Roman Society in the last century of the Western Empire

Front matter

EOMAN SOCIETY IN THE LAST CENTUEY OF THE WESTEEN EMPIEE ROMAN SOCIETY IN THE LAST CENTUKY OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE BY SAMUEL DILL, M.A. PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN QUEEN'S COLLEGE, BELFAST SOMETIME FELLOW AND TUTOR OF CORPUS CHRISTI COLLEGE, OXFORD ILonUon MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited NEW YORK : THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1898 All rights reserved PEEFACE A few words of preface seem to be necessary to explain the object of this book, and the limits within which the writer has wished to confine it. It is perhaps superfluous to say that nothing like a general history of the period has been attempted. That is a task which has been already accomplished by abler hands. The subject of this work is mainly what it professes to be, the inner life and thoughts of the last three generations iu the Empire of the West.

If external events are referred to, it is only because men's private fortunes and feelings cannot be severed from the fortunes of the State. The limits of the period covered by this study of Eoman society have not been arbitrarily chosen. The last hundred years of the Western Empire seem marked off both by momentous events, and, for the student of society, by the authorities at his command. The commencement of the period coincides roughly with the passage of the Gothic hordes across the Danube, the accession of Gratian and Theodosius, the termination of the long truce between paganism and the Christian Empire, and the reopening of the conflict which, within twenty years, ended in the final prohibition of heathen rites. It closes, not only with the deposition of the last shadowy Emperor of the West, but with the practical ex tinction of Eoman power in the great prefecture of the Gauls.

Perhaps even more obvious are the lines drawn by the fullest authorities for our subject. The earliest extant letters of Symmachus, which describe the relations of the last generation ROMAN SOCIETY VI of great pagan nobles, belong to the years 376—390. The literary and political activity of Ausonius coincides with the same years, and from his poems we derive an invaluable picture of a provincial society in the reigns of Gratian and Theodosius. A searching light is thrown on the same genera tion by some of S. Jerome's letters, by the Saturnalia of Macrobius, and by many Inscriptions. At the other end of our period we are almost equally fortunate in our information. The works of Apollinaris Sidonius of Auvergne are a priceless revelation of the state of society, both in Eome and in Gaul, from the accession of Avitus till the final triumph of the Visigothic power.

Preface

VII such a period without some reference to those who devoted themselves to the higher ideals of the Christian life. But they belong rather to the future. Our interest in these pages must be concentrated on those whose greatest pride it was to preserve and transmit the traditions of the past. The main purpose of this work is to give some account of that worldly society which, in its ideals, tone, and external fortunes, had undergone but little change between the reign of Gratian and the dethronement of Eomulus Augustulus. The period is an obscure one, and the materials are often scanty. The difficulty of arranging them in an orderly view is not slight ; and the writer is painfully conscious that a critical eye may easily discover omissions and faults of treat ment. His only claim is that he has made an honest attempt to answer a question which has often presented itself to his own mind — How were men living, and what were their thoughts and private fortunes, during that period of stirring change ?

It only remains for the author to express his warmest thanks to his old pupil and friend, the Eev. Charles Plummer, Fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, for the kind care with which he has gone over the proof-sheets. ith October 1898. CONTENTS

Book I The Tenacity Of Paganism Chaptee

I THE PAGAN ARISTOCRACY AND THE CONFUSION OF PARTIES Obstinate attachment to paganism both among the vulgar and the educated — Causes of this — Influence of Eastern cults — Philosophic monotheism — Patriotism and antiquarian sentiment — Roman feeling shocked by the ascetic spirit which turned its back on public duty — Yet the line between Christian and pagan in the fourth century was not sharply drawn — Intermixture of opposing creeds in the same family, and in general society — The latter illustrated by the circle of Q. Aur. Symmachus — Its leading members both Christian and pagan — Character of Symmachus — of Praetextatus — of Flavianus — Some German chiefs — S. Ambrose — Sext. Petron. Probus — Jovius — Priscus Attalus ....

