XIV. CONCLUSION

XIV. CONCLUSION

The main Events of European History--Italy in the Renaissance--Germany and Reformation--Catholic Reaction--Its Antagonism to Renaissance and Reformation--Profound Identity of Renaissance and Reformation--Place of Italy in European Civilization--Want of Sympathy between Latin and Teutonic Races--Relation of Rome to Italy--Macaulay on the Roman Church--On Protestantism--Early Decline of Renaissance Enthusiasms--Italy's Present and Future.

I.

The four main events of European history since the death of Christ are the decline of Graeco-Roman civilization, the triumph of Christianity as a new humanizing agency, the intrusion of Teutonic and Slavonic tribes into the comity of nations, and the construction of the modern world of thought by Renaissance and Reformation.

As seems to be inevitable in the progress of our species, each of these changes involved losses, compensated by final gains; for humanity moves like a glacier, plastically, but with alternating phases of advance and retreat, obeying laws of fracture and regelation.

It would thus be easy to deplore the collapse of that mighty and beneficent organism which we call the Roman Empire. Yet without this collapse how could the Catholic Church have supplied inspiration to peoples gifted with fresh faculties, endowed with insight differing from that of Greeks and Romans?

It is tempting to lament the extinction of arts letters, and elaborated habits of civility, which followed the barbarian invasions. Yet without such extinction, how can we imagine to ourselves the growth of those new arts, original literatures, and varied modes of social culture, to which we give the names of mediaeval, chivalrous, or feudal?

It is obvious that we can quarrel with the Renaissance for having put an end to purely Christian arts and letters by imposing a kind of pagan mannerism on the spontaneous products of the later mediaeval genius. But without this reversion to the remaining models of antique culture, how could the European races have become conscious of historical continuity; how could the corrupt system of Papal domination have been broken by Reform; how, finally, could Science, the vital principle of our present civilization, have been evolved?

In all these instances it appears that the old order must yield place to the new, not only because the new is destined to incorporate and supersede it, but also because the old has become unfruitful. Thus, the Roman Empire, having discharged its organizing function, was decrepit, and classical civilization, after exhibiting its strength in season, was decaying when the Latin priesthood and the barbarians entered that closed garden of antiquity, and trampled it beneath their feet. Mediaeval religion and modes of thought, in like manner, were at the point of ossifying, when Humanism intervened to twine the threads of past and present into strands that should be strong as cables for the furtherance of future energy.

It is incontestable that the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation, each of them on different grounds antagonistic to the Renaissance, appear to have retarded that emancipation of the reason, begun by Humanism, which is still in progress. Nevertheless, the strife of Protestantism and Catholicism was needed for preserving moral and religious elements which might have been too lightly dropped, and for working these into the staple of the modern consciousness. The process of the last three centuries, attended as it has been by serious drawbacks to the Spanish and Italian peoples, and by a lamentable waste of vigor to the Teutonic nations, has yet resulted in a permeation of the modern compost with the leaven of Christianity. Unchecked, it is probable that the Renaissance would have swept away much that was valuable and deserved to be permanent. Nor, without the flux and reflux of contending principles by which Europe was agitated in the Counter-Reformation period, could the equipoise of reciprocally attracting and repelling States, which constitutes the modern as different from the ancient or the mediaeval groundwork of political existence, have been so efficiently established.

II.

Permanence and homogeneity are not to be predicated of 'anything that's merely ours and mortal.' We have missed the whole teaching of history if we wail aloud because Greek and Roman culture succumbed to barbarism, out of which mediaeval Christianity emerged; because the revival of learning diverted arts and letters in each Occidental nation from their home-plowed channels; because Protestant theologians and Spanish Jesuits impeded that self-evolution of the reason which Italian humanists inaugurated. No less futile were it to waste declamatory tears upon the strife of absolutism with new-fledged democracy, or to vaticinate a reign of socialistic terror for the immediate future. We have to recognize that man cannot be other than what he makes himself; and he makes himself in obedience to immutable although unwritten laws, whereof he only of late years became dimly conscious. It is well, then, while reflecting on the lessons of some deeply studied epoch in world-history, to regard the developments with which we have been specially occupied, no less than the ephemeral activity of each particular individual, as factors in a universal process, whereof none sees the issue, but which, willing or unwilling, each man helps to further. We shall then acknowledge that a contest between Conservatism and Liberalism, between established order and the order that is destined to replace it, between custom and innovation, constitutes the essence of vitality in human affairs. The nations by turns are protagonists in the drama of progress; by turns are doomed to play the part of obstructive agents. Intermingled in conflict which is active life, they contribute by their phases of declension and resistance, no less than by their forward movements, to the growth of an organism which shall probably in the far future be coextensive with the whole human race.

III.

