The Student's Roman Empire. A history of the Roman Empire from its foundation to the death of Marcus Aurelius. 27 B.C.-180 A.D

Preface

. It is well known that for the period of Roman history, which is of all its periods perhaps the most important — the first two centuries of the Empire — there exists no English handbook suitable for use in Universities and Schools. The consequence of this want in our educational course is that the knowledge of Roman history possessed by students, who are otherwise men of considerable attainments in classical literature, comes to a sudden end at the Battle of Actium. At least, their systematic knowledge ends there ; of the subsequent history they know only isolated facts gathered at haphazard from Horace, Juvenal and Tacitus. This much-felt need will, it is hoped, be met by the present volume, which bridges the gap between the Student's Rome and the Student's Gibbon. This work has been written directly from the original sources.

But it is almost unnecessary to say that the author is under deep obligations to many modern guides. He is indebted above all to Mommsen's Rbmisches Staats recht, and to the fifth volume of the same historian's Rbmische Geschichte. He must also acknowledge the constant aid which he has derived from Merivale's History of the Romans under the Empire, Schiller's Geschichte der rbmischen Kaiserzeit, and Herzog's Geschichte und System der rbmischen Staatsverfasswng. Duruy's History of Rome has been occasionally useful. The lesser and more special books which have been consulted with advantage are too numerous to mention. Gardthausen's (as yet incomplete) work on Augustus, Lehmann's monograph on Claudius

PREFACE.

. IV (with invaluable genealogical tables), Schiller's large monograph on Nero, De la Berge and Dierauer on Trajan, Diirr on the journeys of Hadrian, Lacour-Gayet on Antoninus Pius, Hirschfeld's Untersuchnngen aus dein Gebiete der rbmischen Verwaltungsyeschichte are the most important. The assistance derived from Xenojjol's paper on Trajan's Dacian wars in the Revue historique (xxxi., 1886) must be specially acknowledged. Of editions, the Monumentum Aucyranum by Mommsen, the Annals of Tacitus by Mr. Furneaux, the Correspondence of Pliny and Trajan and Plutarch's Lives of Galba and Otho by Mr. Hardy, the Satires of Juvenal by Mr Mayor, the Epigrams of Martial by Friedliinder, have been most helpful. The author has also had the advantage of the learning of Mr. L. C. Purser, whose great kindness in reading the proof-sheets with minute care cannot be sufficiently acknowledged.

It is hoped that the concluding chapter on Roman Life and Manners will be found useful. It is compiled from the materials furnished in Friedliinder's Sittengeschichte, various articles in the new edition of Sir W. Smith's Dic tionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, and Mayor's Juvenal. It has been thought advisable to make copious quotations from, and references to, Horace, Juvenal, and Martial a special feature of this chapter, in order to bring the study of those authors more immediately in touch with the period to which they belong. The constitutional theory and history of the Principate have been investigated with such striking results in recent years by the elaborate researches of Mommsen and his school in Germany, that the author felt himself called upon to treat this side of imperial history as fully as the compass of a handbook seemed to admit.

It is a subject which cannot be otherwise than difficult ; but in order to read the history of the Empire intelligently, it is indispensable to master at the outset the constitutional principles, to which Chapters II. and III. are devoted. TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAP. PAGE 31-27 B.C. I. Feom the Battle of Actium to the Foundation op the Princifate . 1 27 B.c-14 a.d. II. The Pkincipate. .... 12 27 E.c-180 a.d. III. The joint Government of the Princeps and Senate ..... 27 27 B.c-14 a.d. IV. The Family of Augustus and his Plans to found a Dynasty . . 45 27 B.c-14 a.d. V. Administration of Augustus in Pome and Italy. Organisation of the Army 59 27 B.c-14 a.d. VI. Provincial Administration under Augustus. The Western Provinces 74 27 b.c-14 a.d. VII. Provincial Administration (continued). The Eastern Provinces and Egypt 102 27 B.c-4 a.d. VIII.

