The World's Inhabitants; or, Mankind, animals & plants ... With ... illustrations, etc

Front matter

THE WORLD'S INHABITANTS. BETTANY. EDITED BY THE AUTHOR OF "THE WORLD'S INHABITANTS." SCIENCE PRIMERS FOR THE PEOPLE. Fcap 8vo, neat cloth, 6d. each. Chemistry. Professor W. Odling, F.U.S. Physical Geography. Professor P. Martin Duncan, F.R S. Physiology1. Dr. W. B. Carpenter, C.B.. F.R.S. Botany. G. T. Bettany. M.A., B.Sc, F.L.S. POPULAR LIBRARY OF LITERARY TREASURES. Crown 8vn, cloth, 6<J. each ; or in wrappers, 3d. each. Emerson's Representative Mem*. Macaulay's Clive, Hastings, &c. Plutarch's Alexander, Cæsar, &c. Locke on Education. Db QUINCBT'S OpIUmEaTFR, &c. Longfellow's Wayside Inn, &c. y Sindbad, Aladdin, &c. Bacon's Essays, The Vicab of Wakefield. Cook's First Voyage. Foster's Decision of Character. Milton s Miscellaneous Poe hi-. Plutarch's Famous Greeks, Cobbeti's Advice to Young Men.

Ingoldsby Lfgends. I. Coleridge's Ancient Mariner, &c. The Little Hunchback, &c. Macaulay's Lays or Ancient Rome, Emerson's Love, Friendship, &c. Imitation of Christ. Ingoldsby Legends. II. CJoethe's Faust. Bayard Taylor. Emerson's Conduct of Life, &c. Cook's Voyage to Australia. Ward, Lock and Co., London and New York. THE WORLD'S INHABITANTS OR, slfcankino, animate, ano plants. BEING A POPULAR ACCOUNT OF •THE RACES AND NaVTIONS OF MANKIND, PAST AND PRESENT, AND THE ANIMALS AND PLANTS INHABITING THE GREAT CONTINENTS AND PRINCIPAL ISLANDS. WITH ABOUT 900 ILLUSTRATIONS, Representing all the Types of Mankind, their Homes and their Public Life, Together with many of the Principal Types of Animals and Plants. BY G. T. BETTANY, M.A., B.Sc, F.L.S., FORMERLY FOUNDATION AND SHUTTLEWORTH SCHOLAR OF CONVILLE AND CAIUS COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE Author of "Eminent Doctors," "A Life of Charles Do.rwin," "Elementary Physiology," etc., etc. WARD, LOCK & CO. London: WARWICK HOUSE, SALISBURY SQUARE, E.C. New York: BOND STREET. 1888. (AU Rights Resm'ved,.)

Preface

. RETURNING from a mental voyage, not merely round the world, but among all peoples, the author may perhaps be permitted to say, that if any considerable portion of the pleasure and instruction he has derived from it may be shared by his readers, his object will be amply realised. It must be confessed that he had set himself no slight task in the endeavour to include in one volume, in good type and well illustrated, a review of the peoples at present existing on the globe, as well as a sketch of the past mutations of each country, — change of masters and change of people, — extending the view even to the prehistoric inhabit ants. But if people in general are to have any chance of gaining an acquaintance with a subject so wide as the present, it must be presented to them in a readable volume of moderate size and attractive in form.

Probably no two authors would agree in their view of the proportion to be assigned to the different topics, and it cannot be expected that every one will be satisfied with the space assigned to his pet subject. The labour of endeavouring to attain accuracy throughout, and of bringing up the work to the latest date, has been very considerable, but it is hoped that nothing superfluous, diluted, or without interest to many readers, will be found to have been included. In deciding to deal with Europe first, and to begin with our own country, the author was influenced by the special importance to us of knowing more about ourselves and our immediate neighbours. He has thus avoided the danger of being tempted at the last to give inadequate space to the European peoples. Even such a brief resume of the history of each nation as has been attempted Will be of advantage to those who may have read no special work dealing with European history.

