Universal Geography, or a Description of all parts of the world on a new plan, etc

Front matter

VOL.1. jAA'AiAAy/AAn'. /Jr_nrn. _■ V///'//.,/m/ A\ Snmlifl Watt-er. JBOSTOIT: fnhcni Stfliilirhed iy Samud IValJca- A 1 SYSTEM OF UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY or. A DESCRIPTION OF ALL THE PARTS OF THE WORLD, OMs A NEW PLAN, ACCORDING TO THE GREAT NATURAL DIVISIONS OF THE GLOBE ; ACCOMPANIED WITH ANALYTICAL, SYNOPTICAL, AND ELEMENTARY TABLES. BY M. MALTE-BRUN, EDITOR OF THE "ANNALES DES VOYAGES," &c. WITH ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS, BY JAMES Gs. PER CIV AL. EMBELLISHED WITH A COMPLETE ATLAS, AND A SERIES OF BEAUTIFUL. ENGRAVINGS. IN THREE VOLUMES. VOL,. I. BOSTON: PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY SAMUEL WALKER. PUBLISHED ALSO IN PHILADELPHIA, BY W. MOORHEAD, 124 CHRISTIAN STREET, AND A. W. RUSHTON, 97 WOOD STREET J IN NEW YORK BY 3. MOORHEAD, 357 BROOME STREET, AND WILLIAM BURNETT, 17 ANN STREET ; — IN BALTIMORE, BY R. REID, 48 MARKET SPACE, AND D. SULLIVAN, LEXINGTON STREET; AND BY THEIR AGENTS AND THE PERIODICAL BOOKSELLERS IN THE PRINCIPAL CITIES AND TOWNS IN THE UNION. 1834. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 18-34, by Samuel Walker, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts.

ADVERTISEMENT.

. When we undertook to prepare this edition, we only engaged to make such additions, and corrections in point of fact, as would adapt it to the present state of science, and particularly to this country. We have since found it necessary, from the imperfect state ofthe translation, to revise it throughout on the original, and we flatter our selves that many errors will be thereby avoided. This edition, then, will differ from others by the addition of notes, and by the correction of all errors in translation, and in point of fact, which have caught our notice. We have endeavoured to give the whole work a careful revision, and, although we do not pretend to have rendered it perfect, yet we trust it will not be found seriously defective. We need not say any thing as to the valus of the work. It has been already sufficiantly established in the good opinion of the public.

Book I. Book II

Theory of Geography — Of the Earth considered as a Celestial Body, and in its Relations to other Celestial Bodies — Of Latitudes and Longitudes 9 Astronomy excluded from this Treatise, 9 P roofs of the Rotundity of the Earth — Proofs drawn from Terrestrial Appearances, 9 Proofs derived from Celestial Appearances, 9, 10 Confirmed by Voyages round the World, 10 Prejudices against this Doctrine, 10 Irregularities of the Globe, 10 Poles — Horizon — Meridian, 11 Cardinal Points — Illustration, 12 Angular Measures, Degrees, &c. — Rational Horizon — Zenith — Nadir — Vertical Line, 12 Change of the Horizon, 12 Equator — Height of the Pole — Distances of places upon the Earth from the Equator, 12 Distances of places with regard to their Meridians, ... 13 Definitions of Latitude and Longitude — Apparent Motions of the Sun, 13 Hypothesis of Copernicus — Real Motion of the Earth, . . 13 Effects of the different positions of the Earth, 14 Position of the Earth at the Equinoxes — Astronomical Seasons, 14 Advantages of the Northern Hemisphere — The Zodiac — The Twelve Signs, 14 The Tropics — Polar Circles — Terrestrial Zones — Climates, 15 Antæci — Periæci — Heteroscii — Periscii — Amphiscii, Ascii, 15 The Right — Oblique, and Parallel Sphere, ...... 15 Obliquity of the Ecliptic — Tropical Year, 16 Sidereal Year — Mean Day — Sidereal Day — Solar Day, . . 16 Mean or Astronomical Time — Motions of the Moon — A Month, 16 Phases of the Moon — Eclipses of the Sun and Moon, ... 17 Longitude by the Eclipses of the Moon, 17 Astronomical Almanacks — Longitude by the Satellites of Jupiter, 17, 18 Longitude by the Eclipses of the Sun, 18 Longitude by the Occultation of the Stars, 18 Longitude by Lunar Distances — Origin and Progress of this Method, 18 Use of Chronometers, 19 Correction of Longitudes — Refraction — Parallaxes of the Planets, 19 Instruments, 19 Repeating Circle — Solar Tables — Calculation of the Latitude by the Altitude of the Sun, 19, 20 Gnomon, 20 Horary Angle— Azimuth — Amplitude, 20, 21 Use of Signals made by Gunpowder, 21 B Continuation ofthe Theory os Geography — Dimensions ofthe Globe determined — Its Oblate Figure — Basis ofthe new Metrical System, 22 Principles of the Measurement of the Earth — Measures of the Ancients, 22 Gnomon of Erastosthenes— Measures of Snellius, Norwood, &c 22 Picard's Measurement — Trigonometrical Operations, . . 22 Astronomical Operations — Dimensions of the Earth, ... 23 Experiment of the Pendulum, 23 Huyghen's Theory — Newton's Theory, 23 Investigations of M'Laurin, Clairaut, &c. — Inequality of the Degrees on the Oblate Spheroid, 24 Paralogism on this Subject, 24 Measurement carried on in Lapland and Peru — Different other Measures, 24 These Measures compared by Frisi, 25 Errors in these Measures — Measurement made in China, . 25 Errors caused by Attraction, 25 Opinion concerning the irregularity of the Meridians — M.

