The Jummoo and Kashmir Territories. A geographical account

Front matter

CITY OF SIRINAGAR. From a Photograph by Frith THE JUMMOO AND KASHMIR TERRITORIES. A GEOGRAPHICAL ACCOUNT. BY FREDERIC DREW, F.R.G.S. F.G.S. ASSOCIATE OF THE ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES; LATE OF THE MAHARAJA OF KASHMIR'S SERVICE LONDON: EDWAED STANFOED, 55, CHAKING CEOSS, S.W. 1875. TO HIS HIGHNESS THE MAHAEAJA KANBlH SINGH, G.C.S.I. RULER OF .JUMMOO AND KASHMIR. WITH THE AUTHOR'S SINCERE GOOD WISHES FOR THE PROSPERITY OF HIS HOUSE AND GOVERNMENT, AND FOR THE WELFARE OF THE PEOPLE OF HIS COUNTRY, tf tys gook is JJtbitattb.

Preface

. Nearly all that it was necessary for me to say by way of introduction, I have written in the first chapter. Only here, on the threshold, should be pointed out the system on which the Indian names and other words have been spelt. I have followed that which has variously been called — after those who have either elaborated or applied it — the Jonesian, Forbesian, or Hunterian system, but which now, from the increasing use of it and from its adoption by some of the departments of the Government of India, fairly merits to be called the Indian system of applying the Eoman alphabet. In this the ten vowel sounds which occur in the languages of northern India are represented by the five vowels of our alphabet, by an accentuation (to denote elongation) of three of them, and by two diphthongs. The following table will make clear to anyone who speaks English the exact native Indian pronunciation of these vowels.

In the middle column is an English word whose vowel-sound corresponds with that of the character to the left of it, while the third column shows the same word as it would be spelt on the Indian system, to retain its original sound. „ ,. . .. Indian spelling of the English word to En^'b wor§ the Indian vowel. . exemplify the so„nd remaining pronunciation. ihe same. a bun ban a palm para i bin bin I been bin u pull pul u pool pul e day de o bowl bol ai fine fain au fowl faul For the elongation of the vowels a, i and u I have used the lonomark " ; others who follow this system use the acute VI

PREFACE.

. accent ', and others the circumflex accent * ; in any case the same effect on the sound is intended. Tbe power given to the consonants varies little from that which they have in English ; only one or two remarks are necessary. There are two kinds of t, of d, and of r, one dental, made by the tongue against the teeth, one cerebral, made by the tongue against the back part of the palate ; these I have not distinguished except in Appendices I., II., III., the special object of which required the distinction.* In these places the cerebral t, d, and r are marked by the letters being put in a type different from that of the rest of the word. Also the nasal n (as in the French on) is distinguished by a dot above it thus h. The letter c is not used except in the combination ch, which has the power of ch in church.

Sh is pronounced as in English. G is always hard as in go. J is to be pronounced as it is in the English word jam. Q stands for a more deeply guttural h. An apostrophe ' stands for the Arabic letter 'ain ; in pronouncing Indian words it may be neglected with little harm, since the natives of India make little or no difference for it. I have endeavoured to carry out this system consistently except in a very few cases. Of these exceptions an instance is to be found in the title of the book, where the name ' Jummoo ' must be pronounced in English fashion, and I have adhered to the same spelling of that place all through the text and in the maps. My reason for making this exception was that the name would necessarily be read before this preface, and yet without a previous explanation there was no likelihood of the reader getting any where near the right pronunciation if it had been spelt on the Indian system.

Had I systematically transliterated the name as it is found in the two characters Devanagari and Persian, it would be respectively Janbu and Jamun, with the nasal n. Either of these forms would have been such a stumbling block at the beginning that I thought it best in this case to be inconsistent. Again, ' Kashmir ' I have all through spelt without the long mark which, by the rule, it should have over the i. This spelling has * In the Index also, tbe native words have these letters so distinguished.

PREFACE.

. VII become common in England, and since it is so little different from the systematic form, it seemed unnecessary to disturb it ; aud this applies to a few other words, such as ' Eaja,' which should have a long mark over the first a. It may also be mentioned that ' Himalaya ' (which I have everywhere spelt thus) should, to denote its right pronunciation, also have a long mark over the first a. One difficulty I have had with reference to some of the names on the maps. The names of those places (not indeed many) with the pronunciation of which I am not familiar, have been taken from various maps, chiefly from those of the Great Trigono metrical Survey. Now this Survey in constructing the Kashmir series spelt the names according to no system at all ; the same vowel will, sometimes in the same name even, have two different powers.