A combined racial, political, and geographical plan has been adopted, rather than one purely racial ; for areas and States are more definite and traceable than races ; and it is more important to realise who are the inhabitants of the Austrian Empire, for instance, than to treat of Teutons, Slavs, etc., as a whole ; but the distribution of races has also been fully kept in view. Special prominence has been given to our Indian fellow subjects, hitherto far too little known and appreciated by us ; and as much space as possible has been devoted to their past history as well as V

PREFACE.

. VI to their present condition. After all, it would have been much easier to write several volumes on " The World's Inhabitants " than one ; and many things have necessarily been omitted which the author would wish to have included. The space devoted to animals and plants may suffice to give a general idea of the more important of these essential elements in man's environment. Pictures proverbially teach better than words ; and consequently it is a great gratification to the author to have been able, through the liberality of the publishers, to illustrate this book so lavishly, and with such typical illustrations. It may safely be said that never before has a work of this character been obtainable for three half-crowns. In a book like this, the author must of course owe most of his facts to previous writers.

It would be impossible in any brief space to mention the various works and monographs, over a thousand in number, which have been consulted. Endeavour has been made to state nothing with out good authority. The author is naturally under great obligations to such monumental works as those of Reclus, Sir W. W. Hunter, H. H. Bancroft, Schoolcraft, Brough Smyth, and Featherman, and to the numerous admirable papers and works of Sir John Lubbock, Sir Monier Williams, Mr. A. R. Wallace, Prof. Keane, Mr. Stanley, and Mr. Bates. He specially desires to acknowledge the kindness of his friend Dr. Bed doe, F.R.S., of Bristol, who has done so much for ethnology, to whom he is indebted for the loan of the photographs from which the page of British race-types (p. 45), the Welsh portraits (p. 47), the page of Dra vidians (p. 267), the Ainos (p. 400), the Mingrelian (p. 466), the Ossetian (p. 467), the Yuruk (p. 477), the Tuareg (p. B51), the Rovuma men (p. 660), the Tasmanians (p. 879), and the Sulus (p. 894) have been reproduced.

It is to be hoped that the days are past when boys and girls are set to learn long lists of heights of mountains, lengths of rivers, populations of cities, etc., under the pretence that they are learning geography. The author believes that the matter of the first and highest importance in geography is the distribution and characteristics of the races of men ; and books such as the present might perhaps with advantage be read in the higher forms of schools. Finally, the author knows that imperfections will be discovered in this book ; but he asks that the immense range of his subject, the im possibility of being a specialist in everything, and the necessity of com pleting the work within a moderate time, if it is not to grow out of date before it is published, may be fairly taken into account in judging it Dulmich, 1st November, 1888. CONTENTS. PAGE Introduction 1

Book I. The Inhabitants Of Europe

CHAPTEB I. The Early Inhabitants of the British Islands .... 19 H. Historic Britons 27 III. The Britons of To-day 38 IV. France in the Past 57 V. The Modern French 63 VI. The Spaniards and Portuguese 77 VII. The Italians in the Past 89 VIH. Italians of the Present Day 95 IX. The Germans 105 X. The Dutch, or Netherlanders 120 XI. The Belgians 126 XII. The Swiss 132 XIH. The Scandinavians 138 XIV. The Danes and Icelanders 148 XV. The Russians 154 XVI. The Inhabitants of the Austrian Empire 170 XVII. The Servians, Bulgarians, and Roumanians ....". 186 XVIH. The Greeks 195 XIX. The Turks 208 XX. The Gipsies 213 XXI. The Jews in Europe 217 XXH. Distribution of European Races 222 XXIH. European aAnimals 225 XXIV. European Plants 237 Ul CONTENTS. VIII