Rome and Parthia 1 25-22 b.c Expeditions to Arabia and> . . 117 Ethiopia 12 B.c-14 a.d. IX. The Winning and Losing of Germany. Death of Augustus . . . 124 27 b.c-14 a.d. X. Rome under Augustus. His Buildings ... 141 41 b.c-14 a.d. XI. Literature of the Augustan Age 149 14-37 a.d. XII. The Principate of Tiberius 164 14-37 a.d. XIII. The Principate of Tiberius (continued) . .' ■ ■ . .188 37-41 a.d. XIV. The Principate of Gaius (Caligula). 214 41-54 a.d. XV. The Principate of Claudius . . TABLE OF CONTENTS. VI CHAP. PAGE 43-61 a.d XVI. The Conquest of Britain . . 258 54-68 a.d. XVII. The Principate of Nero 273 41-66 a.d. XVIII. The Wars for Armenia, under Claudius and Nero . . - 305 68-69 a.d. XIX. The Principate of Galba, and the Year of the four Emperors 324 69-70 a.d. XX. Rebellions in Germany and Judea 351 XXI.

The Flavian Emperors, \ 69-79 a.d. Vespasian, 79-81 a.d. Titus, j 81-96 a.d. and Domitian j 69-96 a.d. XXII. Britain and Germany under the I Flavians 1 397 85-89 a.d. Dacian war 96-98 a.d. XXIII. Nerva 1 98-117 a.d. and Trajan I . 412 101-106 a.d. The Conquest of DaciaJ 98-117 a.d. XXIV. Trajan's Principate (continued). Administration and Eastern Conquests .... 433 37-117 a.d. XXV. Literature from the Death of Tiberius to Trajan. . . 457 117-138 a.d. XXVI. The Principate of Hadrian . 489 138-161 a.d. XXVII. The Principate of Antoninus Pius 522 161-180 a.d. XXVIII. The Principate of Marcus Aurelius ..... 533 138-180 a.d. XXIX. Literature under Hadrian and the Antonines. . . .551 27 B.c-180 a.d. XXX. The Roman World under the Empire. Politics, Philosophy, Religion and Art . . . 562 27 b.c-180 a.d. XXXI.

Roman Life and Manners . 591 Index ........... LIST OF MAPS AND PLANS. Map of the Western Provinces of the Roman Empire to face page 83 „ „ Eastern „ „ „ 103 Plan of Rome ........ page 144 Plan of the Battle of Locus Castomm . . . to face page 335 Map to illustrate the Dacian campaigns of Trajan „ , 422 Map of the Roman Wall, with the principal stations . ' page 502 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Augustus (from the bust in the British Museum) ... 1 Temple of Mars Ultor (as it appears at the present day) . . 11 Augustus crowned (from the Vienna cameo) .... 12 Agrippa 26 Head of Livia (found at Pompeii, now in the Museum at Naples) 27 Coin of Augustus ......... 44 Livia, wearing the Palla ....... 45 Julia ..... ..... 45 Coin : Marccllus ......... 55 Arch of Augustus at Rimini . . . . . , .59 Coin of Gaius and Lucius Cæsar ...... 73 Arch of Augustus at Aosta ....... 74 Coin : Altar of Rome and Augustus at Lugudunum . . . 101 Triumph of Tiberius (from the Sainte Chapelle cameo) . . 102 Trophies of Augustus . . . . . . . .116 Coins commemorating recovery of standards from the Parthians. 117 Coin of Augustus and Artavasdes ...... 123 So-called Arch of Drusus ....... 124 Coin of Drusus .... .... 1 40 Ancient Rome (Restoration) . . .... 141 Head of Mæcenas ........ 148 Tomb of Virgil 149 Digentia, Horace's Sabine farm ...... 1S3 Head of Tiberius 164 View of Brundusium ........ 187 Parthian Warriors, from Trajan's Column . . . .188 Agrippina, so-called wife of Germanicus (from statue in the Capitol) 213 Cameo : Gaius and Drusilla (from the cameo in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris) . . . . . . . . 214 Antonia 'from the Louvre) .