Kliigel's Hypothesis, 20 Measurement conducted by Delambre, Mechain, Biot, &c. 26 Results — Quantity of the Depression — Accords with Phenomena, 26 New Measurement by the Swedish Astronomers — Accords with the French Measure, 27 Depression of Jupiter — English Measures — Doubts, ... 27 Geographical Conclusions, 27 Whether the Ancients were acquainted with the Depression of the Globe, 28

Book III

Continuation of the Theory of Geography — Of Terrestrial Globes — Of their Construction and Principal Uses, ... 29 Description of the Artificial Globe, 29 Rules to choose a Globe, 29 Construction of the Globe, 29 Decrease of the Degrees of Parallels, 30 First Meridian, 30 Meridian and Anti-meridian — Longitude counted aster the custom of Navigators, . . 30 Reduction of Geographical Longitudes . 30, 31 Reduction of Nautical Longitudes, . . CONTENTS Common way of making Globes — Uses of the Globe — Distance of Places, 31, 32 Remarks on the Measure of Distances — Law of the Decrease of the Degrees of Longitude, 32 Relation of Places to the Points of the Horizon, .... 32 Lines East and West, 33 Navigator's Route — Loxodromic Line, 33 Measure of the Surface of the Globe, 33 Utility of the preceding Calculations, 34 Remark on these Calculations — Divers questions resolved by the Globe — To find Geographical Positions, 34 To find the Length of the Days, 35 To find the Points of the Rising and Setting of the Sun — To Measure Distances— To Rectify the Globe, .... 35 Another Method to find the Length of the Day — New Construction of Globes, 35 Historical Remarks on Globes, . 36 Defects of Flat Maps, .* 47 Mercator's Projection, or reduced Maps — Tables of increasing Latitudes ™ Proportional Projections — Projection of Lambert, .... 48 Polar Projection — Equatorial Projection, ....... 48 Alteration of this Projection — Projection of Cassini, ... 48 Properties of this Projection,— Spindles of the Terrestrial Globe, 49

BOOK VI.

Continuation of the Theory of Geography — Continuation and end of the .Theory of Geographical Maps — Of the choice and assemblage of details, 50 Choice of Projections and of the Scale, 50 Political and Physical Maps— Military Maps, 50 Nautical Maps— Scientific Maps, 50 Elementary Maps — Employment of Astronomical Observations, 51 Employment of Geodesical Measures, 51 Reduction by Trellis, 51 Chorographic Maps — Of Plans, not OrienUs, and without a Scale, 52 General Maps — Correction of Errors of Topography, . . 52 Employment of Itinerary Distances — Valuation of Measures, 52 Tracing of a Nautical Route, 53 To find the Direction of a Route, 53 Spherical curve of a Route, 53 Errors of Itinerary Distances, 54 Sinuosity of the Route — Value of Days of March, ... 54 Errors of Estimation of Navigation, 54, 55 Example drawn from Solomon's Isles — Employment of ancient Maps, 55 Comparison of Maps — Common defect of ancient Maps, . 55 Combination of discordant Distances, 55 Geographical Signs, 56 Illumination, 56 Orthography of Names, 56 Signs of Physical Geography — Representation of Mountains, 56, 57 Method proposed for exhibiting Levels, 57 Value of this Method, 57

