The History of Modern Civilization. A handbook based upon M. G. D.'s 'Histoire Sommaire de la Civilisation.' With illustrations

Preface

. The aim of the Handbook of " The History of Modern Civili zation " — a continuation and completion of " The History of Ancient Civilization," published in the same form more than a year ago — is to give to young students and general readers a comprehensive view of the progress of the nations, as far as it is known, out of the decadence of ancient civilization, through mediæval barbarism, until the}' emerge in modem and advance to contemporary civilization. It is hoped that it may stimulate younger readers to pursue historical studies further, and may occasionally be useful to older students as a grouping together of knowledge already acquired. Though based on M. Ducoudray's " Histoire Sommaire de la Civilisation," this handbook is rather an adaptation than a translation ; for M. Ducoudray's standpoint is so exclusively French, that it has been necessary not only to omit much and to correct freely, but also to fill numerous and extensive gaps in his know ledge of England and other countries. J. V. January, 1891. PAGE 1 CONTENTS.

Chapter I Christianity Reorganization And Fall Of The Roman Empire

Summary. — The Preparation for the Advent of Christianity ; the Condition of Religion and Philosophy in the Roman World — Unity of the Roman World; the Right of Universal Citizenship— The Christian Religion — The Persecutions — The Primitive Organization of the Church : the Catacombs — The Apologists : Tertulliaa — Influence of Christianity — The Decadence of the Roman Empire ; its Causes ; the Absence of a Constitution — The Power and Rivalry of the Prætorians and the Armies ; Civil Wars — Invasion of the Barbarians — Attempts at Restoration in the Fourth Century; Diocletian ; the Tetrarchy — The Work of Constantine ; the Imperial Power; the Great Officers — Separation of the Military and Civil Powers — Division of the Provinces into Pies nctures, Dioceses, &c. — The New Nobility— The Classes — The Curiales — The Inferior Classes; the Plebs ; Husbandmen — Slaves — The Taxes — Constantine and Christianity ; the Edict of Milan (313) — Organization of the Church ; Bishops, Archbishops, &c. — The Council of Nicæa — Constantinople — The Pagan Reaction under Julian — The Heresies ; the Fathers of the Greek Church — The Fathers of the Latin Church— Hermits and Monks — Final Causes of the Fall of the Roman Empire, and of the Success of the Invasions — What Rome has given to the World — The Legacy of Antiquity.- -(Notes : The Roman Calendar —Basilicas transformed into Churches) . CONTENTS. VIII PAGE

Chapter II. The Babbarian Invasions

GERMANIC SOCIETY. Summary.— The Middle Ages— The New Races— The Germans : Agricultural and Military Life— The Germanic Family— The Germanic Tribes— Germanic Royalty— The Assemblies — Justice- Individuality — Slavery amongst the Germans — Religion — Barbarian Kingdoms, Visigoths, Vandals, &c. — Destruction of the Western Empire (476) —The Ostrogoths : Theodoric— The Barbarian Laws — Decadence of the Barbarian Kingdoms — Military Supremacy of the Franks— Frank and Roman Society: the Monarchy — The Classes — Finance; Justice — The Church and Barbarian Society: the Bishops — The Right of Asylum; the Tonsure ; the Clerks — The Councils : Excommunication — Wealth of the Church — The Monasteries — The Papacy — Alliance between the Frank Kings and the Church: Accession of the Carolingians — The Temporal Power of the Popes — Europe in the Eighth Century. (Notes : The Salic Law — The Monasteries) 41

Chapter III. The Eastern Empire

RESTORATION OF THE EMPIRE OF THE WEST. Summary. — The Eastern Empire : Justinian — Justinian's Legislative Work : the Monuments of Roman Law — Luxury of the Emperors of the Eist: Games in the Circus — Byzantine Art — Painting: Mosaics — The Sect of Iconoclasts — The Greek Schism (857 — 1054) — Weakness and Longevity of the Byzantine Empire — The West : Charlemagne and his Wars — Restoration of the Western Empire : Coronation of Charlemagne (800) — The Administration of Charlemagne: Roman Traditions — Ecclesiastical Organization — The Intellectual Renaissance — Germanic Traditions — Character of Charlemagne's Work: its Results. — (Note: Sovereigns of the Eastern Empire) .......... CONTENTS. IX PAGE 80 96

