The Liberty of Rome: a history, with an historical account of the liberty of ancient nations

Front matter

THE LIBEKTY OF ROME. VOL. I. THE LIBERTY OF ROME: A HISTORY. WITH AN HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF THE LIBERTY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. BY SAMUEL ELIOT. " Romanæ spatium est urbis ct orbis iden." — Ovid. " The history of the world is one of God's own great poems." — Hare. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. I. LONDON: RICHARD BENTLEY, $ilblt*f)tr in (©trUtnarg to fetr JttajtiStj). 1849. London : Printed by S. & J. Bentley and Henry Flet, Bangor House, Shoe Lane

Preface

. The following work might have been entitled the History of Rome, &c, with a View to describe the Liberty of that and other Ancient Nations; which I mention, not in order to dilate upon any uncertainties of my own, but simply to guard against misapprehension of the subject I propose to treat. Not believing that liberty is anywhere to be understood or judged according, merely, to the government over any people, but rather, and chief ly, according to the capacity and the cultivation of the people themselves under their government, I have entered upon various narratives and inves tigations, which would appear misplaced to the reader, if he looked for accounts of institutions or antiquities alone, much more so if he expected nothing but generalizations or metaphysical inqui ries. If it had been the Liberty of America, for instance, instead of the Liberty of Rome, of which VI

PREFACE.

. I had undertaken to write the history, it would have seemed to me contrary to all propriety to confine myself, on the one hand, to a description of the Constitution or the Congress of this country, or, on the other, to general reasoning upon the various points in law, or politics, or morals, which would naturally present themselves. Any such generalizations or constitutional details would properly be but the introduction or the il lustration of the history, which would itself relate what the American people had done or suffered under their laws and with their principles, — in other words, what use or abuse they had made of their liberties. The first chapter of the introductory portion of these volumes will more method ically define the positions upon which it has ap peared to me that the history of ancient, as of modern, liberty is to be based; and the chapter concluding the same part of the work will suffi ciently explain the quantity and the quality, so to speak, of the liberty which I suppose to have be longed to antiquity.

It may also be prudent to account for the ex tended Introduction in the first volume. The remark, that Roman history is the conclusion of an cient history, is old enough to warrant the attempt to relate the achievements of the earlier races in

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. VII direct connection with the race by which they were overcome. I have, however, ventured not only to do this, but to wander beyond the limits of the Roman conquests, and to describe, as far as I could, the various stages in the progress of the ancient world ; so that the place of the Commonwealth of Rome in universal history might, perhaps, be made more obvious. The eighth chapter of the Intro duction will complete the explanation I can here but promise beforehand. My work lays no claim to any great or small discoveries, although the general ideas upon which it is composed may have some merit of freshness, as well as of truth. Neither does it confess to being nothing but a copy or a repetition of his tories already written, without which, however, it could never itself have been composed.

For while availing myself of the instruction I could gain from the great authors of ancient and modern times, owing to some a companionship, and to others, as to Niebuhr, a guidance, in return for which gratitude cannot be too candid, I have continually la boured to fulfil my own undertaking according to common courage and justice. " Every one," in deed, as Niebuhr himself remarks, "every one must see that our own personal views and opinions can be of little avail in history, if they are not in

PREFACE.

. accordance with things and relations which really existed."* But it has always seemed to me that the way to reconcile our ideas to the truth of his tory, or rather, to form our ideas according to the truth of history, is found only in learning with our own faculties, not, indeed, as if no knowledge had been gained by others before us, but as if ours were to be peculiarly our own, — the fruit which would never ripen, unless we, too, sought the sunshine and withstood the storm. If we were waiting an introduction to men or women we had never seen, we might inquire of one who knew them well, concerning their characteristics, as con cerning their lives ; but though we would not un dertake to change the facts respecting their places of birth, their fortunes or their misfortunes, we might yet, after meeting and becoming familiar with them, obtain an insight we should not other wise have had, not only into their characters, but particularly into the circumstances by which they had been surrounded and affected.

It is so in reading history. Its dates and its names are the same to us as to our forefathers ; but we may be placed, as individuals or as a generation, in such positions, formed under such influences, and lifted to such hopes, as to see, or to think we * Niebuhr's Lectures on Roman History, Lect. xi. Introd.