While trying, then, to reduce these to the Indian system, I have in some cases been uncertain what sound was intended by the word as I found it on the maps ; hence some errors may have crept in. I wish here to call attention to Appendix VII., which contains tables of the Census and the Trade of the Territories. The Census was taken after I left Kashmir, and the information reached me too late for incorporation in the text. My estimate of the population of Jummoo given in p. 63, must be corrected by reference to the Table. In conclusion, I wish to offer my acknowledgments to Mr. Frith for the permission to reproduce some of his beautiful photographs. F. D. 28, Jeemyn Street, London, June, 1875. ■ CONTENTS. CHAPTEE I. I'sVG I, Introduction 1 CHAPTEE II. Region op the Outer Hills : Physical Characters 2G The Plain in front of the hills 28 Eastern division of the Outer Hills 31 Western division of the Outer Hills 35 Climate and vegetation 40 CHAPTEE III.

Inhabitants op the Outer Hills 43 The Dogras 43 Dogra Brahmans 44 Dogra Eajputs 45 Rajput subdivisions 47 Rajput customs 49 Other castes of Dogras . . 54 The Chibhalls 57 CHAPTEE IV. Jummoo and the Court Cl The city of Jummoo 62 The daily custom of the Court 65 Special darbars 68 Ahunt 73 A royal marriage 76 CHAPTEE V. Various Places in the Outer Hills » 83 East of the Chinab 84 West of the Chinab CONTENTS. X CHAPTEE VI. PAGE Region op the Middle Mountains 96 Ramnagar to Bhadarwah 98 Bhadarwah 103 Paharis, or dwellers on the Middle Mountains 106 Gaddis 107 Gujars 109 Valley of the Chinab Ill Kishtwar 116 Kishtwar history 118 Kishtwar to Padar 122 Padar 125 Padar history 129 Bhutna 133 Middle Mountains of the west 136 CHAPTEE VII. March from Jummoo to Kashmir 139 Routes from the Plains to Sirinagar, in Kashmir 139 Preparations for the journey 141 Jummoo to Akhnur : one march 145 Timber-catching at Akhnur 148 Akhnur to Rajaori : five marches 152 Rajaori to Sirinagar : eight marches 156 CHAPTEE VIII.

Kashmir 161 Position and size 161 The plain of the river alluvium 163 The plateaus, or Karewas 167 Climate of the valley 170 The country people of Kashmir 174 The people of the city 178 The city of Siriuagar 2g3 Environs of Sirinagar Igg Summer retreats jgg CHAPTEE IX. The Mountains Rocnd Kashmir ]t)2 Preliminary observations sn. Main chain, from Nanga Parbat to Nun Kun igi The Mountains of the northern boundary 299 The Mountains on the east onn The Panjal Range 202 The Jhelam valley below Baramula oft^ CONTENTS. XI CHAPTEE X. PAGE The Later Geological History op Kashmir .. 207 CHAPTEE XI. March from Kashmir to Leh in Ladakh 213 Up the Sind valley to the foot of the Pass : six marches 214 Through the Pass to Dras : two marches 222 Dras to Kargil : three marches 226 Kargil to Khalsi : four marches 230 Khalsi to Leh : four marches 232 CHAPTEE XII.

Ladakh : The Inhabitants 238 Ladakhis 239 Champas 241 Colonies in Ladakh . . . . 242 Mode of livelihood 245 Position of the women ' 250 Certain customs 252 Monasteries aud Lamas ' 254 CHAPTEE XIII. Central Ladakh, Nubra, and Zanskar 260 Mountain chains of Ladakh 260 Central Ladakh 262 Road from Leh to Nubra 271 Nubra 272 Zanskar 280 CHAPTEE XIV. Ladakh: The Higher Valleys 285 Rupshu 285 Rupshu as inhabited 286 Rarity of the air 290 The Salt Lake valley 292 Tsomoriri 301 Tso Kyaghar 308 Indus valley 310 Pangkong lake 317 Changchenmo ( i INTENTS. XII CHAPTEE XV. PAGE Ladakh I The Plateaus 331 The southern watershed 334 Lingzhithang 336 The Lokzhung Mountains 342 The Kuenlun Plains 344 General observations 349 CHAPTEE XVI. Baltistan 355 The Baltis 356 Skardu 360 Shigar - •■ 365 Basha 366 Braldu 370 Rondu 371 Deosai 376 The game of Polo 380 CHAPTEE XVII.