Book IV

Continuation of the Tlteory of Geography — Of Geographical Maps — Of ihe Stereographic, Orthographic, and Central Projection, 37 Different Sorts of Geographical Maps, 37 Developable Surfaces — Of Projections, 37 Laws of Orthographic Projection, 37 Laws of Stereographic Projection, 38 Three sorts of Stereographic Projections — Polar Projection ■ — Tracing of Meridians, 38 Tracing of Parallels — Equatorial Projection or on a Meridian — Tracing of Meridians, . . . .■ 38 Tracing of Parallels — Horizontal Projection, 39 Tracing of Meridians, 39 To trace the Meridians by Points — Tracing of Parallels, 39, 40 Properties of the Stereographic Projection, 40 Measure of Distances on a Stereographic Map 40 Origin of the Stereographic Projection — Orthographic Projections, 40,41 Polar Projection — Equatorial, 41 Horizontal Projection and tracing of the Meridians, ... 41 Projection of the Parallels — Central Projection, . . . 41, 42 Properties of this Projection, 42 Faults of all the Projections — Modifications proposed by Lahire and Parent, 42

BOOK VII.

Continuation of the Theory of Geography — First Sketches of Physical Geography — General Forms and Distribution of Continents and of Seas — External Confguration of Mountains, Valleys, Plains, and Coasts, 58 General Views of Physical Geography, 58 Imperfect State of Observations, 58 Physical Divisions of the Globe — Continents, Seas, &c. . 58 Mediterranean Seas, Gulfs, &c. — Peninsulas, &c 59 Ancient Continent — Divisions of the World — New Continent —The Ocean, 59 Classification of Seas, 59 Terrestrial and Aquatic Hemisphere — Dimensions of the Austro-Oriental Ocean, . 60 Comparison of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres — Is a Southern Continent necessary for the Equilibrium of the Globe ? CO Direction of Peninsulas, 60 Direction of the Continents, 60, 61 Proximity of the Pole — Contrasted Configurations — Mountains, Upland Plains or Plateaus, 61 Forms of Mountains — Needles, Peaks, &c. 61 Volcanic Peaks, 62

Book V

Continuation of the Theory of Geography — Of Geographic and Hydrographic Maps by Conic and Cylindric Development — Of Projections by Proportional Parts, 43 Simple Conic Projection, 43 Modifications of the Conic Projection, 43 Projection of De l'lsle de la Croyere — Method proposed by Euler, 43 Projections of Murdoch, 44 Conic Globes — Albers' Projection, 44 First method of Ptolemy, 44 Second method of Ptolemy, 45 Modification of Ptolemy's Projection, 45 Flamstead's Projection — Correction of this Projection — Tracing of Flamstead's Projection corrected, . . . . 45, 46 Scale of the Map, 46 Remark on the Scale of the Map, 46 Cylindrical Developments — Of Loxodromic Lines, . . 46, 47 Construction of Flat Maps, CONTENTS III Perforated Mountains — Chains of Mountains and Insulated ones 62 Connection of Chains — Declivities of Mountains, .... 62 Valleys in the form of Basins, 63 Inclination and level of Valleys — Passes, Defiles, &c. . . 63 Low Valleys — High and Low Plains, Coasts Steep and Indented, &c 64 Coasts formed by Hills — Coasts formed by Downs or Flats, 64 Islands, Flat, and Volcanic — Chains and Groups of Islands, 64 Chains of Mountains and Divisions of Waters, .... 65 Submarine Chains, 65 General direction of the Mountains of the Earth, .... 65 Great Chain of the Globe . . 65, 66 General Inclination of Continents — Elevation of Mountains, 66 Bitumen, Petroleum, &c, Asphaltum, 78 Pitcoal, position of Pitcoal, . . 78 Parallelism of the beds of Coal— Submarine Coals, . . 78, V.> Pit Coals situated in Basalt — Jet, Elastic Bitumen, ... 79 Succinum, or Yellow Amber — Origin of Yellow Amber, . 79

BOOK X.