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. IX see, the past more clearly than they who wrote or read concerning it at another period or in another land. The narrative portions of the work will be found principally in the second and third books upon Rome ; one of these being devoted to the growth, the other to the decline of liberty. But in these, also, as in the remaining parts of the history, there will be investigations and statements to which the indul gence of the reader, if he be very hostile to what is sneeringly called disquisition, will need to be entreated. The only other peculiarity of these volumes is, that the account of wars and conflicts is always abridged and sometimes omitted : to the distaste, I fear, of those who love to follow the adventurous march, or hear the whizzing spear, or count the trophies of the slain.

On the other hand, the tumults and insurrections within the walls of Rome will crowd in, with unceasing jar, upon ears which listen in vain for peace. It is bad enough that wrath and bloodshed should be numbered amongst the sins of man, without their being made the attractions of his history. There are many considerations to render it de sirable that certain chapters in history, and espe cially in ancient history, should be rewritten. Of these, the principal, perhaps, is suggested by the

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. X promises and the perils of the years in which we live. In the uncertainty of daily events, of contests and revolutions and changing destinies, it is natural to look forward with solemn earnestness to the period when the designs of Providence shall be more truly comprehended and obeyed than they can be in the first moments of their revelation. There are many, however, whose earnestness might be called, with better reason, fear; there are some who, though doubting rather than afraid, stand resolved to chant a funeral service over every rising hope of humanity. Amongst other grounds of greater confidence, as well as of greater humility, history is given us by God; but that it be made of any efficacy, it must not only inform us in re gard to the past, but console us with regard to the future.

" Without history," says Thomas Ful ler, " a man's soul is purblind, seeing only the things which almost touch his eyes;"* yet even with history our vision is not always much farther extended. Of the two ways that are most common in writ ing or reading history, neither has seemed to me so broad or right as unfailingly to lead its followers to the truth. One of these two is that of the romantic or entertaining, — the other, of the ab- * The Holy State, xxn.

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. XI stract or instructive school; the latter being intent on stripping the past of every thing like life or feeling, and the former endeavouring, and in many recent instances successfully, to restore to bygone days their animation and their rightful interest. But however great the literary merit of these various productions may have been, however fresh the art and the picturesqueness of some, however profound the philosophy and the lore of others, there has been in many, perhaps in most of them, a blank that neither intellect nor taste alone can supply. It is so, simply because it has been too often forgotten that none can fathom the truths of history except with the plummet of the Christian, and that it is only through the sympathy for all humanity which Christianity commands and the faith in every work of God which Christianity sanctions, that we can comprehend the particular events or the general character of history.

It is even more, then, than at first it seems, — and I am arguing against myself in admitting it, — to ask from history, or rather from its writers, the preparation of coming as well as the description of bygone generations; for it is easier to be what the world calls a great historian than what one's own heart recognizes as a devout Christian. He whose words stand upon my title-page wrote them thus

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. more fully :— " Seeing that the history of the world is one of God's own great poems, how can any man aspire to recite more than a few brief pas sages from it." * One would not dare, it seems to me, to recite a single passage, except that he might offer his word of interpretation upon some portion, remote or recent, of the Great Poem we are still hearing or witnessing or acting through our lives. Of all the creatures both in sea and land, Only to man hast Thou made known Thy ways, And put the pen alone into his hand, And made him secretary of Thy praise ! " t I have endeavoured, therefore, to represent the history of antiquity as that of a period over which Providence was as continually watchful as over our own, and yet without venturing to introduce any religious meditations or aspirations.

The teachings of history, indeed, do not admit the ethical or the exhortatory development belonging to works of an other class; but if they be accepted with open minds, they can never be regarded as indirect or vague. The universality of Divine government, the spring of all human responsibilities, is the ground work of every history that deserves the name. It * Guesses at Truth, 2d edit., p. 354. f George Herbert.