Pages 3-22 CHAPTEE II THE LAST CONFLICTS OF PAGANISM WITH THE CHRISTIAN EMPIRE The long series of anti-pagan laws down to 439 — Practical toleration till the reign of Gratian — The removal of the altar of Victory and the protest of the Senate — Symmachus represents their views to the Emperor — His speech — Symmachus and Flavianus still high in imperial favour in 391 — Decided legislation of 392 — Yet apostasy was frequent — Why the pagan cause did not seem hopeless — The usurpation of Eugenius — Flavianus heads the pagan reaction — The battle on the Frigidus — Yet the Senate is still obstinately pagan — Legislation of Honorius — How anti-pagan laws were defeated by the negligence of governors and inferior officers — Yet this semi-pagan sentiment had a good effect in checking the destruction of temples and X works of art — The tolerant policy of Stilicho — Outbreak of pagan feeling on the appearance of Alaric and Radagaesus — Christian calumnies against Stilicho — Olympius and the Catholic reaction — Brief triumph of paganism under Attalus — Fate of Claudian, the poet of the pagan Senate — The poem of Rutilius Namatianus, another pagan poet — Tone of Rutilius — His hatred of Jews and monks — Magic, astrology, the theatre, and the games are the last strongholds of paganism — Tuscan diviners offer their services against Alaric — Attitude of Innocent, bishop of Rome — Legislation against the magic arts — Neoplatonism gives its countenance to them — The diviners under the government of Attalus — The gladiatorial shows — They had been exhibited by the best emperors, and defended by men of high character — Their abolition in the reign of Honorius — The passion of Romans for the theatre — Character of later legislation on the subject — How the taste still lasted in the age of the invasions Pages 23-49 CHAPTEE III S.

AUGUSTINE AND OROSIUS ON THE CAPTURE OF ROME The moral effect of the capture of Rome by Alaric on pagan and Christian minds — Was it due to desertion of the gods of Rome ? — Why have Christians suffered in the sack of the City ? — The controversy is keenest in Africa — Doubts of Volusianus and his friends — S. Augustine's answer — The City of God begun in 413 — How S. Augustine deals with the catastrophe — The old religion did not protect its votaries — It did not give prosperity — It was impotent for good and fruitful of evil — Orosius arrives in Hippo — His historical task, to prove that past ages suffered far greater calamities than the Christian Empire had endured — Orosius' mode of dealing with history — His curious omissions and gross exaggeration — Both S. Augustine and Orosius addressed an educated class, which must have been numerous and formidable ....... 50-61 CHAPTEE IV SOME CAUSES OF THE VITALITY OF THE LATER PAGANISM The character of the native religion of Rome, formal, scrupulous, uninspiring — The real living paganism was of foreign origin — Power of foreign cults in the fourth century — Evidence of the Inscriptions — Growing influence of Eastern religions under the Empire— The characteristics of the worship of Isis— The character of Mithra-worship— The mysteries of Mithra— The Taurobolium in the fourth century — Mithra the great enemy of Christianity —Moral and devotional effects of such worships — Illustration from the initiation of Lucius in the mysteries of Isis described by Apuleius — The procession to the sea — The launching of the sacred bark — The prayers in the temple— The preparation of Lucius for communion— His baptism and initiation— His prayer of thanksgiving— Plutarch's monotheism and devout CONTENTS XI feeling' — The monotheistic tendency in the later paganism — Illustrated from the Saturnalia of Macrobius — The tendency to syncretism and monotheism — How the Romans identified foreign deities with their own — The in fluence of the Empire, by bringing so many peoples under one rule, tended to amalgamation of worships and a vague monotheism — The creed of the pagan Maximus of Madaura in the time of S.

Augustine — The influence of philosophy — Plutarch the father of the movement — Neoplatonism at Rome — Fascination of Plotinus — Degeneracy of Neoplatonism in the reign of Julian — Yet Julian's moral aims were high — Why Neoplatonism was committed to a defence of paganism, partly by traditional sentiment, partly by the instinct of philosophic freedom — How the system of Emanation lent itself to a support of paganism — The justification of myth — The Divine can only be expressed by fiction — The superstition of the later Alexandrines founded on the doctrine of daemons and of secret affinities linking all parts of the universe together — Yet even in the last age the purer influences of Neoplatonism were not extinct — Illustration of this from the commentary of Macrobius on the Dream of Scipio — Its characteristics — It combines physical and astronomical speculation with an ethical and devotional purpose — The Supreme One — The universe God's temple — The fall of man through the seven spheres — The immersion of the soul in the material world — The soul must not quit its prison in the body but await its release, and keep fresh the memory of its Divine source — Virtue the only hope of eternal felicity — The different degrees of virtue — A man may serve his country and yet seek a "citizenship which is in heaven" Pages 62-93