Book II. The Inhabitants Of Asia

PAGE CHAFTEE I. The Early Inhabitants and History of India 244 n. The Europeans in India 255 HI. The Dravidian Peoples of India . . 263 IV. The Kolarian Peoples of India 274 V. The Inhabitants of Ceylon, etc 280 VI. The Hindus 289 VII. The Hindus, continued 307 VIII. The Tibeto-Burmese and Tibetans . 321 IX. The Siamese, Cochin Chinese, Cambodians, etc. .... 340 X. The Chinese 352 XI. The Japanese 384 XII. The Mongolians, Kashgarians, etc 404 XIII. The Inhabitants of Siberia ., ■ • 410 XIV. The Inhabitants of Turkestan 425 XV. The Persians . 436 XVI. The Afghans, Baluchis, etc. 448 XVII. The Caucasians, Georgians, Lesghians, etc 458 XVIII. The Inhabitants of Turkey in Asia— I. Asia Minor and Armenia 472 XIX. „ „ ,, II. Syria and Mesopotamia . 487 XX. The Arabs 498 XXI. Distribution of Asiatic Races 506 XXII.

Asiatic Animals 509 XXIII. Asiatic Plants 518 BOOK HI. THE INHABITANTS OF AFRICA. I. The Egyptians 528 H. The" Inhabitants of Northern Africa 544 ni. The Nubians and Abyssinians 561 IV. The Gallas, Somalis, etc 575 V. The Waganda and the Eastern Soudanese 581 VI. The Central Soudanese 605 VII. The Western Africans, from the Senegal to the Ogoway . . 615 VHI. The SouTn Africans CONTENTS. IX CHiriil PAGE IX. South Tropical Africans 656 X. The Malagasy 675 XI. Distribution of African Races 685 XII. African Animals 687 XIII. African Plants X 698

Book IV. The Inhabitants Of America

I. The Canadians ' 707 H. The Eskimo 726 III. The Inhabitants of the United States 738 IV. The Mexicans and Central Americans 763 V. The West Indians ■ 775 VI. The Western South Americans 785 VII. The Eastern South Americans 797 VIII. The South American Indians . . . 809 IX. Distribution of American Races 830 X. American Animals 833 XI. American Plants 850

Book V. The Inhabitants Of Oceania

I. The Australians .... 859 II. The Inhabitants of Malaysia 880 III. The Papuans - 897 IV. The Polynesians ...... 912 V. The New Zealanders 923 VI. Distribution of Oceanic Races 930 VII. Australasian Animals 932 VIH. Australasian and Polynesian Plants 940 Index NATIVES OF IHE CAROLINE ISLANDS. THE WORLD'S INHABITANTS Introduction, Scope os subject — Natural Interest ln mankind, especially strangers— Effect of diversity of language— Beneficial effect of mutual knowledge— Study of past history and opportunities essential— Main stocks of the human race— The Aryans— Complex mixtures of races- Early dawn of civilisation — Unknown early history — Past linked to present— Man one species —Time required for great changes— Contrast of types— Characters for discrimination of races— Shape of skuU— Projection of jaw— Capacity of brain-case— Distinctions of features — Colour of complexion and hair— Importance of language — Families of languages— The Aryan or Indo-European languages— MonosyUabic languages - Malayo-Polynesian languages —Other groups of languages — Mental rank of races and languages — Blumenbach's classification of races— Prot Huxley's classification— The Australoid peoples— The Negroid peoples— The Mongoloid peoples — The fairand darkwhite peoples— Geographical distribution of animals and plants.

MAN, in his untutored and savage state ; man, in his gropings after social organi sation ; man, in his organised comscope of munities, in tribes and states and subJect kingdoms ; man, with his animal competitors and prey, and surrounded by brilliant and useful vegetation — of these we set ourselves to give an outline ; brief, of necessity, con sidering the vast extent of the subject ; but yet we shall hope to make it both intelligible and interesting to those who have not suffi cient time, money, and learning to be able to pursue extensive inquiries tor themselves. B I.