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. XIII is this, I trust, which, recognized in the midst of heathen times,* may reassure the readers of these volumes concerning the course prepared for their race towards a liberty, not of Rome nor of Ame rica, but that into which Christianity shall so pro foundly penetrate as to be one with it in the sight of Heaven. The present work is intended as one of a series, which I hope, with God's blessing, to complete in my lifetime. Its successors, relating to the Liberty of the Early Christian Ages and the Liberty of the Middle Ages, will, if they be ever written, bring down the history of Liberty to the Reformation. I propose to make the Liberty of England the sub ject of a work by itself, in which the constitu tional and progressive freedom of the nation shall be traced from its origin to its maturity.

Further volumes may follow upon the Liberty of Europe since the Reformation, and, lastly, upon the Liberty of America. In mentioning these, I am per fectly aware of the uncertainty of life, and, even should that be granted, of capacity to complete * Old Montaigne has a passage which describes these and their lessons in themselves : — " Ce temps est propre a nous amender a reculons ; par disconvenance plus que par convenance ; par difference que par accord." Essais Liv. in. ch. 8. It is more Christian to recognize the similarities between one generation and another of mankind

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. so large an enterprise. But I have wished to state that it has been begun, and that the present volumes form the first of the histories proposed. May, 1849. NOTE. The Illustrations to these Volumes are all the de signs and the generous gift of my more than friend, Charles C. Perkins, to whose affection and taste a large share of any interest that may possibly attach itself to my pages will be readily and deservedly ascribed. NOTICE. Purchasers of Mr. Eliot's "LIBERTY OF ROME," are in formed that the Illustrations alluded to in the Preface, are sold separately, neatly bound in cloth, price Five Shillings. CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME- LIBERTY OF ANCIENT NATIONS.

Chapter I. Introductory Statements

PAGE Liberty: its History ... ... ... ... ... 1 Point of Departure ... ... ... ... ... 2 Labours of Existence ... ... ... ... ... 2 Of Conquest ... ... ... ... ... ... 3 And of Civilisation ... ... ... ... ... 4 Natural Growth of Liberty ... ... ... ... 5 Ideas of Liberty and Power ... ... ... ... 5 Ideas of Liberty and Law ... ... ... ... 7 Illustration of these Ideas ... ... ... ... 8 Personal, Social, and Political Liberty ... ... ... 8 Connection of Ancient with Modern Times ... ... ... 10

Chapter II. India

Principles of a Hierocracy ... ... ... ... 12 Influences of Nature on Early Civilisation ... ... ... 13 The People and their History ... ... ... ... 15 Legend of the Creation ... ... ... ... ... 17 The Brahmins : as Priests ... ... ... ... 18 And as Sovereigns ... ... ... ... ... 20 The Chatriyas ... ... ... ... ••• ... 21 VOL. I. b CONTENTS. PAGE The King ... 22 The Vaisyas ... ... ... ••■ ••• ••■ 23 TheSudras M Immobility of the Castes ... ••■ ••• ■•• 2^ No other Liberty than that of the Brahmins ... ■•• 26 Revolt of Bouddha ... ... ... ••• ■•• 27 Its Overthrow ... ... ... ■•• ••• 2^ Reaction ... ... ... ... •■• ••• 31 Twofold System of the Brahmins ... ... ... ••■ 32 Stagnation ... ... ... ... ••• ••■ 33 Ideality ... ... ... ... ••• •■• 35

Chapter III. Egypt

Labours of the Egyptians ... ... ... ... ... 37 Connection between Egypt and India ... ... ... 39 Origin of Egyptian Civilisation ... ... ... ... 40 Rise of the Monarchy ... ... ... ... ... 41 Wars ... ... ... ... ... ... 43 Historical and Chronological Outlines ... ... ... 43 Later Organisation ... ... ... ... ... 45 Abraham and Joseph in Egypt ... ... ... ... 47 The Warriors ... ... ... ... ... ... 43 Form and Temper of Monarchy ... ... ... ... 49 The Priests ... ... ... ... ... g-y The Inferior Castes ... ... ... ... 53 Liberty in Egypt ... ... ... ... 5g Decline: in Strength and Industry ... ... ... 57 In Knowledge and Spirit ... ... 53 Egyptian History that of a Transition-Period ... ... 61