Continuation of the Theory of Geography. Of the simple substances which compose the solid parl of the Globe. Section second. Of Metals 80 General View of Metals, 80 Platina, property of Platina, 80 Gold, its position — Geographical situation of Gold, . . 80, 81 Sands producing Gold — Qualities of Gold, 81 Silver — Geographical extension of this metal — Its position, 81 Qualities of Silver, 81 Sulphureted Silver — Mercury, its congelation, 82 Geographical situation of Mercury — Cinnabar, Lead, ... 82 Position of Lead — Geographical extension — Nickel — Copper, its Geographical extension, 82, 83 Position of Copper 83 Cementatory Waters — Malachite — Qualities of Copper, . . 83 Bronze, Cobalt, 83 Tin, Geographical situation, qualities — Iron, 84 Geographical extent of Iron — Native Iron, 84 Sulphuret of Iron, Ferruginous Pyrites, 84 Vitriol of Iron, Emery- — Steel, Qualities of Iron, .... 85 Zinc, Bismuth, 85 Manganese, Antimony, Scheelin, Uranium, Tellurium, Molybdenum, 86 Arsenic, Titanium — Chrome, Tantalium, Cerium, .... 86

BOOK VIII.

Continuation of the Theory of Geography — Of the interior structure of the solid parts of the Earth — Of beds, strata, caverns, and veins, 67 Strata, Beds, &c 67 Inclination of Parallel Strata, 67 Strata Inverted and Shifted — Strata Concentric and Curved — Cavities and fissures of the Globe, 67 Caverns and Grottos, 68 Stalactites, Bones, Wells in Caverns — Volcanic Caverns, . 68 Basaltic Caverns — Veins, 68 Direction of Veins — Formation — Thickness of Strata, . . 69 Order of Supra-Position — Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Strata, .69 Mountains of the first Order — Reciprocal order of the Primitive Strata, 69 Transition Rocks — Mountains of the second Class or Order, 70 Tertiary Rocks, 70 Alluvial Soils— Pebbles, 70 Volcanic Lavas — Basalt, 71 Blocks of Granite — Conclusion, 71

BOOK XI.

Continuation os the Theory of Geography. Ofthe aggregate Substances which compose the solid part of the Globe — First Part : Of Rocks, and Earths, and Volcanic Productions, 87 Classifications of Rocks, 87 Principle of Classification, 87 Crystallized Rocks, 88 Granite, Varieties of Granite— Quartzeous Rocks, . . 89, 90 Micaceous Rock, Gneiss — Micaceous Schists — Argillaceous Schists — Horny Schists, 90 Porphyry, Porphyroidal Rocks — Trapp, "SO Petrosilex, Jade, &c. — Primitive Limestone — Magnesian Rocks, 91 Conglobated Rocks — Breccias, or variegated Marbles, . . 91 Pudding Stone — Amygdaloids, 91 Stratified Rocks — Chemical and mechanical solution, . . 92 Rocks of transition — Stratified structure — Stratified Calcareous rocks — Marbles, ruiniform, shelly, &c 92 Chalk, Argil or Clay, 92 Slate, fermenting Clay, 93 Marl, (Gres) Sandstone — Recomposed Granite, Rapakivi, . 93 Conglomerated Rocks — Different situation of these rocks, . 93 Coagulated Rocks, Basalt — Chemical nature of Basalt — Configuration, 94 Position of Basalt — Of the volcanic origin of Basalt, . . 94 Facts opposed to the Volcanic origin — Neptunian origin of Basalt, 94 Hypothesis of Werner, 95 Of the coagulation of Basalt, 95 Earths of accumulation — Volcanic productions — Stony and vitrified Lavas, &c 95

BOOK IX.