Book II Sketches Of Westeen Society Feom Symmachus To Sidonius Chaptee

I THE INDICTMENT OF HEATHEN AND CHRISTIAN MORALISTS The judgment of satirists and moralists on the morality of an age must be accepted with caution— Characteristics of Roman satire, especially that of Juvenal— History proves that it was extravagant— In the last age of the Empire asceticism condemned the world en masse— It dealt as hardly with Christian as with pagan morality— The views of Ammianus Marcellinus, a pagan, on the character of his age— He is honest, but perhaps rather hard and narrow— He accuses the upper class of pride, frivolity, and luxury, rather than of gross vice— Judgment of S. Jerome— His connection with high society— His female friends— Why his censures must be accepted with reserve— His ascetic spirit and plain speaking illustrated from the letter to Demetrias de Virginitate — He does not attack the morals of leading pagans like Praetextatus, but he reveals some of the perils to virtue in Roman life — Corrupting influence of slaves — Female extravagance in dress — Danger in fashionable gatherings — Dangers of the banquet — S. Jerome's view compared with the picture in the Saturnalia of Macrobius — S. Jerome deals most hardly with the professedly religious — Worldliness among the higher clergy — Their luxury, cupidity, and doubtful relations with women — Clerical and monkish avarice — The "Agapetarum pestis" — Painful pictures of female hypocrisy — Salvianus on the morals of Southern Gaul after the invasions — Account of his career — The theme of the De Guberna tione Dei — The calamities of the time due to Roman profligacy and oppression of the poor by the rich — The corruption of the governing class — The passion for the theatre and the circus — The frenzy of debauchery in the crisis of the invasions — Aquitaine wholly abandoned to vice — Can Salvianus be believed ? — No confirmation to be found in Symmachus, Ausonius, or Sidonius — The key to his unconscious exaggeration — He is a preacher and ascetic enthusiast ......

Pages 97-120 CHAPTEE II THE SOCIETY OF Q. AURELIUS SYMMACHUS The family of Q. Aurelius Symmachus — His position and fame as an orator — Lack of information on public affairs in his letters — Position of the Senate — Rome no longer the seat of government — Proud reticence of the upper class — Yet Symmachus gives glimpses of the dangerous state of the city from the failure of the corn-supply in the war with Gildo — The wealth of the senatorial class — Estimate of senatorial incomes — Profuse expenditure illustrated by the preparations for the games to be given in honour of the praetorship of the younger Symmachus — The stiff ceremonious etiquette of life at Rome — The charms of country life felt as a relief — Passion for literature and learning in the circle of Symmachus, Praetextatus, and Flavianus — Literary affectation and ambition — Knowledge and critical study of the great authors combined with great degeneracy of style — Influence of cliques — Passion for rhetorical exhibitions still strong — Mutual flattery — Yet there was a genuine love of literature in the upper class — How letters gave a man a career — Palladius, Marinianus, Ausonius There are glimpses of selfishness and cruelty in the society of Symmachus — But both he and Macrobius leave the impression that the life of the upper class is regular and decent — Testimony of Macrobius as to the decrease of luxury and drunkenness — Stricter ideas about dancing and acting — Humane feeling towards slaves — Family affection of Symmachus Change in the position of women under the Empire — Became more the intellectual companions of men, cultivated, taking a leading part in charity etc.