Chapter IV. Persia

Great Empires of the East ... ... ... g2 Persian Wars and Conquests ... ... go The Early Persians ... ... ... ... g^ Dejoces the Mode ... ... ... .. CONTENTS. XVII PAGE Cyrus the Persian ... ... ... ... ... 68 Persian Despotism ... ... ... ... ... 69 Despotism of Kings compared with that of Priests ... ... 70 The Persian again ... ... ... ... ... 71 Smerdis and the Magi ... ... ... ... ... 73 Their Overthrow ... ... ... ... ... 74 Darius Hystaspis ... ... ... ... ... 75 Character and Relations of the Persians ... ... ... 77 Relations of Persia and its Provinces ... ... ... 79 The Satraps ... ... ... ... ... ... 81 Zoroaster the Reformer ... ... ... ... ... 82 His Reforms in Religion ... ... ... ... ... 83 With the Aid of the King ... ... ... ... 85 Reforms in the Monarchy ... ... ... ••• 86 In the Condition of the People ... ... ••• •■• 89 Principle of Improvement ... ... ... ••• 90 Failure of the Reformer ... ... .-• ••• 91 Result of Persian Dominion ... ... ... ■ ■ • 92

Section I. The Country And The People

Division and Beauty of Greece ... ■•• ••■ — 103 Love of Beauty amongst the People ... ••• ... 105 b CONTENTS. XVIII PAGE Their Division ... ... .-■ ••• ••• 106 Striking Consequences ... ... •■• •■• ••• Three Periods of Grecian Liberty ... ... ••• ...109

Section III. The Age Of Laws

Preparation ... ... ... ... ... 229 Sparta and Athens ... ... ... ... 129 Early Appearance and History of Sparta ... ... ... 131 Divisions among the Dorian Spartans ... ... 131 Lycurgus ... ... ... ... ,oo His Purposes as a Lawgiver ... ... 104 The Spartan Institutions ... ... ... jo*. Political Reforms of Lycurgus ... ... , or Division of Land ... ... ... ,„„ Condition of the Subject-People ... ... ... 13a CONTENTS.

XIX PAGE Spirit inculcated amongst the Spartans ... ... ... 141 Conquests and Changes ... ... ... ... ... 143 The Dark and the Bright Side of Sparta ... ... ... 146 Progress throughout Greece in the next Three Centuries ... 147 Poetry: Hesiod, Archilochus, Arion, Alcæus, and Sappho ... 149 Philosophy: Thales ... ... ... ... ... 151 The Seven Sages ... ... ... ... ... 153 Extension of Civilisation ... ... ... ... 153 Athens ... ... ... ... ... ... 154 Political Changes between Theseus and Solon ... ... 154 Draco; Cylon ; Epimenides ... ... ... ... 155 Distinctions among the People ... ... ... ... 157 Solon: his Character ... ... ... ... ... 158 His Measures of Relief ... ... ... ... ... 160 His Disinterestedness ... ... ... ... ... 161 New Political Foundations ... ... ... ... 162 The Assembly, Council, and other Institutions ... ... 165 Other Laws of Solon ... ... ... ... ... 168 Treatment of Aliens and Slaves ... ... ... ... 169 Solon's Laws accepted ... ... ... ... ... 170 Spirit to maintain them ... ... ... ... ... 171 Instability of Ancient Laws ... ... ... ... 173 Restlessness in Athens : Pisistratus and his Sons ... ... 174 Review and Prospect ... ... ... ... ... 176 Greeks in Asia Minor ... ... ... ... ... 177 Their difficulties with Cyrus ... ... ... ... 179 Resistance of the Phocæans, Teians, and Lycians ... ... 179 Mæandrius of Samos ... ... ... ... ... 181 Sosicles, the Corinthian ... ... ... ... ... 182 Eeturn to Athens : Clisthenes ... ... ... ... 1S3 Embassies from Darius to Athens and Sparta ... ... 185 The Persian War ... ... ... ... ... 186 Aristides ... ... •■• ••• ••• ■•• 187 Fresh Disputes and Perils ... •■ ••• ... 189 Individual Examples of General Character ... ... ... 191 Further Changes come or to come ... ... ... •■• 193 Apprehension of Decline ... ... ■•■ •■■ 195 Pindar and Æschylus in Poetry ... ... ••• ••• 196 Herodotus in History ... ... ... ■•• ••• XX CONTENTS.