Chapter IV. The Arabs

THE CALIPHATES OF BAGDAD AND CORDOVA. MUSSULMAN CIVILIZATION. Summary. — The Invasion from the South ; its Character : the Arabs — Mahomet and his Religion — The Koran — The Ulema : the Imaums — Social and Political Influence of Mahomedanism — Preaching by the Sword — The Arab Empire : the two Caliphates —Prosperity of the Caliphate of Bagdad: Commerce — The Caliphate of Cordova : Prosperity of Spain — Arab Literature — Science —Art — Character and Influence of Arab Civilization. — (Note: Some Verses of the Koran)

Chapter V. The Feudal System

Summary. — Dismemberment of Charlemagne's Empire — Feudalism — Origin of Feudalism — Subordination of the Land ; the Edict of Mersen (847) — Public Offices become hereditary; Edict of Kiersy-sur-Oise (877) — Social Organization; the Nobility — The Clergy — The Inferior Classes — Political Disorganization ; Feudal Monarchy — Feudal Administration, War, Justice, and Finance — Feudal Activity and Independence — Defects of the Feudal System .

Chapter VI. Feudal And Christian Europe From The Eleventh To The Fourteenth

CENTURIES. Summary.— Efforts of the Church to counteract Disorder ; the Truce of God— Distant Expeditions — The Enfranchisement of the Church ; the Investitures; Pope Gregory VII. (1073— 1085)— Religious Unity; Theocracy — The Crusades; their Causes — Duration and Character of the Crusades (1095 — 1270) — Political and Economic Results of the Crusades— Chivalry— The Monarchies ; the Capetians in France ; the Feudal Monarchy ; Commencement of the Administration — Alliance of the Capetians with the Church and People — England ; Contrast between English and French Feudalism—Spain ; the Crusade against the Moors ; Character of the CONTENTS. X PAGE 109 132 Spanish Nobility— Italian Feudalism— Germany ; Progress of Ger man Feudalism— The German Empire in the Middle Ages — The Papacy ; Rivalry between the Sacerdotal Power and the Empire (1073 — J 250) — Results; the Ruin of the two Ambitions; Progress of a National Spirit amongst the Populations — Progress of the Urban Populations ; Imperial German Cities — The Italian Re publics ; the Democracy in Florence ; the Aristocracy in Venice — The French Communes — New Cities ; the Middle Classes — The Third Estate — Advantages and Results of Communal Liberty — Dangers and Decline of the Communal Movement — The Country ; Progress of Enfranchisement ; the Parishes ; the Statutes of Louis X. (1315)— Origin of Public Liberties; the States-General in France (1302) — The Great Charter in England (1215); the English Parliament (1258 — 1295) — The Spanish Cortes .

Chapter VII. Society In The Middle Ages

Summary. — Society in the Middle Ages — The Nobility ; Manners — Armorial Bearings — Tournaments — Meals — The Commoners — The Feudal Family — The Rights of Primogeniture — The Government of the Church ; the Councils — The Bishops — The Monasteries ; New Religious Orders; the Carthusians — The Franciscans and Dominicans — Ritual ; Religious Festivals — Superstitions — Heresies — Industry — The Corporations — Commerce; the Parisian Exchange ; Restriction and Taxes — The Jews ; Bills of Exchange — Maritime Commerce ; Venice ; Genoa ; the Hanseatic League — Travels ; Marco-Polo — Education ; the Paris Schools and University — Instruction ; Scholasticism — Nominalism and Realism — Philosophy and Theology ; the Great Doctors — Formation of Languages ; the French Language — Epic Poetry ; The Chansons de geste— Allegoric Poetry — Southern Poetry ; the Troubadours — Birth of the Theatre — Prose; History — Law; Revival of the Roman Law ; the Sumptuary Laws — The Sciences ; Alchemy Italian Language and Poetry ; Dante, Petrarch — Art in Italy — French Art ; Military Architecture — Religious Architecture ; the Romance Style; the Gothic Style — Sculpture — Music in the Middle Ages — Civilization in the Thirteenth Century — The Fourteenth Century ; Decline of the Feudal System ; Transformation of Society. — (Notes : Scholastics and Doctors of the Church Troubadours — Chroniclers — Savants, Physicians, Astronomers) CONTENTS. XI