Symmachus believed in the old Roman conception of woman's place His anxiety about his children — Care of his son's education — Reads Greek with him— Symmachus' last letters— His journey to Milan while the Goths are in the valley of the Po .... 121-140 CONTENTS XIII CHAPTEE III THE SOCIETY OF AQUITAINE IN THE TIME OF AUSONIUS The wealth and peace of Aquitaine — The value of the poems of Ausonius — He has preserved the portraits of a provincial circle — Family loyalty of Ausonius — Portraits of his grandfather, an Aeduan astrologer, who casts his horoscope — His father, the Stoic physician — His female relatives, characterised by a Puritan quietude — The literary career of Ausonius — The Gallic renaissance of the fourth century — Thirty years a professor — His rise in the world — Yet he is always faithful to letters — His old age at Bordeaux — Love of the country growing — Ausonius hates the town — Pleasures of country life — Visiting and correspondence — The eccentric Theo — The society of Aquitaine depicted in the Eucharisticos of Paulinus Pellaeus, the poet's grandson — His account of his youth, temptations, taste for sport — His marriage — Reforms the management of his wife's estates — His love of ease and luxury — A " sectator deliciarum " — The ascetic movement in Gaul — Influence of S. Martin — His Life by Sulpicius — Conversion of S. Paulinus and Sulpicius Severus — How the ascetic movement was opposed even by the clergy — Influence of S. Jerome — His fame as a Biblical critic — The charm of the Holy Places drew great numbers of pilgrims to the East — Description of a pilgrimage given by Sulpicius Severus — The visit of Postumianus, a Gallic monk, to Bethlehem and the monasteries of Egypt — S. Jerome's correspondents in Gaul — Hedibia — Descended from a Druidical family — Its academic members — Hedibia's questions as to the narratives of the Resurrection — Questions of Algasia — " Pray that your flight be not in the winter" ......

Pages 141-156

CHAPTER IV THE SOCIETY OF APOLLINARIS SIDONIUS

The family of Apoll.

Sidonius — His career — Publication of his letters — Great changes in the interval between Ausonius and Sidonius — Yet the condition of the upper class remains unaltered — Sidonius tells little of the middle and lower classes — His interest centres in his own order — Its exclusive tastes — Minute faithfulness with which he describes his own society — Monotony of its life — His wide circle of acquaintance — The ideal of the Roman noble as sketched by Sidonius — Pride of birth— High birth considered even in episcopal elections — Imperial office generally sought for its external distinction — Yet there must have been a number of men possessing high administrative capacity to fill the prefectures, etc. — Duties of the Pretorian prefect — But many Gallic nobles were becoming farmers on a large scale — Instance of Syagrius — A country squire on good terms with the Germans — Extent of senatorial estates — That of Ausonius at Bazas, about 1000 acres — The villa a little community in itself — Description of it — The arrangements of a great house — Avitacum — Great houses fortified — Roads unsafe — Mode of travelling— Country house visits— Voroangus and Prusianum — Daily life at a country house — Position of women — They are treated with great respect — Few allusions to gross immorality — Picture of the parasite excep tional — General decency of morals — The real vices of Gallo-Roman society, cultivated selfishness, want of high public spirit, absence of ideals — These the result of bureaucratic government and of education which cultivated only rhetorical skill — The Christian movement in Gaul — Hidden saints — Picture of Vectius, the ascetic grand seigneur — Sidonius called to the episcopate — Great change in his life — The position of a bishop in the fifth century — His multifarious duties — Two classes of bishops, the monastic and the aristocratic — Why the aristocratic bishop was a necessity of the times — Two episcopal elections — Sidonius when bishop of Auvergne, aided by Ecdicius, defends its independence against the Visigoths — Bishop Patiens saves a large population from famine — Learning and eloquence of the Gallic bishops — S. Remi the apostle of the Franks— Lupus of Troyes — Faustus of Riez — His career and character — His heresies — His book on the corporeal nature of the soul — Reply by Mam.

Claudianus — Sidonius equally friendly with both— His tolerance — His reverence for the monastic ideals-Visit to Lerins — Intercourse with monks — The monk Abraham in Auvergne — The Visigothic governor stands by his deathbed . . Pages 157-186

Book III The Failuee Of Administration, And The Euin Of The Middle

CLASS, AS EEVEALED BY THE THEODOSIAN CODE CHAPTEE I THE DISORGANISATION OF THE PUBLIC SERVICE General view of the social and administrative disorganisation of the period — The government with the best intentions strove to find a remedy — The sense of responsibility expressed by the later emperors — The rhetorical tone of the later legislation — The hereditary guilds of Rome — The corporati bound to their functions, but constantly trying to evade them — Failure of the corn-supply through desertion or evasion on the part of the navicularii —Different modes of evasion — Wholesale desertion in 455 — Disorganisation in the army — Frequent enactments de re militari in Stilicho's time — Failure of recruits — Money accepted from the great proprietors instead of men — Aversion to military service — Self-mutilation to escape it— Frequency of desertion — Concealment of deserters heavily punished — The frontier garrisons melt away — Slaves called to arms in 406 — Disorganisation of the posting service on the great roads — Abuse of evectio — Officers bound to the service desert — The animals are not properly fed — The tyranny and corruption of the curiosi — They have to be peremptorily removed from large districts — CONTENTS XV Growth of brigandage— Character of the shepherds of S. Italy— Shepherd and brigand almost synonymous— Agents on remote states in collusion with the criminals— The use of horses forbidden throughout seven provinces of Italy— Deserters from the army become dangerous banditti— Signs of the growth of poverty— Sale of children in the famine of 450— Plunder of tombs —Decay of public buildings— Poor exiles from Africa allowed to practise in the Italian courts ......