Dakdistan : The Country 393 The road from Kashmir to Gilgit 393 Astor 397 BawaujI 405 Gilgit 406 Punial 410 Indus floods 414 CHAPTEE XVIII. Dardistan: The People 422 General description of the Dards 423 Castes 425 Muhammadanism among the Dards 429 Buddhist Dards 430 Sundry notes ... 432 CHAPTEE XIX. Dardistan: Gilgit History 435 Before the coming of Sikhs in 1842 43c The Sikh occupation ; 1842 to 1847 .. 4;i7 The succession of the Dogras ; 1847 . . ion The expulsion of the Dogras ; 1852 ... Re-conquest by the Dogras ; 1860 .10 Later hostilities ; 1863 to 1869 44g Changes at Yasin ; 1870 to 1873 ,rrt CONTENTS. XIII CHAPTEE XX. PAGE Dardistan : Countries around Gilgit 456 CHAPTEE XXI. Languages 462 Dogri 463 Chibhali 464 The Pahim dialects and Kashmiri 466 Dard dialects 468 The Tibetan 469 Use of Persian 470 Written characters 471 CHAPTEE XXII.

Explanation op the Maps and Sections 474 Map of India 474 General map 474 The five maps 476 Altitudes 477 Snow map 481 Race map 488 Language map 491 Faith map 492 Political map 493 Surrounding states 493 The Boundary-line 494 Interior divisions 497 Routes 498 Isometric views and sections 499 Appendix I. — Dogri Grammar 503 Appendix II. — Vocabularies compared 516 Appendix III. — Phrases in Rambani and Bhadarwahl 522 Appendix IV. — Routes 523 Appendix V.— Treaties 545 Appendix VI. — Genealogy of the Rajas of Jummoo to face page 552 Appendix VII. — Statistical tables 553 Index LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE The City of Sirinagar {From a photograph by Frith) Frontispiece Mosque of Shah Hamadan, Sirinagar Title-page Group of Dogra soldiers ( Woodbury-type, from a photograph) . . to face page 45 Rough plan of the Sarae at Saidabad 91 Gaddis {From a photograph) 1U8 Akhnur Fort, on the Chinab "1 A Kangri ' ' Kashmiri Pandits {Woodbury-type, from a photograph by Frith) to face page 178 Kashmiri Boatmen {Woodbury-type, from a photograph by Frith) to face page 180 Nanga Parbat, from Babamarishi in Kashmir .'. .. 196 Nun Kun, from the Margan Pass 199 Section across valley, between the Panjal and Ratan ridges 204 Glacier near Thajwaz, by Sonamarg 219 View approaching Baltal 222 The Karkit Valley, seen from the opposite bank 228 Ladakhi cap 240 Figure of Chamba, near Sankho 257 Kag5.ni, Lamayuru 258 Section across the Indus Valley 266 Section across the Indus Valley near Garkon 266 Section through the Leh Range 272 High peaks east of Nubra 279 Section of beaches, Pangkong 321 Mounds of Lacustrine clay, LingzhithaDg 340 Shingle-beaches, Lingzhithang 341 Valley in the Lokzhung Range 343 Dogra Fort, Skardu 363 K 2, 28,265 feet ; as seen from Turmik 370 Polo sticks 388 Section across Tarshing Glacier 400 Gilgit Fort in 1870 408 A Group of Dards ( Woodbury-type, from a photograph by Frith) to face page 424 Hay ward's grave 455 Diagram illustrating the relationship of Languages LIST OF THE MAPS.