Chapter VIII. Modern States In The Fifteenth And Sixteenth Centuries

GREAT MARITIME DISCOVERIES. PAGE Summary. — Great Inventions and Great Discoveries — Modern Times — Evolution in Political Order ; Progress of Monarchy in France — Decline of the Feudal System in England ; Wars of the Roses ; the Tudors — The Spanish Monarchy — Division of Germany ; Partition of Italy — Formation and Greatness of Austria — Power of Kings ; European Wars — The Great Maritime Discoveries ; the Portuguese — Discoveries by the Spaniards ; Christopher Columbus ; the New World (1492) — Discovery of the Pacific Ocean ; the First Voyage Round the World (1521) ; Mexico and Peru — Colonial Policy of Spain and Portugal — Commercial Monopoly — Consequence of the Maritime Discoveries ; Development of Commerce — Diffusion of Gold and Silver Money — Change of the Commercial Routes — Moveable Wealth 181

Chapter IX. The Renaissance In The Fifteenth And Sixteenth Centuries

Summary. — The Renaissance; the Circumstances that aided it — The Renaissance in Italy ; the Humanists — Italian Literature — The Poets; Ariosto, Tasso — History; Politics — Machiavelli — Guicciardini — The Humanists in France — The College of France — Erasmus — French Literature in the Fifteenth Century — Poetry in the Sixteenth Century — Marot, Ronsard, Jodelle — Law — History — Philosophy — Ramus, Montaigne, Rabelais — Literature in the Sixteenth Century — Spanish Literature — Cervantes — Lope de Vega — Portugal ; Camoens — Birth and Brilliancy of English Literature— Shakespeare (1564— 1616)— The Birth of Science— Copernicus (1493—1543)— Tycho Brahe — The Reform of the Calendar — Mathematics — Medicine : Paracelsus, Vesalius, Ambroise Pare — Astrology and Sorcery — The Renaissance of Art in Italy— Architecture : Brunelleschi and Bramante — Michael Angelo— French Architecture — Philibert Delorme — Pierre Lescot — Italian Sculpture — French Sculpture — Painting : the Earliest Italian Masters of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries — Giotto, Fra Angelico, Masaccio — The CONTENTS.

XII PAGE Earliest Flemish Artists ; the Invention of Painting in Oil (1410) ; the Brothers Van Eyck— Character of Italian Painting, Pagan and Christian Subjects— The Italian Schools ; the Florentine School : Perugino, Leonardo da Vinci (1452— 1519)— The Roman School : Michael Angelo (1474— 1564)— Kaphael (1483— 1520)— School of Lombardy : Correggio (1494— 1534)— Venetian School : Giorgio Barbarelli (1477—1511), Titian (1477— 1576)— Tintoretto, Paul Veronese— Bolognese School: the Carracci— Painting in Spain — Painting in France— Flemish Painting— German Painting : Holbein, Albert Diirer— Ceramics : Bernard Palissy— Music. (Note : The Principal Scientific Men of the Sixteenth Century) . . . .194

Chapter X. The Reformation

Summary. — The Religious Reformation, its Causes — Luther (1483 — 1546) ; Character of his Reformation — The Reformation in the Northern Countries — The Reformation in England — The Reformation in Switzerland ; Zwingle ; Calvin (1509 — 1564)— The Principles and Consequences of Calvinism — Restoration of Catholicism ; Religious Wars — Division of Europe between Catholicism and Protestantism — ■ Influence of the Protestant Reformation upon Politics, and upon the" Economic and Intellectual Movement ...... 238