Section IV. Illumination And Decline

PAGE Outline of the Section ... ... ••• •■• — 198 Athenian Democracy And Intellect 200 Pericles in Power ... ... ... ■•• ■■• 201 Peloponnesian War ... ... ... ••• ••• 204 Athenian Philosophy ... ... ... ... ••■ 206 Anaxagoras ... ... ... ••■ •■• •■• Socrates ... ... ... ••■ ••• ••• 208 His Morality ... ... ... ... ... ■•• 209 And Message to Men ... ... ... ... ••- 211 His Successors ... ... ... •■• ••• 212 Decline of Sparta and Athens : Rise and Fall of Thebes ... 213 Macedonia: Philip ... ... ... ... ••• 219 Demosthenes: Fall of Greece ... ... ... ... 220 Alexander ... ... ... ... ... ... 221

Chapter VII. The Jews

Character of Jewish History ... ... ... ... 223 Early Worship ... ... ... ... ... 224 Its Transmission and Trial ... ... ... ... 224 Reordained at Horeb ... ... ... ... ... 225 Its Connection with Liberty ... ... ... ... 226 Acceptance of its Principles amongst the Jews ... ... 227 The Exodus ... ... ... ... ... ... 229 Miriam ... ... ... ... ... ... 229 The Law from Sinai ... ... ... ... ... 230 Authority of Moses ... ... ... ... ... 231 His Institutions ... ... ... ... ... 232 General Organisation ... ... ... ... ... 234 Precautions for Individual and National Independence ... 235 Liberty established under the Laws ... ... 238 The Promised Land ... ... ... ... 240 Natural Decline ... ... ... ... 242 Vicissitudes ... ... ... ... ... CONTENTS. XXI UT , PAGE Monarchy ... ... ... ... 245 David ••• ... ... ... ... ... 246 Despotism and Dissension ... ... ... ... 249 The Prophets ... :.. ... ... ... ... 251 The Captivity ... ... ... ... ... ... 253 The Restoration ... ... ... ... ... 253 Its Purposes and Expectations ... ... ... ... 255

Chapter VIII. Character And Doom Of Ancient Liberty

Human Progress in Antiquity ... ... ... ... 257 Its Twofold Law ... ... ... ... ... 259 Religion of Heathenism ... ... ... .., ... 259 Liberty of Heathenism ... ... ... ... ... 260 Insufficiency of Heathen Civilisation ... ... ... 260 Its Prostration ... ... ... ... ... ... 261 Outlines of Roman History ... ... ... ... 261 LIBERTY OF ROME.

Chapter I. The Place And The People

The Seven Hills ... ••• •■• •■■ ••• 265 Their Neighbourhood ... ••• •■• ••• ■•■ 267 And Climate ... ... ••• ••• •■• - 268 Actual Advantages of Position ... ... ■•■ ... 269 Ancient Population ... ... •■• ••• ••< 2/0 Mingling of Races in the Roman ... •■■ ••• ... 271 Prospects of the New People ... ■•• ■•• ... CONTENTS.

Chapter III. The Patrician Revolution

PAGE The Monarchy and the Commonwealth ... ... ... 321 Appearance of Rome ... ... ... ... ... 322 Its Population ... ... ... ... ... 323 Temper of the Patricians ... ... ... ... 324 Their New Magistracy : the Consulate ... ... ... 325 Helplessness of the Plebeians ... ... ... ... 327 Patrician Conspiracy ... ... ... ... ... 328 Valerius and his Laws ... ... ... ... ... 330 Invasion of Porsena ... ... ... ... ... 332 Wars: Losses and Gains ... ... ... ... 334 The Dictatorship ... ... ... ... ... 336 Difficulties and Wrongs ... ... ... ... ... 338