Introduction

. 2 Every man, woman, and child who can read is naturally interested in others of the same human family. He cannot help observing, and likins or disliking, those whom he meets daily. And this more TTfl till T*flJ •"iiii! interest in or less instinctive partiality or prejudice is particularly called strangers. by. strangers. The more diverse a new arrival is from the received type, the more interest he excites. If the observed of all observers speaks the same language as his critics, he has advanced some distance into their regard and welcome ; if, with a general similarity of speech, a difference of tone, pronunciation, and partially of words, shows itself, there is in the untutored, and too frequently in the tutored, mind a feeling of some repulsion. " Don't know him ; heave half a brick at him," expresses a sentiment too frequently found effective.

A total difference of language reduces people, not quite to a savage state, but still to a level approaching thereto ; for signs and actions then „A, a a. constitute the sole means of communication ; and until the Effect of '. diversity of signs can be agreed upon or comprehended, it is only too anguage. pj.Q-)-,^^ they will lead to misconception and to quarrel ling. It is rarely that people of different races and languages are so destitute of prejudice or of mutual distrust that they can receive each other with pure and spontaneous goodwill, and maintain a friendly inter course, without occasions of offence arising. Knowledge of one another, of habits, customs, social and political arrangements, is a powerful agent towards producing this mutual good- Beneflciai will, which can only be effectually conserved upon the broad foundations of mutual interest, brotherly regard, and human knowledge, sympathy.

Unless races can be induced to sympathise with and respect one another, it is hopeless to preach peace and goodwill towards men. This knowledge of and sympathy with all members of the human race in their struggles, their hardships, their enjoyments, their successes, are worthy objects for all men to promote. To understand a people thoroughly, we must know something of their opportunities and their achievements ; of the animal life by which study of past they are surrounded, and with which they have to compete ; o^porSnmes0^ tlieir suPPly °f f°0(i) animal and vegetable ; and of their essential industries. Such subjects we shall deal with as extensively as our space will permit. And thus a picture will be afforded of the races and peoples of the whole human family and their organic surround ings, which will include interest and charm for all classes, old and young, rich and poor, gentle and simple.

At the outset we must take for granted certain broad results of the study of mankind, as, for instance, that several large stocks, or groups, Mam stocks of tlie human race can be distinguished, such as Aryan, 4,,,™.^!,,., Semitic, Mongolian, Negro, Malay, Polynesian, etc, ; but how these originated, and when and why, we must be content to leave for future discussions to settle, when fuller knowledge has been attained. INTROD UCTION 3 ENGLISH MAN. HINDU. ENGLISH WOMAN. j.. — — -"UT LAP.LANDER. CAUCASIAN. GREEK. GEORGIAN. KURD. ARMENIAN. EUROPEAN AND ASIATIC TYPES.

INTRODUCTION.

. 4 Each of these main stocks has produced peoples, or groups of peoples, differing more or less from one another in physical characters, in habits, in residence, and in history. The Aryan stock, The Aryans. spreading from Central Asia as most people think, although others believe it to have originated in Northern Europe, has given rise to Hindu, Grræco-Eoman, Teutonic, and Celtic groups, among others ; and, owing to wars, migrations, and intermixture through long ages, the people now inhabiting almost any given country, especially a country of Europe, are very mixed in their origin. Thus tbe inhabitants of the mixture.Tof British Islands belong principally to two main divisions of the race' Aryan nations, the Teutonic and the Celtic ; but the admixture of these is not simple but complex, derived in various proportions from different branches of these peoples ; and their combinations with other ' races have contributed to make complexity more complex.