Map of India. Language Map. Snow Map. Faith Map. Race Map. Political Map. General Map {in pocket). LIST OF THE ISOMETRIC VIEWS AND SECTIONS. View No. 1. — The mountains between the Panjab and Kashmir. View No. 2. — The mountains on the north-east of Kashmir, with a section through the Vale. View No. 3. — The mountains on the noi'th-e.ist of the Indus river. Section 1. — From Abbotabad to Nanga Parbat and beyond. Section 2. — From Bhimbar across the head of the Kashmir Valley to Kargil and beyond. Section 3. — From Jasrota, through Zanskar, to Leh and beyond. Section 4. — From near Hoshiyarpur, through Rupshu, to the Kuenlun Plains and Mountains. THE JUMMOO AND KASHMIR TERRITORIES. CHAPTEE I.

Introduction

. The aim I had before mo in writing this book was the represen tation of those geographical facts concerning a country I for many years lived in, which had made such an impression on my mind, or which had been so noted down by me, that there was hope of my passing them on to others in such a way as to make on their minds a clear and distinct image. The account is limited almost entirely to the description of what I have not only seen, but well remembered. By this I hold myself exempted from giving other reasons why certain places or certain subjects have been dealt with less fully than their importance might seem to require. For though in the course of ten years I visited almost every portion of the tract of country named in the title-page, and in some parts resided long, yet other parts I may have seen but a few times, and others still have passed through but once.

And there was equal variety in the extent to which I noted down what I saw, this being some times least where I stayed longest. Now since, without having made definite notes on the spot, I have seldom ventured on description, this circumstance in itself will account for much inequality in the treatment of the parts of my subject. But, for all this, I have hopes that there will be found a connection between the portions of the book sufficient to constitute a thread by which the reader [Chap. I. 2 JUMMOO AND KASHMIR TERRITORIES. may find his way through what is the really complicated geography of a tract which is large in extent and varied in character. There is no large part of this country that is altogether unknown to the Western world. There is hardly any place we shall reach that has not been visited, and few places that have not been measured, by Englishmen who have preceded me.

Many of the previous travellers, too, have given to the public the results of their observations. If I were writing a compilation from their books and memoirs, or if I were attempting to conso lidate their information with my own, this would be the place to enumerate their various works. But as I propose rather to give a simple version of what I myself observed, whether it be the same as, or whether it be different from, what has before been told, I shall only refer to other writers where I have been distinctly indebted to them, or where it may be necessary to comment on their facts or their conclusions. I have confined myself in this account to the territories of the Maharaja of Kashmir, for the reason that my travels in the Himalayas were almost entirely restricted to them. This ruler has for his full title " Maharaja of Jummoo and Kashmir."

By the Panjabls he is most commonly called after the former place, by Englishmen after the latter. It is this last practice which has led Englishmen at home to confound " Kashmir " with the whole of the territories. This mistake (which has unfortunately found its way into the maps of India) I try to guard against by using for my book the title " Jummoo and Kashmir Territories," and by restricting the use of the word " Kashmir " to the very defined tract that from time immemorial has borne the name. It must be understood, moreover, that the above title held by the Maharaja is not complete as denoting all the territories ruled by him ; for these include, besides the Jummoo districts and Kashmir, the more distant countries of Ladakh, Baltistan, and Gilgit, all of which will come under our notice.

The relationship, physical and political, of this tract with India now deserves our attention. The map of India, given with this book, will help us to understand its position at the edge of CilAP. I.] 3

INTRODUCTION.

. the great plain of India which sweeps unbroken from the mouths of the Ganges to the western part of the Panjab, continuously skirted on the north by the Himalaya Eange, which has a direction varying in a curve from east and west to south-east and north-west. It is the last strip of the plain and the wide mass of the mountains on the north of the Panjab that make up the territory. Politically, it is a government tributary to the Queen, with relations defined by certain treaties, which will be more fully spoken of hereafter, but whose result may here be said to be that the ruler is obliged to govern his foreign politics according to the views of the Government of India, while in domestic administration he is nearly independent. Measurements of the territory show it to have a length in one direction, from south-east to north-west, of close on 400 miles, and at right angles to that, from south-west to north-east, of 3.50 miles.

Measured from south to north it may be said to extend for 240 miles from lat. 32° 30' to lat. 36° N. ; and from east to west, for 350 or 400 miles, from long. 73° 30' to 80° E. ; these, however, must be taken only as general measurements, the irre gularity of outline prevents a more definite statement in brief. The area I estimate at 6S,000 square miles. The form of the ground we have endeavoured to represent on the maps both by careful attention to the hill-shading and by the statement of the heights of certain positions. Under the heading of each tract described much will be said on this subject ; but at this stage it is advisable to give a slight sketch of the vertical geography of the whole area. The lowest part is the strip of plain on the south-west, which is continuous with the great level plain of the Panjab ; it is 900 or 1000 feet above the sea.