Chapter I. Mons Sacer

PAGE Success in Arms ... ■•• ••• ••• ■■• 363 Dissensions : Patricians and Plebeians ... ... • • • 364 Wrongs on both Sides ... ... , ■■• ••• ••• 364 Claudius and Servilius Consuls ... ... ■■■ •■• 366 The Plebeian Bondman ... ... ... ... 367 Insurrection .'.. ... ... ... ••■ ••■ 368 Averted by an Invasion ... ... ... ... ••• 370 Triumph of Servilius ... ... ... ... ••■ 371 Who fails the Plebeians ... ... ... ... 372 End of the Consular Year : Parties among the Patricians ... 372 The Plebeians refuse to enlist ... ... ... ... 375 A Dictator appointed ... ... ... ... ... 376 Conduct of Valerius ... ... ... ... ... 377 Secession of the Army ... ... ... ... ... 378 Vainly tempted and threatened by the Officers ... ... 379 Outbreak in Rome ... ... ... ... ... 380 Character of the Seceders ... ... ... ... 380 Measures in Rome : Dangers ... ... ... ... 381 Advances of the Patricians ... .... ... ... 382 New Consuls and Fresh Advances ... ... ... 384 The Interview at the Hill ... ... ... ... 385 Terms of Reconciliation ... ... ... ... ... 387 Election and Sacrifice on the Hill ... ... ... 388 Renewed in Rome ... ... ... ... ... 389 The New Magistracies : Ædiles ... ... ... ... 390 And Tribunes ... ... ... ... ... 399

Chapter II. First Works Of The Tribunes

Inequality between Patricians and Plebeians ... 394 Manner of relating the Following Events ... ... ... CONTENTS. XXV PAGE Spurius Cassius ... ... ... ... ... 395 His Agrarian Law ... ... ... ... ... 397 His Fate ... ... ... ... ... ... 399 Courage of Certain Tribunes ... ... ... ... 401 The Fabii ... ... ... ... ... ... 402 Their Retirement and End ... ... ... ... 404 Tribunes support their Memory ... ... ... ... 405 Story of Coriolanus ... ... ... ... ... 406 His Pride and Banishment ... ... ... ... 406 Accusations: Murder of Genucius the Tribune ... ... 410 Volero Publilius ... ... ... ... ... 411 The First Publilian Law ... ... ... ... 412 Amended by Lætorius ... ... ... ... ... 413 Passed in Tumult ... ... ... ... ... 415 And confirmed : Icilian Law ... ... ... ... 416 Appius Claudius and Titus Quinctius : Contrast ... ... 417 Agrarian Law again ... ... ... ... ... 418 Disasters and Teachings ... ... ... ... ... 420 Terentilius Arsa : His Bill ... ... ... ... 422 Cæso Quinctius ... ... ... ... ... 424 Exiles in the Capitol ... ... ... ... ... 425 Disorder; but Progress ... ... ... ... ... 427 The Aventine given to the Plebeians ... ... ... 428 Measures on either Side ... ... ... ... 429 Decemvirs appointed ... ... ... ... ... 430 Their Tables of Laws ... ... ... ... ... 432

Chapter III. The Twelve Tables

Want of Laws at the Period ... ... ... ... 433 Nationality of those established ... ... ... ... 434 Their Equality ... ... ••• ■•• ••■ 435 Purpose of Terentili us, how fulfilled ... ... ... 436 Constitutional Reforms ... ... • • ■ • • ■ ■ ■ ■ 437 Rights of the People ... ... ••• ••• ••• 437 Restrictions upon the Lower Classes ... ••• ••• 439 Majesty of the Common Country ... ... ••■ ••• 439 Attempts to illustrate Political Liberty in Rome ... ... 440 By describing the Elections ... •■• ••• ... CONTENTS. XXVI PAGE The Trials ... •■• ••• — — 442 And the Legislations ., .- 445 Destiny