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

VIII PAGE Claudius (from the statue in the Vatican) .... 230 Bust of Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus (from the bust in the Capitol) 257 Messalina (from the bust in the Capitol) .... 258 Apotheosis of Germanicus ....... 272 Nero (from the bust in the British Museum, brought from Athens) 273 CoinofPoppæa 302 Aqueduct of' Nemausus ........ 304 Coin struck by Nero to commemorate successes of Oorbulo . 305 Coin of Arsaces ......... 323 Coin: Galba 324 Otho (from the bust in the British Museum) .... 330 Vitellius (from a bust in Vienna) ...... 349 Arch of Titus 351 Coin : Judæa Capta ........ 373 Colosseum .......... 374 Titus (from the British Museum) 382 Domitian (from the statue at Munich) ..... 384 Vespasian (from the Museum at Naples) .... 397 Roman Arch at Lincoln ... ... 411 Nerva (from the Vatican) . . . • . . . . 412 Trajan's Column ......... 431 Figures from Trajan's Column ...... 432 Trajan (from the bust in the British Museum). . . . 433 Relief from Trajan's Column ....... 449 Trajan gives a king to the Parthians ..... 455 Adventus Coin of Hadrian ....... 456 Nero Citharcedus (from the statue in the Capitol) . . 457 Seneca (so called) (from a bust in the museum at Naples) . 488 Hadrian (from a bust in the Rritish Museum) .... 489 Sabina .521 Antoninus Pius (from a bust in the British Museum) 522 Consecratio of Antoninus and Faustina ..... 532 Marcus Aurelius (from the Louvre) ..... 533 Lucius Verus (from a bust in the British Museum) . . . 550 Mausoleum of Hadrian (as it appears at the present day). 551 Head of Antinous (from the bust in the British Museum). . 561 Temple of Venus and Rome (as it appears at the present day) . 562 Bas-relief of triumph of Marcus Aurelius (from the Capitol) . 590 Balueæ at Pompeii : Tepidarium ...... 591 School-flogging ......... 599 Baths of Caracalla ........ 610 Section of Flavian Amphitheatre ...... 621 Method of raising wild beasts in the arena .... 625- Faustina as Mater Castrorum. ...... 626 Coin of Antoniuus Pius, representing the Funeral Pyre at his Consecratio ......... esg THE BOMAN EMPIRE Augustus.

Chapter I. From The Battle Op Actium To The Found

VTION" OF THE PRINCIPATE. § 1. Cæsar. § 2. Agrippa and Mæcenas. § 3. Cæsar's treatment of Egypt. The Egyptian booty. Settlement of the veterans in Italy. Reorganisation of legions. § 4. Cæsar in the East. His return to Italy. Conspiracy of Lepidus. Decrees in honour of Cæsar. His triumphs over (1) Dalmatia and Pannonia, (2) Asia, (3) Egypt. Closing of the Temple of Janus. § 5. Cæsar's position as triumvir. He resigns the triumvirate (27 B.C.). § 1. C. Jtjlius Cæsar, the triumvir and the founder of the Roman Empire, was the grandnephew * of C. Julius Cæsar, the dictator, his * His mother Atia was the daughter of Julia, the dictator's sister. EOMAN EMPIRE. B FRO.M THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM. Chap. j. adoptive father. Originally named, like his true father, C. Octavius,* he entered the Julian family after the dictator's death, and, according to the usual practice of adopted sons, called himself C Julius Cæsar Octavianus.