Pages 189-203 CHAPTEE II THE DECAY OF THE MIDDLE CLASS AND THE AGGRANDISEMENT OF THE ARISTOCRACY Roman wealth chiefly in land— Decay of commerce from the third century —Depressed condition of the merchant class in the later Empire — Two classes of landed proprietors, the senatorial and the curial — Senators exempt from municipal burdens — Decay of the municipalities in the fourth century — The curia now composed of owners of at least 25 jugera of land — Enormous liabilities of the curiales — They had to assess and collect the land-taxes of their district — Liable for all deficits — The curial class was being depleted without being able to recruit its numbers from below — The emperors devote great attention to the curia — 192 enactments de Decurionibus — The flight of the curiales — Their attempt to obtain admission to the senatorial class — Means of doing so — In the fifth century this movement was peremptorily stopped — Persons of curial descent recalled from places in the public service — The curial's position became a hereditary servitude — His personal freedom curtailed on every side — He could not go abroad or dispose of his property — The whole force of law exerted to prevent his escape — How he did escape — Often by placing himself under the patronage of a great landowner — As the curial class shrank in numbers, their liabilities became heavier — For the Code shows that the tax-bearing area was contracting — And there was an appreciation in gold, which, since a large proportion of the taxes had to be paid in gold, rendered the liability heavier — Tendency of the large proprietors to absorb the smaller very marked — The ruined farmer takes refuge on the senatorial estate — Growth of this form of patronage — Attempts to check it by legislation ineffectual — How the great proprietor got the small farmer in his grasp — Secret or fraudulent sales — The senatorial class steadily growing in power — They evade taxation, and by social influence and corruption obtain connivance at evasion in others — Their agents a corrupt class — In league with brigands — Mortgage estates surreptitiously — Illegitimate influence brought to bear on judges — Measures taken to protect the purity of the bench — Grievances of the province of Africa — How the great landowners evaded their burdens — Every branch of the revenue service had become corrupt — Frauds and cruel over-exaction of the susceptores and numerarii — The provincials are helpless against the tax-gatherer — The enormities of the discussores, described in an edict of Valentinian III. — The efforts of government to check these abuses were frustrated by the power of the aristocracy and the contumacy of officials — All these evils summed up in the edict of Majorian in 458 — Examples of the humane spirit of the latest imperial legislation— Remission of taxes over large areas — Governors ordered to visit the prisons — Prisoners to be brought up for trial within a year— Status protected by a term of

prescription — Redeemed captives protected against the redemptor — Exposed infants of the servile class saved from servitude — Limit within which fugitive coloni could be reclaimed ......

Pages 204-234

Book IV The Baebaeians And The Futuee Of The Empiee Chaptee

I THE GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE INVASIONS Main subject of this book : the feeling of Romans as to the invaders and the condition of the Empire — General character of the invasions — Why the Romans were not so much startled by them as we should expect — The invasions were nothing new — Invasions of the third and fourth centuries apparently overwhelming, yet triumphantly repelled — Their effects not lasting — In the fifth century the Roman generals show no fear of the invaders — The barbarians were not impelled by any common purpose or by any hatred of Rome — They were ready to fight for Rome against their brethren — Barbarian troops in the Roman army forages — Received lands on military tenure — The Laeti of Gaul — Peaceful settlement of barbarians within the frontier from the days of Augustus — Examples — German officers in the Roman army from the third century — Examples in the fourth century- Some brilliant figures among them — They have great social influence — ■ Fashion of barbarian dress in Rome has to be restrained by law in the reign of Honorius — Immense number of barbarians settled on estates as coloni — Examples — The invasions of the fifth century not of a uniform and sweeping character — Estimated strength of the Visigoths, Burgundians, and Franks in Gaul — Invasions differed in character and objects — Some merely for plunder, others for regular settlement — In the latter case the chief acts as a Roman official, and carries on the Roman administration — Wide differences among the barbarians in culture, religion, and moral character — Example from Noricum in the time of S.