Chapter IV. Actions And Reactions

Operation of the Laws ... ... •■• ■•■ ••• 446 Tyranny of the Decemvirs ... ••• •■• ••• 446 Assailed by Valerius and Horatius ... ... ••• 447 „. . . 449 Virginia ... ■•• ■•• •■• ■•■ ••• The Plebeians occupy the Aventine ... ... ■•• 450 And secede to Mons Sacer ... ... ••■ •■• 451 Terms and Return ... ... •■■ ••• ••■ 452 Legislation of the New Consuls ... ... ... ••• 453 Triumph and Moderation of the Plebeians ... ... ... 455 Signs of Change ... ■•■ ••■ ••• •■• 456 Bills preferred by Canuleius ... ... ■•■ •■■ 457 Insurrection ... ... ■■■ ■■■ ■•■ ■■■ 458 Consular Tribunes ... ... ••• ■•• ••• 459 The Censorship ... ••• ... ■■■ ••• 461 Pœtelius: Plebeian Divisions ... ... ... ... 462 Distress : Spurius Mælius ... ... ... ■ • . 463 His Designs ... ... ... ■■• ••• •■• 463 And Death ... ... ■•• ■•• ••• ■•• 465 Consulship or Consular Tribunate ... ... ... 467 Æmilius abbreviates the Term of the Censors ... ... 468 Defences and Danger of Liberty ... ... ... ... 469 Publius Postumius ... ••• ... ... ... 471 Mænius the Tribune ... ... ... ... ... 471 The Quæstorship ... .... ... ... ... 472 Fulfilment of earlier Promises ... ... ... ... 474

Chapter V. Wars And Domestic Interests

Warfare and Liberty ... ... ... ... ... 475 Aptitude of the People for War ... ... ... ... 47g Their Unity, peculiar though imperfect ... ... ... CONTENTS. XXVII . PAGE Enemies and Conquests ... ... ... ... 473 The Conquered and the Allied ... ... ... ... 479 Aricia and Ardea ... ... ... ... ... 480 Tusculum ... ... ... ... ... ... 481 Veii ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 482 Danger to the Unity above described ... ... ... 483 Domestic Character ... ... ... ... ... 485 And Cultivation ... ... ... ... ... 486

Chapter VI. Camillus And Manlius

The two Patricians ... ... ... ... ... 488 Camillus : the Elder ... ... ... ... ... 488 Manlius : the Younger ... ... ... ... ... 489 Capture of Rome by the Gauls ... ... ... ... 490 The Capitol saved by Manlius ... ... ... ... 491 The Country by Camillus ... ... ... ... 491 Recovery of Rome ... ... ... ... ... 492 Doubts and Perseverance ... ... ... ... 493 Liberty as the Cause of Resolution ... ... ... 494 And as itself affected ... ... ... ... ... 495 Renewal of Difficulties ... ... ... ... ■■• 496 Parties: Manlius and Camillus ... ... ... ... 498 Manlius heads the Poor ... ... ... ... ... 498 Imprisoned by the Dictator ... ... ... ... 500 And is released ... ... ... ... ... 500 His changed Spirit ... ... ... ... ... 500 Trial and Death ... ... ... ... ... 501 Wants of the Commonwealth ... ... ... ... 502

Chapter VII. The Licinian Laws

Licinius Stolo ... ••• ••• •■• ••■ 504 His Supporters and Designs ... ... ••• ••• 505 Law about Debts ... ... ■•■ ••• ■■• 506 Second about Public Lands ... ... ••• •■• 507 Third about the Consulship ... •■• ••• ••• CONTENTS. PAGE . How the Three were regarded ... ... ■•■ ■■■ °0J Proved to be good ... ,.. ... ••• ••• °10 And maintained ... ... ... ■•• ... 511 Vetoes and Disturbances ... ... ••■ ••• "11 Elections renewed ... ... ... ••■ ••■ "1* Fourth Law concerning the Decemvirs ... ... ■■• 514 The Decisive Struggle ... ... ... ... •■• 515 Camillus Dictator ... ... ... ... •■• 516 Want of Unanimity ... ... ... ... •■• 517 Interruption ... ... ... ... ... ••• 518 The Bills become Laws ... ... ... ... •■• 519 Continued Strife ... ... ... ... ... 519 Peace ... ... ... ... ... ... 520 Operation of the Laws concerning Offices ... ... ... 521 And Measures of Relief ... ... ... ... ... 522 Lucinius a Transgressor ... ... ... ... 523 Hopes of Freedom in Rome ... ... ... ...