But the name Octavianus soon fell into disuse, and by his contemporaries he was commonly spoken of as Cæsar, just as Scipio Æmilianus was commonly called Scipio. The victory of Actium (Sept. 2, 31 B.C.), and the death of Marcus Antonius (Aug. 1, 30 b.c.) placed the supreme power in the hands of Cæsar, for so we may best call him until he becomes Augustus. The Roman world lay at his feet and he had no rival. He was not a man of genius and his success had perhaps been chiefly due to his imperturbable self-control. He was no general ; he was hardly a soldier, though not devoid of personal courage, as he had shown in his campaign in Illyricum. As a statesman he was able, but not creative or original, and he would never have succeeded in forming a permanent constitution but for the example of the great dictator.

In temper be was cool, without ardour or enthusiasm. His mind was logical and he aimed at precision in thought and expression. His culture was wide, if superficial ; his knowledge of Greek imperfect. In literary style he affected simplicity and correctness ; and he was an acute critic. Like many educated men of his time, he was not free from superstition. His habits were always simple, his food plain, and his surroundings modest. His family affections were strong and sometimes misled him into weak ness. His presence was imposing, though he was not tall, and his features were marked by symmetrical beauty ; but tbe pallor of his complexion showed that his health was naturally delicate. It was due to his self-control and his simple manner of life that he lived to be an old man. § 2. The successes of Cæsar had not been achieved without the aid of others.

Two remarkable men, devoted to his interests, stood by him faithfully throughout the civil wars, and helped him by their counsels and their labours. These were M. Vipsanius Agrippa and C. Cilnius Mæcenas. As they helped him not only to win the empire, but also to wield it after he bad won it, it is necessary to know what manner of men they were. Of Agrippa we know strangely little considering the prominent position he occupied for a long and important period, and the part he played in the history of the world. From youth up he had been the companion of Cæsar, and he was always content to take the second place. His military ability stood Cæsar in good stead, notably in the war with Sextus Pompeius, and on the day of Actium. He had first distinguished himself at the siege of Perusia * Thurinus is said to have heen given him as a cognomen. 31-27 b.c AGRIPPA AND MÆCENAS.

(41 b.c), and, subsequently, his victories over the Germans beyond the Rhine established his military fame. His success was due to his own energy, for he had no interest, and, belonging to an obscure gens, he was regarded by the nobility as an upstart. He was not, perhaps, a man of culture, but bis tastes were liberal. His interest in architecture was signalised by many useful buildings ; and Gaul owed him a great debt for the roads which he constructed in that country. In appearance he is said to have been stern and rugged; in temper he was reserved and proud. He was ambitious, but only for the second place ; yet he was the one man who might have been a successful rival of his master. Mæcenas resembled Agrippa in his unselfish loyalty to Cæsar ; but his character was very different. Like Agrippa, he did not aspire to become the peer of their common master; but while the heart of Agrippa was set on being acknowledged as second, Mæcenas preferred to have no recognised position.

Agrippa's excellence was in the craft of war ; while Mæcenas cultivated the arts of peace. Agrippa had forwarded the cause of Cæsar by his generalship ; Mæcenas aided him by diplomacy. It will be remembered how the latter negotiated the treaties of Brundusium and Misenum. During the campaigns which demanded the presence of Cæsar, Mæcenas conducted the administration of affairs in Italy and watched over the interests of the absent triumvir. Until his death, (8 B.C.) he continued to be the trusted friend and adviser, in fact, the alter ego of Cæsar ; and he had probably no small share in making the constitution of the Empire. But he always kept himself in the background. He was content with the real power which he enjoyed by his immense influence with Cæsar ; he despised offices and honours.

It is characteristic of the man that he refused to pass from the equestrian into tbe senatorial order. He could indeed afford to look down upon many of the nobles; for he came of an illustrious Etruscan race. In his tastes and manner of life he was unlike both Agrippa and Cæsar. He was neither rough nor simple. A refined voluptuary, he made an art of luxury ; and it was quite consistent that ambition should have no place in his theory of life. When affairs called for energy and zeal, no one was more energetic and unresting than Mæcenas ; but in hours of ease he almost went beyond the effeminacy of a woman.* Saturated with the best culture of his day, he took an enlightened interest in literature. Of the circle of men of letters which he formed around himself there will be an occasion to speak in a future chapter. * This is the expression of Velleius Paterculus : otio ac mollitiis psene ultra feminam Jluens.