Chapter XI. The Seventeenth Century Religion Politics Trade And Finance

Summary. — Protestantism and Catholicism in the Seventeenth Century — The Thirty Years' War in German}' — The Presbyterians and Puritans in England ; the Revolutions of 1640 and 1688 — Religious Wars in France under Louis XIIL ; the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes under Louis XIV. — Influence of the Religious Revolution on Society — Character of Christianity in the Seventeenth Century Religious Orders for Women ; Sisters of Charity ; Saint Vincent de Paul — Political Europe in the Seventeenth Century ; the Great Wars ; Progress of Military Art — The European Equilibrium ; the Treaty of Westphalia (1648); Diplomacy — Preponderance of France ; the Wars of Louis XIV. — Internal Policy of the Kingdoms ; Triumph of Absolute Monarchy in France — The Monarchy o Louis XIV.— The Central Power ; Provincial Administration CONTENTS.

XIII Police, the Army, Justice, Finance— The Church— The Monarch and Economic Interests -Results and Vices of Absolute Monarchy in France— Absolute Monarchy in Spain— Monarchv in the various States of Europe— The Stuarts in England— The 'Revolutions of 1640 and of 1688— The Declaration of Rights ; the Constitutional Monarchy— The Economic Movement— Maritime and Colonial Em pire of Holland— England, her First Colonies ; the Navigation Act —Economic Progress of France ; Sully, Richelieu— Colbert's Ser vices; Development of French Industry— Colbert's Theories, the Protective System ; the System of Balance— Internal Commerce— The Navy and the Mercantile Fleets — Commercial Companies, Colonies ....... 247

Chapter XII Literature, Science, And Arts In The Seventeenth Century

Summary. — The Intellectual Movement ; French Society in the Seventeenth Century ; Conversation ; Wit — French Literature ; Taste ; Malherbe ; the Authors of the first half of the Seventeenth Century, or the Age of Richelieu — Classical Tragedy ; Corneille (1606 — 1684) — Renaissance of Philosophy ; Prose ; Descartes ; Pascal — Authors of the Reign of Louis XIV. ; the King's Personal Influence — Poetry : Racine, Moliere, Boileau — Eloquence in the Pulpit : Bourdaloue, Bossuet, Fenelon — Madame de Sevigne ; La Bruyere — La Fontaine — The Quarrel between the Ancients and Moderns — The Opera ; Quinault — Memoirs ; History — Philosophy ; Malebranche — Education ; the Learned Societies — Origin of the Periodical Press — Literature in England : Ben Jonson, Bacon— Milton (1608 — 1674) — Bunyan — Locke (1632 — 1704) — Holland; the Jew Spinoza — Germany ; Leibnitz — Spain ; Calderon ; Literary Decadence — Science, Mathematics — Astronomy : Kepler (1571 — 1630) ; Galileo (1564—1642) ; Newton (1642— 1727)— Physical Science ; Bacon's Experimental Method — Galileo, Toricelli, Pascal, Mariotte — Steam; Denis Papin — Natural Science ; the Botanical Gardens ; Tournefort — Medicine — The Arts ; French Architecture — Sculpture ; Puget — Painting ; the Italian School ; Guercino, Albano, Domenichino, Salvator Rosa — Painting in Spain ; Ribera, "Velasquez, Murillo — French Painting ; Nicholas Poussin, Claude Lorraine — Flemish Artists in France ; Philip de Champaigne ; Van der Meulen — Greatness of the Flemish School : Rubens, Van Dyck, Jordaens — Animal Painters ; Snyders — The Painters of Genre ; David Teniers — The Dutch School ; Rembrandt— Gerard Dow, Terburg, Metzu — Ruysdael, Hobbema — The Results of the Seventeenth Century . CONTENTS. XIV

CHAPTER XIIL THE ARTS, SCIENTIFIC AND POLITICAL MOVEMENT OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.

