodates himself to the in conveniencies of his situation, or learns to surmount them. Part I 16 MORAL Sect. IV. Varities of the human race. i_J nder the general form and aspect of man kind, there are considerable varieties of the race.

Men being dispersed over the face of the earth, receive the influences of climate, situation, and soil. The animal and rational temperament, is comparatively phlegmatic and dull in cold climates ; is more ardent and quick in warm climates ; but has always possessed a distinguished superiority in the temperate. Apart from these distinctions , the diversi ties of race are marked by a difference of sta ture , features , and complexion. Mankind may be referred to six different races. The European , the Samoeide , the Tartar, the Hindoo , the Negro , and the American 3. 3 JBusson of the varieties of the human race. Sect. Sect. V. Period of human life. fiVERY species of animal is preserved by succession. The death os one generation is as much a part in the order of nature , as the birth and succession of another.

In the human species, according to some observations, half the numbers that are born die before the seventeenth, the seventh, or even the third year of their age is expired.' Long life 4 , in all climates , consists of be tween seventy and a hundred years. It appears from the annual register of deaths where the numbers of people are known, that i i • ii to f about one in thirty dies each year: That, of twenty-seven or twenty-eight, one is born : That about a fourth of the whole number are males between eighteen and fifty-six, able to carry arms. 4 Button's Natural History. Halley's Tables. Lo\V thorp's Abridgment of the Philosophical Traniactions, vol. 3. p. 66y. i>0 (Kl MORAL Part I 18 Sect. VI. Disposition of Man to society \ _/\nimals have been distinguished into two classes; the solitary, and the social.

Animals of prey, for the most part, are solitary. Other animals are , for the most part , associating. The associating may be farther subdivided into two kinds: 1. Those which assemble in flocks or herds, merely for company or safety: 2. Those who unite their labors for some common purpose, and distribute the burdens of the community according to some rule of instinct or of reason. The latter are associating and political. Man, though an animal of prey, and, from necessity or sport, addicted to hunting or war, is , nevertheless , in the highest degree , associating and political. Societies may be referred to four general classes. Families , companies , nations , and iempires: « Essay on the History of Civil Society, part 1. sect. 3. Families are united by affection; companies by the desire of society ; nations by the desire of security; and empires by force.

Men , by their confederacy , as well as by their artifice , are enabled to subdue every other species of animal , to subsist by their spoils , and to employ the strength of other animals , though superior to their own. Separate societies are , for the most part , rivals or enemies s. Sect. VII. Of Population 7. MA en exist in greater numbers than any ofhes species of the larger animals. In some cases they are sound to increase^ in others to decrease in their numfjers. The quick or flow increase of animals^. hj. general, depends on the physical laws of pro pagation , on the security , and the means of subsistence the species enjoys. .t 6 Essay on the History of Civil iSociety, parti, sect. 4; 7 Ibid, part 5. sect. 4. ■• Wiilace's Numbers of Man fund. Hume's Populousness of ancient nations. Part I, MORAL 20 The first relate to the age at which the parent becomes prolific ; to the time that elapses in pregnancy ; to the frequency of breeding ; to the numbers of each brood ; and to the period during which the parent continues prolific.

The laws of propagation determine the num bers that may spring from any single pair , and the numbers of generations that may subsist together. These laws, in every species of animals , are, in favorable circumstances, sufficient to its increase. Men, in every secure situation, people up to their resources ; 'and the aid of government is required , not to improve on the laws of propagation , but "to bestow security and plenty. Animals of prey have most difficulty in pro curing their food. Animals which are made a prey are least jsecure. Thtf security and subsistence of men are most impaired fry their1 own mutual hostilities and oppressions. " '/' ■ ! The laWs' of propagation, as well as the means of subsistence, are supposed most favorable to population in the warmer climates. To this' it is imputed <ihat; nations in those climates are populous , even under great defects of government PHILOSOPHY.