Continuation of ihe Theory os Geography— Os the simple substances ivhich compose the solid part of the Globe. First .Section, Saline, Earthy, and Inflammable substances ... 72 Definition of simple and aggregate substances — Classification of Minerals, 72 Carbonate of Lime, Chalk, 72 Marble, Calcareous Spar, Stalactites, 72 Calcareous Alabaster, incrustations — Phosphated and fluated Lime — Sulphated Lime — Gypseous Alabaster, .... 73 Barytes, Strontites, Magnesia, Nitrate of Potass, Muriate of Soda, or common Salt, 73 Borax, Carbonate of Soda, Muriate of Ammonia, .... 73 Alum, Cryolite, Quartz, 74 Sand and Gravel, Rock Crystal — Quartz-agate, Oriental Agate, 74 Opal, Jasper, common Silex, 74 Situation of Hyaline Quartz — Situation of arenated Quartz, 74, 75 Precious Stones — Spinelle, Topaz, Emerald, Garnet, ... 75 Diamond, Feldspar, 75 Decomposed Feldspar, Petrosilex, 76 Amphibole, Mica, Glass of Muscovy, 76 Position of Mica, 76 Talc, position of Talc, 76, 77 Tourmaline, Lazulite, Jade, Asbestos, or Amianthus, ... 77 Use of Asbestos, Sulphur, 77 Anthracite, Carbon, 77, CONTENTS IV Pumice-stone, Scoriæ or dross — Puzzolanas, volcanic ashes, 95, 96 Volcanic Tufa, Decomposed Lava, 96 Bolides, Stone showers, 96 Chemical nature of waters — Influence of exposure upon water, ■• • • 111 The waters of marshes — Waters of hills and mountains, .

HI Waters of lakes — River water — Well water — Sea water — Rain water, HI Snow and Ice Water— Weight of Waters— Mineral Waters, 11X'JJs Acidulated Waters — Ferruginous Waters, U* Aluminous and Soapy Waters, &c— Formation of Mineral Waters • • Jl* Poisonous Waters— Metallic Waters— Salt Waters, . 112, lid Their Origin, 1J3 Warm Sulphureous Waters— Waters which are inflammable, 113 Petrifying Waters — Incrusting Waters, 113, 114

BOOK XII.

Continuation of the Theory of Geography. Of the Fossil Remains of Organic Bodies; Vegetable and Animal, . . 97 General View — Fossil Remains, Petrifactions, 97 Petrified Wood— Metallized bodies, 97 Impressions — Petrified Vegetables, 97 Impressions of Vegetables, 98 These vegetables are exotics — Bittiminated Wood, — Shells, 98 Touraine — Remarks upon the Shells in Germany, .... 99 Shells of the North and South of Europe — Shells of Asia and Africa, 99 Shells upon the Cordilleras — Fossil Fishes — Fossil Fish of Nanterre, 99 Glo_ssopetræ — General Remark — Fossil Amphibia — Fossil Crocodiles, 99, 100 These animals are exotic — Pelagian and littoral beds, . . 100 Remarkable circumstances, 100 Remains of cetaceous animals — Birds and Insects — Remains of Quadrupeds, 100,101 1st, In Gypsum — 2d, In Marshes — 3d, In caverns — Fossil Elephant in Siberia, 101 Fossil Elephants in Europe — In Iceland and America, . . 101 Mastodon, a Fossil Animal — Bones of the Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, &c. — Gigantic dimensions, .... 101, 102 Fossil remains of Carnivorous and ruminating animals — Opossum — Of the origin of Bones in Caverns, 102 Origin of the Bones found in Gypsum — Origin of the Bones found in light soils, 102, 103 Human Bones, 103

BOOK XIV.