B FROM THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM. Chap. i. Such were the men who helped Cæsar to win the first place in the state ; and who, when he had become the ruler of the world, devoted themselves to his service without rivalry or jealousy. Agrippa became consul for the second time in 28 B.C., with the triumvir for his colleague ; and his friendship with Cæsar was soon cemented by a new tie. He married Marcella, the daughter of Octavia, Cæsar's sister, by her first husband, C. Marcellus.* § 3. The battle of Actium decided between Antonius and Cæsar. But it also decided a still greater question. It decided be tween the East and the West. For the Roman world had been seriously threatened by the danger of an Oriental despotism. The policy of Antonius in tbe East, his connection with Cleopatra, the idea of making Alexandria a second Rome, show that if things had turned out otherwise at Actium, Egypt would have obtained an undue preponderance in the Roman State, and the empire might have been founded in the form of an Eastern monarchy.

Cæsar recognised the significance of Egypt, and took measures to prevent future danger from that quarter. It was of course out of the question to allow the dynasty of Greek kings to continue. But instead of forming a new province, Cæsar treated the land as if he were, by the right of conquest, the successor of Cleopatra, and of Ptolemy Cæsarion, whom he had put to death. He did not, indeed, assume the title of king, but he appointed a prefect, who was responsible to himself alone, and was in every sense a viceroy ; and, as the lord of the country, he enacted that no Roman senator should visit it without his special permission. The first prefect of Egypt was C. Cornelius Gallus, with whose help Cæsar bad captured Alexandria. The inhabitants of Egypt were debarred from the prospect of becoming Roman citizens, and no local government was granted to the cities, f The treasures of Cleopatra enabled Cæsar to discharge many pressing obligations.

He was able to pay back the loans which he had incurred in the civil wars. He was able also to give large donatives to the soldiers aud the populace of Rome. The abundance of money which the conquest of Egypt suddenly poured upon Western Europe helped in no small measure to establish a new period of prosperity. After many dreary years of domestic war and financial difficulties, men now saw a prospect of peace and plenty. But, above all, the booty of Egypt enabled Cæsar to satisfy the demands of 120,000 veterans. Immediately after Actmm he had discharged all the soldiers who had served their time, but without * Oclavia's second husband was M. I + See below, Chap. VII. $ 8. Antonius. I 31-27 b.c SETTLEMENT OF CÆSAR'S VETEEANS. giving them the rewards which they had been led to expect. These veterans belonged both to Cæsar's own army and to that of Antonius which had capitulated.

Seeing that they would be of little importance after the conclusion of the civil wars, they made a stand as soon as they reached Italy, and demanded that their claims should be instantly satisfied. Agrippa, who had returned with the troops, and Mæcenas, to whom Cæsar had entrusted tbe administration of Italy, were unable to pacify the soldiers, and it was found necessary to send for Cæsar himself, who was wintering in Samos. The voyage was dangerous at that season of the year, but Cæsar, after experiencing two severe storms, in which some of his ships were lost, reached Brundusium safely. He succeeded in satisfying the veterans, some with grants of land, others with money ; but his funds were quite insufficient to meet the claims of all, and he had to put off many with promises. He thus gained time until the immense Egyptian booty gave him means to fulfil his obligations.

The greater number of the veterans were of Italian origin, and wished to receive land in their native country. As most of the Italians had supported the cause of Cæsar, it was impossible to do on a large scale what had been done ten years before, and eject proprietors to make room for the soldiers. But the veterans of Antonius, who had on that occasion been settled in the districts of Ravenna, Bononia, Capua, &c, and sympathized with his cause, were now forcibly turned out of the holdings which they had forcibly acquired. They were, however — unlike the original proprietors — compensated by assign ments of land in the provinces, especially in the East, where the civil war had depopulated many distress. But the land thus made available was not nearly enough, and Cæsar was obliged to purchase the rest.