Ch. I. 21 Sect. VIII. Varieties of choice and pursuit. 1VJ.EN have not, like the other animals, a fixed and determinate choice of external objects and pursuits. Nations are frequently, by the difference of their manners and customs , mutual objects of wonder and censure , of contempt and aversion. Even of two men placed in the same or like circumstances, one acquiesces, or is pleased; the other complains. They differ in respect to the means which they employ for the attainment of the fame, or of similar ends. Sect. IX. Arts and Commerce s. JL he materials which men are concerned to provide may be referred to five general titles, the means of safety , subfifence , accommodation , and ornament. 8 Harris on Coins, These considerations lead to the practice of many arts, which are more or less successful in proportion as they are multiplied , separated , and complete.

They also suggest the advantages of property and wealth. ' The consideration of safety leads to the invention of arms , and places of retreat. The earliest weapons appear to have been the club , the fling , and the bow : To these succeeded, in process of time, the spear and the sword, joined to the buckler or shield; Fire-arms, cannon, and then musketry. The desire of retreats has given rise to the art of fortification. * The art of war, in every age, must be accommodated to the species of arms, engines, and methods of fortification in use. The arts which men practise for subsistence are, fishing, hunting, pasturage, and agriculture. Nations that know least of the means of subsistence, not finding enough in the sponta neous growth of the earth , have recourse to hunting and fishing. In the result of these arts, the hunting ground, the lake, the river, or the bay, may be appropriated to the society; but the game is seldom appropriated to the individual.

Nations that have observed the method and the advantage of breeding herds, betake themselves to pasturage. They , at first , generally migrate , or wander with their herds. The individual acquires an immediate pro perty in cattle , but not in land. Nations that are acquainted with the use of herbs, fruits, and grain, which do not grow spontaneously, or do not grow in sufficient quantities , betake themselves to agriculture. The culture of land , to a certain degree , may precede property , as it did among the ancient Germans 9, and among the nations of North America. Agriculture , where the object is the tem porary produce of land, is compatible with migration: Where the object is the improvement of soil, and perpetual fertility , agriculture requires settlement , and the property of land.

As the property of land excites to invention in agriculture, it likewise excites to in vention in other arts. 9 Vide Cæsar, lib. 4. cap. 1.-, and lib. 6. cap. lit, Charlevoix's History of Canada. They who have no land, betake themselves to manufacture, that they may have wherewith to buy the produce of land. By manufacture , men are furnished with the means of accommodation and ornament. The means of accommodation are, clothes, houses, furniture, utensils, equipage. Men, in different ages, are unequally furnished with these articles; they even subsist without them; but, in the ruder climates, under such inconveniencies , as diminish the numbers of the species, or prevent their increase. The means of decoration are such things as please the fancy, without being necessary or useful. Men, in all ages, are fond of decoration; they combine ornament with the means of subsistence and accommodation ; but they may subsist, and enjoy every conveniency , without regard to ornament.

Ornaments are principally made of rare materials ; as gems , precious metals , ore. Riches consist in the abundance of things that conduce to safety, subsistence, accommodation , and ornament. Riches are the result of arts and industry. Whatever ingenuity men exert in the prac tice of arts , their success will depend on a proper distribution of their employments , and on their making a separate business of each. In making this distribution , the parties trust that they may be able to exchange what they have to spare for what they want. The progress of arts, as well as the casual distribution of commodities , depending on situation, climate, and soil , render commerce expedient, or even necessary. Commerce, in the simplest form, consists of barter , without any standard of valuation , or medium of exchange : Each party gives what he has to spare of one kind , for what he wants of another.

To extend trade, money, communication, and the interposition ofmerchants , are required. The first money, or medium of exchange, was generally some staple commodity, as corn, cattle, &c. These were things of uncertain value , of inconvenient bulk , perishing or expensive in the keeping, and not easily divided, without making a change os value. To avoid these several inconveniencies , the precious metals have been admitted in every trading nation as the medium of exchange. They are , for the greater conveniency, employed in the form of coin. The pound, or other ascertained weight or quantity of the precious metals, was employed as the standard of valuation. The coin of all nations has undergone considerable changes , both in respect to fineness and weight. The present standard for silver in England is 11 oz. 2 dvv. fine, to 18 dw. allay.