Continuation of the Theory of Geography. Of the Sea and Sea Water. Of Tides and Currents, 115 General Views — Bottom of the Sea, — Springs of fresh water in the Sea, 115 Depth of the Sea, 115 Level of Seas, 115 Chemical Nature of Sea Water — Saltness of the Sea, 115, 116 Variations of the Saltness of Sea Water, 116 Origin of the Saltness of Sea Water, 116 Attempts to render Sea Water drinkable — Colour of Sea Water, 116,117 Marine Vegetation — Light of the Sea — Phosphorescence of Sea Animals, 117 Phosphorescence of Putrified Matters, 117 Temperature of the Sea — Marine Ice, 118 Appearance of that Ice, 118 Dangers of Navigation in the Frozen Seas, 118 Motions of the Sea, 119 Regions of the Sea — Waves, &c. — Cause of undulations, . 119 Tides — Action of the Moon, 119 High and Low Tide, 119, 120 Action of the Sun, 120 Great Equinoctial Tides, — Local variations, 120 Seas without Tides — Tides in Gulfs — Maritime Currents, . 121 Polar Currents, - 121 Equatorial Current — Cause of the Equatorial Current, 121, 122 Currents of the Great Eastern Ocean, 122 Current of Bass' Straits — Current of the Bay of Bengal, . 122 Different Currents of the Indian Seas, 122 Current of the Natal Coast — Currents on the Eastern Coast of Asia, 123 Currents of the Western Ocean — Current of Cape St. Augustin, 123 Current of the Gulf of Guinea — Current of the Gulf of Mexico — Currents of the Frozen Sea, 123 Floating Wood — Double Currents, 124 Opposite Currents— Eddies of Water — Whirlpools — Depth and quickness of Currents, 124

BOOK XIII.

Continuation of the Theory of Geography. Of Water in general. Of Springs, Rivers, and Lakes, 104 Of water in general — Springs, 104 Vapors attracted by high lands — Filtration of Sea-water, . 104 Filtration of "Rain-water, . 104 Motion of running water — Spouting Springs — Intermitting, or Periodical Fountains, 105 Fountains of dearth and plenty, 105 Subterraneous waters — Glaciers, 105, 106 Rivers, streams, torrents, and rivulets — Hydrographical basins — Masses, or Hydrographical plateaus 106 Beds of rivers — Declivity of rivers, 106 Confined rivers — Cataracts and cascades, 107 Height of Cataracts, 107 Periodical increase of rivers — Increase of rivers parallel to the equator — Increase of rivers running from north to south, and vice versa, 107 Rivers disappearing under ground — Causes of this Phenomenon, 108 Mouth of rivers — Mascaret, 108 Pororoca — Lakes — Lakes absolutely isolated, . ,. . . . 108 Lakes which receive no running water — Lakes which receive and discharge their waters— Lakes without any outlet, . 109 Periodical Lakes — Are the periods regular ?. 109 Lakes which rise, which boil, &e 1 10 Floating Islands — Periodical floating Islands, 110 Floating Islands which have become stationary — Temperature of Lakes— Lakes with double bottoms, 110

BOOK XV.

Continuation oj the Theory of Geography. Of the Fluid which surrounds the Globe, or the Atmosphere.

Of Meteors, 125 General Views, 125 Different Species of Atmospheric Fluids — Air, 125 Salubrity of the Air — Color of the Air — Weight of the Air, 125 Of the Barometer, and its Use in Geography, 126 Effects of the Diminution of Weight — Proportion between the Weight of Air and Water, CONTENTS V Effect of the Absence of Mountains — Temperature of Valleys — Unwholesome Valleys, 143 Effects of the Neighbourhood of the Sea 144 Influence arising from the Nature of the Soil, 144 Different Aspect of the Sky — Influence of the Labours of Man, 144 Inconveniences of New Countries — Influence of Predominant Winds, 144, 145 General Principles as to the Nature of Winds, 145 Consequences of these Principles — Diminution of Heat towards the East, 145 East and West Coasts in the Torrid Zone — Examination of the Climates of Hippocrates, 145, 140 Southerly Climate, 146 Contrary Examples, 146 Northern Climate — Eastern Climate, 146 Western Climate — Objections, Local Examples, .... 147 Principles of Classification of Climates — Hot and dry Climate, 147 Hot and humid Climate — Cold and dry Climate — Cold and humid Climate, 147 Modifications of these Climates, 148 Temperature of the Torrid Zone, 148 Difference of the equatorial and tropical regions, .... 148 Seasons of the Temperate Zone, 148, 149 The most temperate Climates, 149 Seasons of the Frozen Zone — On the greater Cold of the Southern Atmosphere, 149 Different opinions — Causes of this phenomenon, .... 149 Quantity of Southern Polar Ice, 150 Whether the General Temperature of the Globe changes, . 150 Expansive Power of Air — Height of the Atmosphere, . . 126 Variations of the Height of the Atmosphere — Evaporation ; its two methods, 127 Nature of Evaporations, 127 Aqueous Meteors — Clouds, 127 Mists.