PAGE SuMMAEY.-New Character of Art in the Eighteenth Century— Architecture— Sculpture— Artistic Furniture of Modern Times— The Styles of Louis XIV., Louis XV., and Louis XVI.— French Painting- Painting in Germany and England — The Scientific Movement ; Mathematicians ; Euler, d'Alembert, Clairaut, Lagrange — Astronomy ; Bradley, Herschell, Maupertuis, Mechain, Delambre — Laplace — The Physical Sciences ; Thermometers ; Ah- Balloons — Steam Engines ; Newcomen, James Watt — Electricity — Frinklin ; Lightning Conductors — Dynamic Electricity ; Galvani and Volta — Chemistry ; Priestley, Scheele, Lavoisier — The Natural Sciences ; Buffon, Linnæus — Medicine ; Jenner — The Institutions for the Deaf and Dumb and for the Blind ; the Abbe de l'Epee ; Valentine Haiiy — French Literature in the Eighteenth Century; the Followers of the Traditions of the Preceding Century; Massillon, Saint- Simon — Decadence of Poetry — Voltaire the Dramatist — Voltaire the Author, his Historical Works — Voltaire the Philosopher — French Philosophy in the Eighteenth Century ; Condillac, Helvetius, the " Encyclopedia," d'Alembert, Diderot — The Political Writers ; Montesquieu, the " Esprit des Lois " — Jean- Jacques Rousseau ; the " Contrat Social;" "Emile" — Birth of Political Economy; Gournay, Quesnay, Adam Smith — The Novel ; Lesage, Bernardin de Saint- Pierre— Prose Comedies ; Marivaux, Beaumarchais — Character and Influence of French Literature in the Eighteenth Century — English Literature ; The Essayists ; Addison — The Novel ; Defoe, Fielding — Poetry in England — Philosophy ; History ; Eloquence — German Literature ; Lessing — Poetry ; Klopstock — Goethe — Schiller — Wieland — German Philosophy ; Kant — Italian Literature — Music ; its Progress in Modern Times ; Rameau, Gluck, Pergolesi, Gretry —The German School— Bach, Handel, Haydn— Mozart . . .302

Chapter XIV. Economic And Political Europe In The Eighteenth Century

CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789. Summary. — The Economic Movement in the Eighteenth Century ; Institution of Credit — Law's System; the Bank Note — Geographical Discoveries— Maritime Commerce ; the Colonies ; Colonial Power CONTENTS. XV PAGE 334 of England — The Colonial System of Modern States — Colonial Produce — Emancipation of the English Colonies in America ; the United States — Industry in Europe ; French Industry — Industry and Commerce in the Central and Northern Countries of Europe — Political State of Europe ; the Latin Slavs ; the Civilization of Eastern Europe; Poland — The Partition of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795) — Origin and Development of the Kingdom of Prussia — Frederic II. (1740—1786) ; the City of Berlin— The Greeks and Slavs ; Formation and Progress of the Russian Empire — Peter the Great (1672— 1725)— St. Petersburg (1703)— The Work of Peter the Great — Catherine II.

(1762 — 1796) — Character of Russian Civi lization — The Scandinavian States; Stockholm, Copenhagen — Austria ; the Reforms of Joseph II. — The Principalities of Ger many and the Holy Roman Empire — Portugal, Pombal — The Bourbon Dynasty in Spain; Reforms of El Conde d'Aranda — Italy — Results of the Work of Modern Times — State of France in 1789 — Monarchical Principles —The Feudal Constitution of the Government and Administration — Justice — Finance — The Army — The Church — Feudal Character of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce — Character of Society — Political, Economic, and Social Causes of the Revolution ........

Chapter XV. The French Revolution

Summary.— General Character of the Revolution, its Philosophical and Classical Spirit — The Social, Economic, and Political Aim of the Revolution— The Social Work of the Constituent Assembly ; the Principles of Equality ; the Night of the 4th of August — Civil Equality — Equality in the Family — Political Action ; the Principles of 1789 — Administrative Reforms, Political Unity ; the Departments —Financial Reforms — The Civil Constitution of the Clergy — Representative Government; the Constitution of 1791 — Economic Reform; the Development of Small Landowners ; Relief of Agriculture — Liberty of Industry and Commerce— Effort to Return to Credit ; the Assignats ; the Assembly and Law's System — Result of the Work of the Constituent Assembly — The Legislative Assembly ; CONTENTS. PAGE 367 388 Fall of the Monarchy (10th of August, 1792)— The Republic ; the Convention (1792— 1795)— Divisions and Violence of the Convention —The Thermidorian Reaction— The Constitution of the Year III. — Labours and Creations of the Convention— The Directory (1795— 1799) ; the Coups d'Etat— Social Disorder— Financial Disorder — The Army ; the Law of Conscription— Preponderance of the Army ; the Coup d'Etat of the 18 and 19 Brumaire (9th and 10th of Novem ber, 1799)