Severinus — The invasions, thus complex and various in character, produced very different impressions on different minds ....... 237-251 CHAPTEE II ROMAN FEELING ABOUT THE INVASIONS AND THE FUTURE OF THE EMPIRE The first terror on the approach of the Goths — Flight to places of security — The alarm did not last long — Negotiations with Alaric — The moral shock caused CONTENTS XVII by the capture of Rome— Lamentations of S. Jerome— His picture of the invasions— Flight of the guildsmen of Rome— Fate of aristocratic exiles who fled to Africa— Cruelties of Count Heraclian— Actual damage inflicted by the Goths probably not very great— The feelings of Rutilius Namatianus about Rome in 416— His passionate love of her and confidence in her destiny— The views of Orosius— He makes light of the invasions— Hopes for a rapprochement between Roman and barbarian— Yet the Empire may pass away— Rome has given order to the world, but at a great cost to the provinces—Strong provincial feeling in Orosius— What the poems Ad Uxorem, De Providentia Divina, and the Commonitorium of Orientius tell us of the invasions — Pictures of devastation and ruin — Moral effects in Gaul — Loss of faith in Providence — Growth of atheistic pessimism — Salvianus wrote to refute the same scepticism in his day— Salvianus maintains that the calamities of Rome were due to Roman vices — The barbarians were superior both in private and public virtue — Oppression made many welcome the rule of the barbarian chief— Orosius and Salvianus compared — They alone faced the problems of the time — Roman feeling is stronger in Orosius, although he has no horror of the barbarians — Salvianus has lost faith in Roman society, which he thinks hopelessly rotten — The future belongs to the new races — Views and feelings of Apollinaris Sidonius — He represents a different world from that of Salvianus — His advantages, through his family connections, especially with Avitus, for a study of the barbarians — Many brilliant pictures in Sidonius — The Huns — The Burgundians — The Goths, Saxons, and Franks — Wedding procession of Sigismer — Description of Theodoric II. and his court — This written with a political purpose — The party of Gallic independence — With the help of the Visigoths they raise Avitus to the throne — On the fall of Avitus the party make another effort in support of Marcellinus — Triumph and clemency of Majorian — The intrigues of the prefect Arvandus with Euric — Sidonius probably not a party to them — Changed attitude of the Goths — Description of society at Rome in 467 — Deputation from Gaul on the accession of Anthemius — Journey of Sidonius described — Classical reminiscences — Ravenna — Rome after the Vandal sack, apparently little changed — The city en fete for the marriage of Ricimer — Leaders of Roman society — Avianus and Basilius — Sidonius attaches himself to Basilius, who proposes that Sidonius should celebrate the new Emperor in verse — The Panegyric on Anthemius is rewarded with

the Urban prefecture — Not a word in Sidonius' letter about the dangers of the Empire — It. is in the Panegyrics of Sidonius that his views on the condition of the Empire are to be found — In spite of the union of Roman and Visigoth, the Panegyric on Avitus reflects the general gloom — Humiliation of Rome — The need of a warlike prince — There is yet hope, but the hope is in Gaul — The services of Avitus — He can bring the force of the Visigoths to the help of Rome — Tone of the poem on Majorian not so pessimistic — Africa beseeches Rome for help against the Vandals — The might of Rome is only slumbering — The achievements of Majorian, and the hopes of his success — Yet the discontent of Gaul once more breaks out — She is ignored and crushed by taxation — Fate of Majorian — The appeal to Leo, who recommends Anthemius for the throne — Ricimer is to marry his daughter — Difficulties of the task of Sidonius in writing the Panegyric on Anthemius — Shock to Roman pride — Hatred of Constantinople — Expressed by Claudian fifty years before — Sidonius does not disguise the weakness of Rome — Her Eastern conquests have passed to her rival — The Empire is finally divided — But division need not mean discord — All jealousy must be forgotten in the effort to crush the Vandal power— Ricimer has already made head against the invaders — He is hated by the Vandal king — But only an emperor can cope with the danger — Recapitulation of these various views .......