The mountains begin along a very definite line. The first ridge is a line of hill from 1000 to 2000 feet above the plain, that is to say 2000 or 3000 feet above the sea. Next comes a tract of rugged country, which includes various ridges running nearly parallel to the first one, with long narrow valleys between them. These ridges are 3000 and 4000 feet high, while the valleys have b [Cuaf. I. 4 JUMMOO AND KASHMIR TERRITORIES. commonly a level of near 2000 feet. This and the outermost ridge together I call the Region of the Outer Hills. It is on the whole a rugged space, partly covered by a low forest or by scrub, partly of bare sandstone rock. Next within is the tract to which I give the name of " The Middle Mountains." It is a space occupied by hills commonly of 8000 to 10,000 feet in height, covered with pasture or else with forest.

These hills are not, like the last, in parallel lines, but in ramifications, divided by equally ramifying valleys. Some of the valleys reach to as low as 2500 feet. We now come to more lofty mountain ranges, which rise first to rocky heights and then to the region of perpetual snow. A great chain of snowy mountains, running south-east and north west, divides the drainage of the Chinab and Jhelam rivers from that of the higher branches of the Indus. Its summits vary from 27,000 down to 15,000 feet ; in one part of it peaks of 20,000 and 21,000 are not uncommon. What may be called branches from this enclose the valley or plain of Kashmir with hills, of which many are 14,000 to 15,000 feet high, the wide valley encircled by them itself being 5000 and 6000. All beyond that great range we find to be a wide tract of mountainous country, the whole of which is at a high level ; it is the north-western part of Tibet ; Ladakh and Baltistan are divisions of it, and Gilgit may, in a physico-geographical point of view, be said to belong to it.

Here the mountain ranges are of heights of from 17,000 up to 22,000 feet and more ; one peak (which yet is unnamed, though the second highest known in the world) has an altitude of 28,265 feet.* The valleys of this region vary much in character; in the south eastern part are high-level flat valleys, from 1 mile to 5 or 6 iu wi 1th, at elevations of 15,000 and 14,000 feet ; from that, as one goes north-westward, their height descends, the space at the same time narrowing, lofty mountains always bounding them, ultimately to as low as 5000 feet above the sea ; at the lower levels also are sometimes widenings of the valley-bottom. * This altitude has been determined trigonometrically by the Great Tiio-ono metrical Survey of India ; the peak is numbered on their maps K 2. Chap. I.] '■>

INTRODUCTION.

. In a few places are table-lands ; they are flat spaces surrounded by mountains ; too wide to be called valleys, I thus differently class them. The most remarkable are the Deosai plateau, and the plateau of Lingzhithang and the Kuenlun plains ; the former is 12,000 or 13,000 and the latter 16,000 to 17,000 feet above the sea. With these great variations of level the climate must necessarily be different for every region. The temperature ranges from the more than tropical heat of the Panjab summer to such an intensity of cold as keeps perpetual snow on the mountains.* In the inhabited places even the variation is such that in the lower parts the fashion of the poor of India of going almost unclad is followed ; in the higher, sheep-skin coats are wanted for protection against the cold, and people are, in places, confined to their houses by snow for seven months in the year.

Besides temperature, there is the element of moisture, which gives another variety to the climate. We may distinguish roughly countries of four degrees of humidity : — (1) Where the periodical rains prevail. (2) Where the periodical rains do not reach, but there is rainfall enough for all crops but rice without need of irrigation. (3) Where no crops can be raised without irrigation and the hill-sides are for the most part bare, but some forest grows on portions of the mountain slopes. (4) Where no crops can be raised without irrigation, and the whole country is bare both of forest and of pasture ; this tract is nearly rainless. The greatest degree of difference in aspect of country, and probably in absolute degree of moisture, is between the first two on the one hand and the last two on the other.