Dews, 128 White or Hoar Frost, Rain, Snow, 128 Hail, 129 Effects of Aqueous Meteors, 129 Quantity of Atmospheric Water — Nature of Atmospheric Water, 129 Showers of Blood, of Sulphur, of Fire, &c 129, 130 Optical Phenomena — Refraction and Reflection, .... 130 Twilight and Dawn — Rising and Setting of the Sun — Parhelions, 130 Rainbow — Various kinds of Reflections — The Mirage, 130, 131 Zodiacal Light, 131 Igneous Meteors — Electricity, 131 Variations of the Electric Fluid, 131, 132 V CLIICLLIUIIS UL LUG JJJlClrLUG I 111 111. ±V±, ±OS Effects of Storms, 132 Aurora Borealis, 132 Ignis Fatuus — Burning Fountains, 133 Falling Stars— Fire of St. Elmo, 133 Globes of Fire, 134 Magnetism. Magnetic Needle — Declination ofthe Needle, 134 Inclination of the Needle, 134 Magnetic Meridians, Poles and Equator, 134, 135 s

BOOK XVI.

Continuation of the Theory of Geography. Of the Movements peculiar to the Atmosphere, or of Winds, .... 136 Definition of Winds — Velocity of Winds, 136 Kinds of Winds — Origin of the constant Easterly Winds, 136 Modifications of the constant Easterly Winds, 136 Origin of Variable Winds — Sea and Land Breezes, . . . 137 Winds of a peculiar quality — Moon's influence — Hurricanes, 137 Water-spouts, or Syphons, 137 Origin of Water-spouts — Trade-wind in the Atlantic Ocean, 138 Winds in the Gulf of Guinea — Region of Calms, .... 138 Tornadoes — Trade-winds of the Pacific, « . 138 Monsoons, or Half-yearly Winds of India — Variations in the Monsoons, 139 How the Monsoons change — Double Winds, 139 General explanation of the Monsoons, 139 Explanation of particular circumstances, 140 General conclusion — Utility and Pleasures derived from Winds, 140

BOOK XVIII

Continuation os the Theory of Geography — Of the Revolutions whicii have taken place upon the Surface of tlie Globe, 151 General Views — Two classes of Terrestrial Revolutions, . 151 Confusion of Supposed and Established facts — Causes which change the surface of the Earth, 151 Decomposition by Air and Meteors — Extension of moving Sands, 151 Labours of Man — Changes arising from Vegetables, . . . 152 Sinking down and Revolutions of Mountains, 152 General sinking of the Globe — Subsidings through excavations, 152 Origin of Subterraneous Forests, 153 Lakes formed by subsidings, 153 Ground suspended over Lakes, 153 Mountains without cohesion — Effects of Cold — Skeletons of Mountains, 153, 154 Combined effects of these causes, 154 The sliding of Rocks, 154 Effects of fallings down, 155 Whether it be possible to prevent or foresee fallings down — Effects of running Water, 155 Excavations in Rocks by Water — Funnels, 155 Drying up of Lakes, 156 Inundations from the filling up of lakes, 156 Do the waters of the Sea diminish ? 156 Manner in which the sea produces changes — Changes in the eastern part of the Mediterranean, 156, 157 Changes in the Gulf of Venice, 157 Changes in the western part of the Mediterranean, . . . 157 Changes in the Atlantic Ocean — Changes upon the coast of Holland, 157 Changes upon the Danish coast — Diminution of the Baltic, 158 Physical Arguments, 158 Historical Arguments — Maps of the Middle ages, . . . 158 Diminution of the Baltic by the clearing of new grounds — Local changes — Example, 159

BOOK XVII.

Continuation ofthe Theory os Geography.