Chapter XVI. The Consulate And The Empire Napoleonic Europe Diffusion Of French

IDEAS. Summary. — The Consulate ; Constitution of the Year VIII. — Plebiscites — The Electoral System ; the Lists of Notabilite — Administrative Reorganization — Justice ; the Courts of Appeal ; the Civil Code — The New Financial System ; the Control and Collection of Taxes — Religious Peace; the Concordat (1801 — 1802) — The Legion of Honour (1802) ; Public Instruction, the Lycees — Economic Reforms; Credit, the Bank of France — The Work of the Consulate — The Empire ; the Senatus-Consultum of the Year XII. (1804)— The Great Dignitaries ; the New Nobility — Napoleon's Work ; Military Art — Finance — The Codes — Public Works — Industry — Exhibitions —Industrial Consequences of the Continental Blockade — The University — (1806) — Imperial Absolutism — The French Empire and Europe in 1810 — Diffusion of Ideas of French Revolution in Europe ; Belgium, Holland, the Rhenish Provinces, Switzerland — Effect of French Revolution on Italy — Simplification of the Germanic Chaos — Effect of French Revolution on Germany — Effect of French Revolution on Spain; the Constitution of 1812 — Prussia ; Reforms of Stein and Scharnhorst — Effect of French Revolution on Sweden and Russia — Principles of the Revolution turned against Napoleon

Chapter XVII. European Governments And Modern Liberties Since

1815. Summary.— Europe in 1815— The Holy Alliance— The Different Governments in France since 1815 ; the Restoration (1815—1830) ; the Charter of 1814 — Attempts at Political, Economic, and Social Re- CONTENTS.

XVII PAGE action— The Political Results of the Restoration ; Representative Government ; the Responsibility of Ministers — The Monarchy of July ; Parliamentary Government —Property Suffrage — Political Consequences of the Economic Revolution ; Progress of the Indus trial Classes; Socialism — The Republic of 1848 ; Universal Suflrage ; the Constitution of 1848— The Constitution of 1852— The Second Empire and its Transformations (1852 — 1870) — The National Assem bly of 1871 ; the Third Republic ; the Constitution of 1875— Political Results of the Contemporary Epoch in France — European Powers since 1815 ; Conflict between Modern Ideas and the Ancien Regime — The Great Wars since 1848 — Europe as it now is — Progress of Liberal Ideas ; Parliamentary Government — England : Progress of Liberal Ideas since 1815 ; Catholic Emancipation (1829) ; Parlia mentary Reform Bill (1831—1832); Abolition of Slavery (1834); the Poor Laws— Sir Robert Peel's great Economic Reforms; the Income Tax ; Abolition of the Corn Laws (1846) ; Repeal of the Navigation Laws (1849); Liberty Granted to the Colonies—Parlia mentary Reforms in 1867 and 1884 — England and Ireland — The English Constitution ; the Government ; Parliament — The Aristo cracy, the Gentry ; Local Administration, Parishes, Counties, Justice — Character of the English Nation — Belgium and its Con stitution (1831) — Constitutional Monarchy in Spain (1837) ; Portugal — Holland : Constitution of 1848 — The Swiss Confederation ; the Federal Constitution — Denmark — Sweden : Constitution of 1866 — Kingdom of Italy— The Holy See — Constitutional Austria (1861 — 1867) ; Austrian and Hungarian Parliaments — Constitutional Rule in Prussia (1850 — 1867) — The German Imperial Parliament (1871) ; Military Power of the German Empire — Russia: the Emancipation of the Serfs (1861; — Territory of the Principal States ; Population — Military Power — Maritime Power — Financial Power — Political Europe at the Present Time ......... 408