The first region includes the Outer Hills and the Middle Moun tains. The second is Kashmir. The third and fourth are on the far * For tlie altitudes at which perpetual snow occurs see Chap, xxii., under the heading " Snow Map." side of the great watershed range ; the third, which may be said to have a semi-Tibetan climate, includes Astor with some parts of Gilgit and Baltistan, and the fourth, that which enjoys the Tibetan, or almost rainless, climate, takes in the rest of Gilgit, the greater part of Baltistan, and all Ladakh. Now let us enter on the subject of the peopling of this country, of the races of men who inhabit it. Varied as it is in form and other physical characters it is little less so in its population. The several tribes that dwell here, dotted over the lower hills or sheltering in the valleys that divide the loftier mountains, are, some, of widely different origin, and some, though of nearer relation, still of widely different character.

There is here to be found, by one who would work it out in detail, ample illustration of the principles of Ethnological Science and a store of facts to fill in parts of it where our knowledge is wanting. All that I myself can hope to do is to put down some of that information which can be acquired by a traveller not trained to these inquiries. The following is the list of the races which have a distinct geographical distribution, and such characteristics as to render the description and separation of them practicable. Aryan. Dogra. Kashmiri. Dard. Chibhali Pahari. Turanian. Tibetan : subdivided into Balti, Ladakhi, Champa. This classification is more national than tribal. For the southern parts especially another division might be attempted — that is, one according to castes. But though certainly such a classification would tend to throw more light on the origin, the sources, of the different tribes, yet in the present state of our knowledge, without more detail as to the subdivisions of castes than we have at present, it would not be practicable, and in any case would not be one that could be expressed on a map as I have done with that here Chap. I.]

INTRODUCTION.

. 7 adopted. My own at all events expresses the actual national distinctions. Each race will be described as we come to the country in habited by it, but here too a few words may be said. The Dogras and Chibhalls were originally one, but they have now become separated in many characteristics, from the latter having become Muhammadans, while the Dogras remained Hindu. They are well-featured races, of rather slight build ; together they occupy all the Outer Hill region.* The Paharis are a stouter race, hardy, as befits those who live for part of the year among snow ; for these inhabit the eastern part of the Middle Mountains, on which snow falls to a considerable depth. They are iu great majority Hindu. The name " Paharl " simply means " mountaineer," but in these parts it is restricted to this particular race.

The Kashmiris, though allied to the Paharis, are a race possessing very marked characters ; they are large-made and robust, and of a cast of features really fine ; they occupy their own mountain-bounded country of Kashmir, and have, besides, overflowed it here and there and settled in the higher parts of the neighbouring valleys and in outlying places. They are in large proportion Muhammadan, but some fraction of them remain Hindu. The Dards are a race who, though Aryans also, are very different and easily distinguishable from Kashmiris. With a very curious exception, that will be noted under Dardistan, they also are Muhammadans. They dwell in the highly mountainous country north of Kashmir ; they abut against the Tibetan Baltis on the east, and have as their neighbours on the west the Pathans or Afghans.

All these hitherto enumerated races have features distinctly of the Aryan type, still with marked differences among themselves, which will be noted in the succeeding chapters. * In reality the Chibhalls include, besides Muhammadanised Dogras, some people of other tribes, who also have become Muhammadans. More will be said on this subject in Chap. in. The Tibetan races, whom we now reach, have the characteristics of the Turanian family (of which the Chinese and the Japanese are the instances most known to Englishmen) in varying degree. The Champas have those features most markedly, next the Ladakhi, and in a less degree the Balti. The two first of these subdivisions are Buddhist in religion, the last Muhammadan. Of these Tibetan races are the people who live in the loftiest of the inha bited regions ; the Champas, who are nomads, wander among the high-level valleys of Rupshu ; the Ladakhis, who are a settled and cultivating race, are in villages which in height above the sea vary from 13,500 to 9500 feet ; the next, the Baltis, are found at from 10,000 or 11,000 down to 6000 feet.

As for the languages spoken, a separate chapter treats of them, and some facts of their distribution are given in the explanation of the Language Map.* Countries separated by so many mountain chains ; races so widely different ; how did they all come to be under one ruler ? The answer to this almost resolves itself into the history of one man, of the one who by exercising with wonderful persistence the qualities of a soldier and a diplomatist succeeded in raising himself from an inconspicuous station to a position in which his adherence and goodwill became of extreme value to the British Government in India, who, in their turn, enabled him to achieve an object that for long had been dear to his heart, and in giving over to him Kashmir completed the agglomeration of all the countries we are treating of into one state.