Ofthe Local Temperature ofthe Atmosphere, or of Physical Climates, . . 141 Physical Climate — Its Causes, 141 Sensible and Latent Heat — Reflection of Caloric, .... 141 Internal Heat of the Globe— Central Fire, 142 Elevation of the Ground — General and Local Aspects — Effects of Aspect, , 142 Effects of the Course of the Sun — West and Eastern Aspects, 142 Warmest Aspect — Exposures parallel to the different parts of the Day, 142, 143 Position of Mountains — Shelter given by Forests, .... 143 VOL. I. st VI CONTENTS Moisture necessary to vegetables — Pressure of the Atmosphere — Chemical nature of the Soil, 173 Earths which abound in Plants, 173 Extent of Vegetation— Progress of Vegetation, .... 173 Epochs in the propagation of Plants — Primitive centres of vegetation — Migration of Plants, 174 Sociable plants, 174> 175 Vegetation of the Frozen Zone— Vegetation ofthe Temperate Zone, YL- Country of the Vine— Cultivation of Corn and Grain, . . 17o General aspect of the warm Temperate Zone, 176 Vegetation of the Torrid Zone, 176 Appearance of Vegetation in the Torrid Zone, 176 The Southern Temperate Zone, 177 Effects of Frost — Observations upon North America, . . 159 General conclusion — Remarks upon the old wrecks of ships, 159 Volcanoes — Description of Volcanic Eruptions, .... 160 Ravages ofthe Lava — Geography of Volcanoes — Great Volcanic Chain of the Globe, 160 Volcanoes of the Indian seas, 160 Volcanoes of Europe, 161 Volcanoes of the Atlantic Ocean — Scattered Volcanoes — General results, 161 Origin of Volcanic Fire, 161 Earthquakes — Description of their effects, 101 Presages of Earthquakes — Direction of Earthquakes, 162, 163 Generality of these phenomena — Shakings ofthe Sea— Causes of Earthquakes, 163 The raising up of the Earth, 163 Of the new Volcanic Islands, 163 Muddy Eruptions— The Salses, 163 Conclusion 164

BOOK XXI.

Continuation ofthe Theory of Geography — Ofthe Earth, considered as the Residence of Organic Beings — Section Second, Of the Geographical Distribution of Animals, . . . 178 General Views — Spontaneous Generation — Zoophytes — Seas of coral, 178 Polypi, 178 Molluscæ and Shells, 178 Geographical distribution of Insects — Countries rendered uninhabitable by Insects, 179 Fishes, 179 Upon the situation of Fishes — Migrations of Fishes, . . . 179 Fresh Water Fishes, 180 Fish in singular situations — Cetaceous Animals, Seals, &c. — - Geographical distribution of Cetaceous Animals, . . . 180 Remarks upon Reptiles, 180 Birds in a Geographical point of view — Birds of the Torrid Zone, 180,181 Birds of the Temperate Zone — Annual Migrations — Birds of the Frozen Zone — Sea Birds — Quadrupeds, .... 181 Their Migrations — Animals generally spread over the Globe, 181,182 The Dog— the Ox— the Sheep, 182 The Horse — Three races of Horses — Persian — Mongolian or Scythian Race, 182 Arab or African Race — the Ass — the Hog, its connection with the History of Man, 182, 183 The Cat — the Fox— the Hare, 183 The Rabbit— the Squirrel — the Stag, 183 If there are any Stags in Africa — common Bear — small Quadrupeds, 183 Quadrupeds distributed in the Northern Hemisphere — the Rein-deer — the White or Polar Bear, 184 Isatis or Polar Fox — Otter- — Beaver, 184 The Marten Lynx the Elk Squirrels, Mountain Rats, &c 184, 185 Quadrupeds peculiar to the Ancient Continent— Camel with two Humps — Camel with one Hump, 185 The Gazelle, Antelope, &c— Jackal], 185 Buffalo — Grunting Ox — Buffalo of Caffraria — Quadrupeds of the Torrid Zone of the Old Continent — Apes, . . 185, 186 Countries of different Apes — Giraffe — Zebra — Rhinoceros, with one and with two horns, 186 Hippopotamus — Elephants of Asia and Africa — The Lion, 186 The Tiger— The Panther— The Leopard— The Ounce— Inference respecting the Animals of the Ancient Continent, 187 Quadrupeds of the New World— Quadrupeds of North America, jg7 Bison, or Wild Ox — Musk Ox — Quadrupeds indigenous to South America, Ig7 Lama— Tapir — The Ant-eater, Agoutis, &c. — Sapajons, Sagouins, &c. — Small size of Animals in America, . 187, 188 Character of the Zoology of South America — Quadrupeds of the Oceanic Countries, jgg Kangaroos — Wombats — Stag Hog, Ourang-Outang, &c. . 188