In the case of almost every nation, its early history is lost in obscurity ; and far from its duration being limited to a few centuries, the dawn of civilisation must be sought many thousands of of years ago ; and a preceding period, of unknown duration, must civilisation. aj]owe^) during which mankind was slowly rising from a very imperfect state. On this view, what is known is but a fragment compared with what is unknown, and may possibly be concealed from us during our terrestrial unknown existence. Yet this must not discourage us as to the utility of early history. our actUal knowledge for present use. "We have to "act in the living present." The modern state of mankind can be largely traced Past linked to immediately preceding revolutions, and these to others not to present, long past ; and when we have obtained a general view of man, past and present, and of the living creation, we shall find our compre hension of the state of mankind indefinitely enlarged, our sympathies widened, and, let us trust, our action wiser.

We hold that science has definitely decided that mankind forms only one species, regarded as an animal, although some persons still hold the Mankind one opinion that mankind consists of several species, distinct from species. one another, like the lion from the tiger. AU mankind can intermarry with one another, and the offspring of every kind of marriage exist. There is no distinction in structure between different races of men, sufficient to mark them off with certainty from one another by a broad line of demarcation. It is very evident, when their structure is examined, that the varieties of pigeons and of dogs present much greater contrasts than those which exist between the most diversified specimens of humanity. That man has lived upon the earth much longer that was formerly Time supposed is now generally agreed, although there is great uncer for g?eadt tainty as to the duration of his existence. Regarding manldnd changes. a3 having originated from one stock, it is evident that much

INTRODUCTION.

. 5 MALAY. NEGRITO. CHINESE. KALMUCKS. KIRGHESE. MEXICAN INDIAN. WAPISIANA. MOGNI WOMAN. ASIATIC AND AMERICAN TYPES. INTR OD UCTION. 6 time has been necessary for the production of the teeming populations of India and China, with their endless diversities, for the settlement of the various tribes throughout the globe, and the acclimatisation and adaptation of races to their conditions of life. Again, seeing how slowly men have developed and advanced during the Christian era, and con sidering that they were sufficiently developed four thousand years ago to execute marvellous sculptures, and to build temples and other structures demanding great genius, we perceive that long ages must have been occupied in the progress which preceded such attainments. Again, the striking differences between types of men from different countries — the dark complexion of the Italian organ-grinder, the fair Contrast of Englishman, the yellow Chinese, the dark - brown negro — types, indicate to us that, if we believe these to have all sprung from one stock, much time must be given for the operation of causes of change.

Yet these distinctions were, without doubt, very nearly the same as they are now at least three thousand years ago. Thus looked at, as Dr. Tylor has well said, every Chinese and negro bears in his face evidence of the antiquity of man. Some of the evidences of this antiquity will be mentioned as we proceed with our subject. It is desirable, before proceeding to details, to gain a general idea of the principal races of mankind, their relationships, and their chief cha- Characters racteristics. And first we will refer to some of the characters ky which anthropologists are accustomed to discriminate races races. independently of the locality in which they live, their habits of life, and their mental and moral peculiarities. For instance, the dimensions and shape of the skull are highly important.

The length of the skull in proportion to its breadth has long been noticed as varying in different races. Taking the length as 100, the proportionate breadth varies from 70 to 86, the native Australians and Esquimaux standing shape of lowest at 70, and the South Germans highest at 86. This may skull serve to impress Up0n us slight is the difference of pro portion between the extremes of ordinary human skulls. Both white and coloured races, widely separated in other respects, may be found with the same cranial index, as it is called. Those may be called long headed whose proportion of breadth to length is 74 or less ; middle headed, from 75 to 80 ; and short, or round-headed, above 80. Another important character of the skull is the extent to which the jaws and teeth project forward beyond a vertical line let fall from the Projection forehead.