Iu B.C. 30 and b.c. 14, he spent no less than 600 million sesterces (about £5,C00,000) in buying Italian farms for his veterans. We find traces of these settlements in various parts of Italy, especially in the neighbourhood of Ateste (Este). After the conquest of Egypt, the Antonian troops were transferred to the south of Gaul, and settled there in colonies possessing ius Latinum, for example, in Nemausus (Nimes). The wholesale discharge of veterans, as well as the losses sustained in the wars, rendered a reorganisation of the legions necessary. The plan was adopted of uniting those legions which had been greatly reduced in number with others which had been similarly diminished, and thus forming new "double-legions," as they were called by the distinguishing title of Gemina. Thus were formed the Thirteenth Gemina, the Fourteenth Gemina, &c. § 4.

The greater part of the year following the death of Cleo- FEOM THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM. Chap. i. patra (Aug., B.C. 30) was occupied by Cæsar in ordering the affairs of the Asiatic provinces and dependent kingdoms. Herod of Judea was rewarded for his valuable services by an extension of his territory, and several changes were made in regard to the 'petty principalities of Asia Minor.* There was probably some expecta tion at Rome that Cæsar, in the flush of his success, would attempt to try conclusions with the Parthian Empire, and retrieve the defeat of Carrhae, before he returned to Italy. Virgil addresses him at this time in high-flown language, as if he were the arbiter of peace and war in Asia,f as far as the Indies. But Cæsar deferred the settlement of the Parthian question. In the summer of 29 b.c he returned to Italy, where he was greeted by the senate and the people with an enthusiasm which was certainly not feigned.

There was a general feeling of relief at the end of the civil wars, and men heartily welcomed Cæsar as a deliverer and restorer of peace. The only note of opposition had come from a son of M. Æmilius Lepidus, the triumvir. The father lived in peaceful retirement at Circeii, but the son was rash and ambitious, and formed the plan of murdering Cæsar on his return. He did not take his father into the secret, but his mother Junia, a sister of Brutus, was privy to it. Mæcenas discovered the conspiracy in good time, and promptly arrested Junia and her son. Young Lepidus was immediately despatched to Cæsar in the East, and was there executed. But this incident was of little consequence ; Cæsar's position was perfectly safe. The honours which were paid to him would have been accorded with an equal show of enthusiasm to Antonius, if fortune had declared her self for him; but there is little doubt that Cæsar was more acceptable.

The senate decreed that his birthday should be included among the public holidays, and it was afterwards regularly celebrated by races. His name was mentioned along with the gods in the Carmen Saliare, and it is probable that, if he had really wished it, divine honours would have been decreed to him in Rome, such as were paid to him in Egypt, where he stepped into the place of the Ptolemies, and in Asia Minor, where he assumed the privileges of the Attalids. But though he had become a god in the East, Cæsar wished to remain a man in Rome.J He already possessed the tribunician power§ for life; but it was now * For these changes, see below, Chap. VII. $ S. J For his worship, subsequently es tablished, in the western provinces, see below, Chap. VI. $J 5 and 6. f Georgics, ii. 170: Maxime Cæsar 5 The potestas or magisterial power which belonged to a tribune of the plebs involved the following important rights : (1) the power of summoning the plebs Qui nunc extremis Asiæ iam victor in oris Inbellem avertis Romania arcibus Indum. 31-27 b.c THE TRIUMPH OF CÆSAR. 7 granted again in an extended form.

It was also decreed that every fourth anniversary of his victory should be commemorated by games (ludi Actiaci) ; and that the rostra and trophies of the captured ships should adorn the temple of the divine Julius. Triumphal arches were to be erected in the Roman Forum and at Brundusium, to celebrate the victor's return to Italy ; and a sacrifice of thanksgiving was offered to the gods by the senate and people, and by every private person. The triumph of Cæsar lasted three days (Aug. 13, 14, 15). The soldiers who had been disbanded returned to their standards in order to take part in it, and all the troops which had shared in his victories were concentrated close to Rome. Each soldier received 1000 sesterces (about £8) as a triumphal gift ; and the Roman populace also received 400 sesterces a head.