Chapter XVIII. Literature Axd Art In The Nineteenth Century

Summary.— Renovation of Literature : Revival of Religious and Poetic Feeling; Chateaubriand— Ma iame de Stael— The Literary Movement under the Restoration; Influence of Foreign Literatures — Lyrical Poetry; Lamartine (1790— 1869)— Victor Hugo (1802— 1885) — Dispute between the Classicists and Romanticists — Victor Hugo and the Drama — Victor Hugo's last Works— Casimir Delavigne; Beranger— Poetry since 1830; Alfred de Musset (1810 — 1857)— Tne Theatre since 1830— Novels— The Historical Moveb CONTENTS. XVIII PAGE 457 489 ment ; Augustin Thierry ; Guizot — Thiers — Mignet, Michelet; — Erudition, learned Societies— The Philosophical Movement; Royer- Collard ; Cousin ; the various Schools— The Religious Movement — Political Economy — Parliamentary Eloquence — The Press — Literary Criticism — English Literature ; Poetry ; the Lake School — Byron, Shelley, Tennyson, Browning, Swinburne — Walter Scott — The Historical Novel — Charles Dickens — History and Philosophy — Macaulay — German Literature — Italian Literature — Art : David and his School — Gros ; Gerard— The Classicists and the Romanticists ; Ingres ; Idealism — Gericault — Eugene Delacroix — Paul Delaroche ; Ary Scheffer — Artists since 1830; Horace Vernet — Meissonier — Hippolyte Flandrin ; Cabanel — Painting in Germany, England, Belgium, &c. — Sculpture — Architecture — Music, the Classical School — The Great Operas : Rossini, Donizetti, Meyerbeer, Auber, &c. — Comic Operas : Bo'ieldieu, Adam, Auber, Herold, &c.

Chapter XIX. The Sciences And Their Application To Industry

Summary.— The Scientific Movement ; Natural Sciences : Cuvier ; Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire — Alexander von Humboldt — Elie de Beaumont; Flourens — Evolution — Darwin : Wallace — Mathematical and Physical Sciences : Ampfere ; Arago ; Biot — Œrstedt ; Bunsen ; Faraday ; Humphry Davy — Gay-Lussac — Dumas ; Balard — Astronomy : Arago; Le Verrier — Meteorological Observations — Medicine — Physiology : Claude Bernard — Application of the Physical Sciences ; Navigation by Steam — Locomotives, Railways ; Stephenson ; Seguin — Electro-magnetism and the Telegraph — Wheatstone and Morse's System of Telegraphy — Electricity as an Industrial Agent, Ruhmkorff's System — Artificial Light : Lighthouses — Gas Light — The Electric Light — Air Balloons — Artesian Wells — Suspension Bridges — Photography— The Telephone — The Phonograph —Application of Chemistry — The Scientific Movements of the Nineteenth Century .........

Chapter XX. Economic Transformations And Moral Progress

Summary. — Agriculture — Agricultural Shows and Societies— Agriculture in Europe— Industry ; Mechanical Processes ; First Experiments in the Eighteenth Century ; Arkwright (1732— 1792); Cotton Spinning; CONTENTS. XIX PAGE 508 the Spinning- Jenny — Flax and Hemp Spinning ; Philippe de Girard —Silk Spinning and Weaving ; Jacquard — Manufacture of Paper by Machinery — Printing ;. Lithography — Porcelain in Saxony and France in the Eighteenth Century — Glass — Various Industries — Manufacture of Beetroot Sugar — Importance of the Metal Industry — Industrial Activity of the Different Nations — Industrial Associa tions : Co-operative Societies — Railways — Triumphs of Engineering Art ; the Mont Cenis and St. Gothard Tunnels — The Revolution produced by Railways — The Post; the Universal Postal Union — The Telegraph — Submarine Telegraphs — Transatlantic Navi gation — Piercing of the Isthmus of Suez — Ferdinand de Lesseps -Universal Exhibitions (1851, 1855, 1862, 1867, 1873, 1876, 1878, 1889) — International Commissions ; Propagation of the Metric System— Unity of Coinage — Credit ; Institutions of Credit ; Insur ances — Free Trade and Commercial Treaties — Commercial Activity of the Various Nations — Results of the Economic Revolution — Pro longation of the Average of Life — Moral Progress ; Public Educa tion in France — Public Education in Europe — Progress of Legisla tion — Diminution of Crime — Provident Institutions — Charity; Benevolent Institutions .........