Some races, as the Bushmen and other Africans, of jaws have very forward-projecting jaws, approaching to that of the lugher apes, while the more elevated races have the jaws almost verti cally placed beneath their foreheads. Again -skulls vary largely in the capacity of the brain-case. It does capacity of not, however, follow that a large brain-case is filled with brain. brain-case. matter] or that the quaJihj rf the brain INT ROD UCTION. 7 HOTTENTOT WOM.-.N. BUSHMAN. H0TAi ABYSSINIAN. GALLA BOY. SOMALI. ZULU KAFFIR (CETEWAY0). CONGO NEGRO. SWAHELI. AFRICAN TYPES. IN TROD UCTION 8 skulls. But the average Englishman has a brain-case of 96 cubic inches, while Malay skulls have a capacity of 86 inches, and Peruvians, Austra lians, and Hottentots, 75 cubic inches. Independently of colour of skin and the kind of hair, marked differ ences are noticeable in the features of various peoples.

Very striking is the contrast between the aquiline nose of Jews and the flat or snub nose Distinction of the negro ; while the Esquimaux resemble most European of feature?. whites in having a slender, long nose. The thick, fleshy, pro truding lips of the negro are very noticeable. The arch formed by the teeth is in the higher races wide and evenly rounded, while in the lower the side arches are longer and nearly parallel. Some of the lowest races, especially the Australians, have much larger teeth, notably the wisdom teeth. Again, Bushmen and negroes possess a more prominent and nar row chest than the white races, whose chest is broader and flatter. Contrary to general belief, there are no truly black people ; the utmost extent of darkness of complexion is but a dark brown ; and hue of complexion is but an imperfect guide in discriminating races.

Hair, too, is but an uncertain guide ; every variety of colour of hair may complexion be met with among English people. Black hair is predominant among Hindus, Hebrews, Chinese, Americans, Africans, and Australians ; while fair hahis possessed by the majority of the fair white peoples. The distinction between the smooth-haired and the " woolly " or frizzy-haired peoples is very characteristic, and marks off the true negroes from all other races. The importance of language in all questions concerning the races of mankind is evident. We naturally assume that people speaking the importance same language are of the same race, and that difference of of ianguage...Speecn denotes difference of race. But the actual investigation of ithe question has shown that language may undergo much more rapid changes than race, and that it is largely affected by the migrati pns and the conquests of races.

To take a very striking case, the negro population of North America speak English, but no one takes that to indicate that they are English by race. By the careful study of language it has been shown that many languages .are so related to one another as to constitute families of Families .of languages, each having some predominant characteristics by languages, they differ from other families ; and although these are not always spoken by kindred races, yet the structure of their language affords much valuable information as to the origin and history of various races. The best known families of languages are the Aryan or Indo- European, and the Semitic or Hebraic. The Aryan languages include The Aryan those of almost all European peoples, as well as of great part of European and South-western Asia. The Greek and Latin lanlanguages guages exhibit in some respects the highest perfection of the

INTRODUCTION.

. 9 DRAVIDIAN. SAMOAN. JAPANESE. AUSTRALIAN. MAN OF NEW GUINEA. NEW CALEDONIAN TAHITIAN WOMAN. VITI ISLANDER. NEW ZEALAND WOMAN. AUSTRALASIAN TYPES.

INTRODUCTION.

. 10 Aryan type, while Sanskrit, the language of the Hindu ancient sacred books, is nearer to a primitive form. Throughout all these languages similar root-words exist, variously modified ; and considerable progress has been made in reconstructing the original speech from which they arose. The nature of the words they used, however, shows that the primitive Aryans were considerably advanced in the arts of life, and lived in a settled condition, practising some agricultural methods, and possessing domestic cattle. They also had some metals, of which they made weapons and implements for use in war and peace. Laws and religion must have been developed among them to a considerable extent. Many considerations point to Central Asia or Turkestan as their original home, although lately some scholars have endeavoured to show that the first speakers of the Aryan languages were the fair-haired long-headed Scandinavians.