The triumph represented victories over the three known continents. The first days were devoted to the celebration of conquests in Europe ; the subjugation of Pannonia and Dalmatia, and some successes won in Gaul over rebellious tribes by C. Carrinas during Cæsar's abseneo in the East. The triumph, for Actium, which took place on the second day, represented a victory over the forces of Asia. The trophies w re far more splendid than those won from the poor princes of Illyricum. The poet Propertius describes how he saw " the necks of kings bound with golden chains, and the fleet of Actium sailing up the Via Sacra." Among the kings were Alexander of Emesa, whom Cæsar had deposed after the battle, and Adiatorix, a Galatian prince, who before the battle had massacred all the Romans he could lay hands on.

Both these captives were executed after the triumph. But the third day, which saw the triumph over Africa, was much the most brilliant. Cleopatra had, by destroying herself, avoided the shame of adomiDg her conqueror's triumphal car, but a statue of her was carried in her stead, and her two young children, Alexander and Cleopatra, represented the fallen house of Egyptian royalty. Images of the Nile and Egypt were also carried in the triumphal procession, and the richest spoils, with even against the will of the patrician magistrates, and making resolutions in the assemblies of tbe tribes ; (2) the power of hindering the proceedings of other magistrates, in case he was appealed to for help, within the first milestone from the city; (3) the right of interceding against decrees of the senate and against the acts of other magistrates ; (4) the right of coercitio — that is, of suppressing and punishing any person who attempted to hinder him in his acts, or who insulted him in any way.

The tribunician potestas was hallowed by religious sanctity (sacro sancta); the tribune's person was inviolable. As there was uo means of opposing it except by the intercession of another tribune, or by an appeal (pirovocatio) to the comitia centuriata or tribnta.it became the strongest kind of power in the consti tution, and was adopted by the Cæsars, both dictator and triumvir, as a support of their position. FROM THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM. CHAr. i. quantities of gold and silver coins, were exhibited to the gaze of the people. The result of the great influx of money into Italy was that the rate of interest fell from 12 to 4 per cent. In one respect the order of Cæsar's triumph departed from the traditional custom. His fellow-consul M. Valerius Messalla Potitus, and the other senators who took part in the triumph, instead of heading the procession and guiding the triumphator into the city, according to usage, were placed last of all.

This innovation was significant of the ciming monarchy. On this occasion the buildings, which Julius Cæsar had designed and begun, and which had been completed since his death, were dedicated, aud his own temple was consecrated by his son with special solemnity. The game of " Troy " was represented in the Circus Maximus by boys of noble family, divided into two parties, of which one was commanded by Cæsar's stepson, Tiberius Nero, the future Emperor. A statue of Victory was set up in the Senate house. The occasion was further celebrated by games and gladiatorial combats, in which a Roman senator did not disdain to take part. But these festivities were less significant for the inauguration of a new period than the solemn closing of the temple of Janus, which had been ordained by the senate, probably early in the same year (Jan. 11).

The ceremonies instituted for such an occasion by King Numa had not been witnessed for more than two hundred years, for the last occasion on which the gates of Janus bad been shut was at the conclusion of the First Ptmic War. Strictly speaking, peace was not yet established in every corner of the Roman realm. There were hostilities still going on against mountain tribes in northern Spain, and on the German frontier. But these were small matters, mere child's play, which shrank to complete insignificance by the side of the Civil War which had been distracting the Roman world for the last twenty years. Peace (the famous pax Romano) had in every sense come at length, and it was fitting that the doors of war should be closed at the beginning of an empire, of which the saying that " Empire is peace," * was pre-eminently true. § 5.