Chapter XXI. Diffusion Of European Civilization Throughout The World

Summary. — Efforts made by European Civilization to extend over the World — America ; Rapid Progress of the United States — Government ; Federal Constitution of the United States ; Freedom of Individual States — Army ; Navy ; Finance — The North and South ; Slavery; The War of Secession (1861— 1865)— Abolition of Slavery (1865)— Agricultural Wealth of the United States— Mineral Wealth : Coal, Iron, Petroleum, &c. — Californian Gold Mines— Industry and Commerce — Railways in the United States— Education — Literature — American Society — British America ; the Dominion of Canada — The North-West Passage — South America ; the Emancipation of the Spanish Colonies— Brazil— The Republics of South and Central America — Mexico — Africa : British Possessions — British South Africa — France in Africa ; Senegal — Algeria — Tunis— The Exploration of Africa ; the Niger ; the Sources of the Nile — Livingstone ; Southern and Central Africa — Cameron; Stanley — The Congo Free State — Ogowe : French Colony of the Congo— Schweinfurth ; Nachtigal— CONTENTS.

XX pag; Portuguese Colonies — German Colonies — The Colonial Empire of Holland — The English in Australia — European Powers in Asia; the British Empire in India — The Material Condition of India : Popu lation ; Railways — The Productions of India — Industry and Art — Moral Condition ; Castes ; Religions— The Russian Empire in Asia ; Siberia — The Caucasian Provinces and Turkestan — China — Chinese Civilization ; Population ; Government — Religion ; Legislation — — Agriculture — Industry — Progress of China — Japan — Government and Progress of Japan — The World as it now is ... . MODERN CIVILIZATION.

Chapter I. Christianity Reorganization And Fall Of The Roman Empire

Summary : The Preparation for the Advent of Christianity ; the Condition of Religion and Philosophy in the Eoman World — Unity of the Roman World; the Right of Universal Citizenship — The Christian Religion — The Persecutions — The Primitive Organization of the Church: the Catacombs — The Apologists : Tertullian — Influence of Christianity — The Decadence of the Roman Empire ; its Causes ; the Absence of a Constitution— The Power and Rivalry of the Prætorians and the Armies ; Civil Wars — Invasion of the Barbarians — Attempts at Restoration in the Fourth Century ; Diocletian ; the Tetrarchy — The Work of Constantine ; the Imperial Power ; the Great Officers — Separation of the Military and Civil Powers — Division of the Provinces into Prefectures, Dioceses, &c. — The New Nobility — The Classes — The Curiales — The Inferior Classes ; the Plebs ; Husbandmen — Slaves— The Taxes — Constantine and Christianity ; the Edict of Milan (313) — Organization of the Church; Bishoprics, Archbishoprics, &c. — The Council of Kicæa — Constantinople — The Pagan Reaction under Julian — The Heresies ; the Fathers of the Greek Church — The Fathers of the Latin Church — Hermits and Monks — Final Causes of the Fall of the Roman Empire, and of the Success of the Invasions — What Rome has given to the World — The Legacy of Antiquity.

Notes : The Roman Calendar — Basilicas transformed into Churches. The Preparation for the Advent of Christianity ; the Condition of Religion and Philosophy in the Roman World. — Greek and Roman philosophy had vainly sought to solve the problem which vexes the mind of man — the problem of whence and whither — B the problem of his own destiny. After he had exhausted systems and hypotheses nothing remained to man but confused theories about the Supreme Being, Providence, and the soul, with a morality the doctrines of which were accessible to the learned only. The contradictions between the eclectic beliefs of Cicero and the negations of Lucretius, between the hedonism of the Epicureans and the proud self mastery of the Stoics, increased the scepticism of the multitude. Philosophy had no power to guide or govern the mind and life of man.