The Aryan languages are of the type known as inflecting ; that is, differences of relation, number, case, etc., being indicated by additions incorporated in the primary root, or affixes. Vowels also are changed to a considerable extent, as a means of altering the signification of words. The Semitic languages are best represented by the ancient Hebrew and the modern Arabic. Comparatively few roots are used, and these Semitic are varied to a remarkable extent by changes of vowels, the languages, truest inflexion. As yet there is no sufficient proof of a com mon origin of the Semitic and the Aryan languages. This may merely show that it is so long since the Semitic and the Aryan nations diverged from a common stock, that the traces of common paternity have been lost. The utmost that can be said is, that they have a certain similarity, as being inflecting languages.

Widely distinguished from these are the agglutinative types of language, in which the primitive roots remain distinct, being modified by The adding to them more or less numerous suffixes. Among these afSUtiaiaesVeare tte Tartar or Turanian languages of Central and Northern Asia, those of the Finns and Lapps of Northern Europe, the Hungarian or Magyar, and the Turkish. The Basque language (Northern Spain) is a highly complex example of this kind of language. The monosyllabic languages of South-eastern Asia are best repre- Monosyuabic sensed by the Chinese, with multitudes of monosyllables, which languages, remain isolated, being greatly varied in meaning by the use of varied tones in pronouncing them. The languages of Further India and Tibet belong to this group. The Malayo-Polynesian languages form another large group, pro- Maiayoha-hly having several main subdivisions.

They are of a low TSgeT grade °f structure' though many of their roots have two sylla- ' bles, and reduplication, or the doubling of syllables, is much used. The Australian and Papuan languages appear to be distinct from these.

INTRODUCTION.

. 11 AUROCHS. BROWN BEAR SEALS. RHINOCEROS. ELEPHANT. EUROPEAN AND ASIATIC ANIMALS.

INTRODUCTION.

. 12 The Dravidian (Tamil, Telugu, Canarese) and Kolarian groups of languages are the representatives of speech in India before the Aryans other groups bad invaded it. We must notice, further, the distinctness of of languages, fae Egyptian or Hamitic group of languages, the South African or Bantu family, most remarkable for its great use of prefixes in many varieties, and the Central African groups, as yet very imperfectly known. The immense number of native languages of America are as yet very little understood ; and it is impossible to do any more than state that most of them agree in being polysynthetic, or using complex combinations of roots. The further study of language shows that the mental ability of nations is not by any means to be measured by the complexity or sim m tai nk Pucity of their languages.

For the high intellectual atof races and tainments of the ancient Egyptians and Chinese have ngu ges. keen produced together with languages of a plain, almost childish description. But, as Professor Whitney says, the value and rank of a language should be measured by what its users have made it do. A poor tool in skilful hands can do much more than the best tool in unskilful hands. As to the ' possibility of all existing languages having sprung from one, nothing definite can be said. At the present day they are so different that no connection can be made out between many of the groups. It may be thought that languages only became distinct, settled, and characteristic after the great branches of the human family had dispersed and diverged ; but any dogmatic assertion on such points is in the highest degree out of place, and cannot be based on evidence.

As to the broad classification of races, it will suffice to mention here the two most important— that put forward by Blumenbach, more than a Biumenbach'scenttuT aS°> and that of Professor Huxley. Blumenbach classification recognised five main races : the Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethiopian, American, and Malay. This arrangement does not deal with many races now known; and the Caucasian group is especially complex, including as it does all the so-called white men, even such divergent peoples as Arabs and Swedes. Yet the term Caucasian has been found so practically convenient that, for want of a better, it is still used. Professor Huxley's classification,— based on all the accumulated Prof. anatomical as well as sociological knowledge of modern cias^iSSiL1111168'- distinguislieS four main types— tte Australoid, the Negroid, the Mongoloid, and the Xanthochroic ; the latter with an important branch, the Melanochroic.

The Australoid peoples have a chocolate-brown skin, dark brown or Tne black eyes, black hair, usually wavy, narrow skull (long- ApeSoP!esld headed)> strongly-developed brow-ridges, projecting jaw, large teeth, thick lips, and broad nose. Besides the Australian natives, many of the hill-tribes of India, and perhaps the Egvptians belong to this type. '