These considerations are suggested to us by the subject I have handled in this work. The first five volumes were devoted to showing how Italy, in the Renaissance, elaborated a new way of regarding man and the world, a new system of education, new social manners, and a new type of culture for herself and Europe. This was her pioneer's work in the period of transition from the middle ages; and while she was engaged in it, all classes, from popes and princes down to poetlings and pedants, seemed for a while to have lost sight of Catholic Christianity. They were equally indifferent to that corresponding and contemporary movement across the Alps, which is known as Reformation. They could not discern the close link of connection which binds Renaissance to Reformation. Though at root identical in tendency towards freedom, these stirrings of the modern spirit assumed externally such diverse forms as made them reciprocally repellent. Only one European nation received both impulses simultaneously. That was England, which adopted Protestantism and produced the literature of Spenser, Bacon, and Shakespeare at the same epoch. France, earlier than England, felt Renaissance influences, and for some while seemed upon the point of joining the Reformation. But while the French were hesitating, Spain proclaimed herself the uncompromising enemy of Protestantism, and Rome, supported by this powerful ally, dragged Italy into the Catholic reaction. That effort aimed at galvanizing a decrepit Church into the semblance of vital energy, and, while professing the reformation of its corrupt system, stereotyped all that was antagonistic in its creed and customs to the spirit of the modern world. The Catholic Revival necessitated vigorous reaction, not only against Protestantism, but also against the Liberalism of the Renaissance and the political liberties of peoples. It triumphed throughout Southern Europe chiefly because France chose at length the Catholic side. But the triumph was only partial, condemning Spain and Italy indeed to intellectual barrenness for a season, but not sufficing to dominate and suppress the development of rationalism. The pioneer's work of Italy was over. She joined the ranks of obscurantists and obstructives. Germany, having failed to accomplish the Reformation in time, was distracted by the Catholic reaction, which plunged her into a series of disastrous wars. It remained for England and Holland, not, however, without similar perturbations in both countries, to lead the van of progress through two centuries; after which this foremost post was assigned to France and the United States.

IV.

The views which I have maintained throughout my work upon the Renaissance will be found, I think, to be coherent. They have received such varied illustrations that it is difficult to recapitulate the principles on which they rest, without repetition. The main outline of the argument, however, is as follows. During the middle ages, Western Christendom recognized, in theory at least, the ideal of European unity under the dual headship of the Papacy and Empire. There was one civil order and one Church. Emperor and Pope, though frequently at strife, were supposed to support each other for the common welfare of Christendom. That mediaeval conception has now, in the centuries which we call modern, passed into oblivion; and the period in which it ceased to have effective value we denote as the period of the Renaissance and the Reformation. So long as the ideal held good, it was possible for the Papacy to stamp out heresies and to stifle the earlier stirrings of antagonistic culture. Thus the precursory movements to which I alluded in the first chapter of my 'Age of the Despots,' seemed to be abortive; and no less apparently abortive were the reformatory efforts of Wyclif and Huss. Yet Europe was slowly undergoing mental and moral changes, which announced the advent of a new era. These changes were more apparent in Italy than elsewhere, through the revival of arts and letters early in the fourteenth century. Cimabue, Giotto, and the Pisani, Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio, set culture forward on fresh paths divergent from previous mediaeval tradition. The gradual enfeeblement of the Empire and the distraction of the Church during the Great Schism prepared the means whereby both Renaissance and Reformation were eventually realized. The Council of Constance brought the Western nations into active diplomatical relations, and sowed seeds of thought which afterwards sprang up in Luther.

Meanwhile a special nidus had been created in the South. The Italian communes freed themselves from all but titular subjection to the Empire, and were practically independent of the Papacy during its exile in Avignon. They succumbed to despots, and from Italian despotism emerged the Machiavellian conception of the State. This conception, modified in various ways, by Sarpi's theory of Church and State, by the Jesuit theory of Papal Supremacy, by the counter-theory of the Divine Right of Kings, by theories of Social Contract and the Divine Right of Nations, superseded the elder ideal of Universal Monarchy. It grew originally out of the specific conditions of Italy in the fifteenth century, and acquired force from that habit of mind, fostered by the Classical Revival, which we call humanism. Humanism had flourished in Italy since the days of Petrarch, and had been communicated by Italian teachers to the rest of Europe. As in the South it generated the new learning and the new culture which I have described in the first five volumes of my work, and acted as a solvent on the mediaeval idea of the Empire, so in the North it generated a new religious enthusiasm and acted as a solvent on the mediaeval idea of the Church. All through the middle ages, nothing seemed more formidable to the European mind than heresy. Any sacrifices were willingly made in order to secure the unity of the Catholic Communion. But now, by the Protestant rebellion, that spell was broken, and the right of peoples to choose their faith, in dissent from a Church declared corrupt, was loudly proclaimed.

So long as we keep this line of reasoning in view, we shall recognize why it is not only uncritical, but also impossible, to separate the two movements severally called Renaissance and Reformation. Both had a common root in humanism, and humanism owed its existence on the one hand to the recovery of antique literature, on the other to the fact that the Papacy, instead of striving to stamp it out as it had stamped out Provencal civilization, viewed it at first with approval. The new learning, as our ancestors were wont to call it, involved, in Michelet's pregnant formula, the discovery of the world and man, and developed a spirit of revolt against mediaevalism in all its manifestations. Its fruits were speedily discerned in bold exploratory studies, sound methods of criticism, audacious speculation, and the free play of the intellect over every field of knowledge. This new learning had time and opportunity for full development in Italy, and for adequate extension to the Northern races, before its real tendencies were suspected. When that happened, the transition from the mediaeval to the modern age had been secured. The Empire was obsolete. The Church was forced into reaction. Europe became the battle-field of progressive and retrogressive forces, the scene of a struggle between two parties which can best be termed Liberalism and Conservatism.

Stripping the subject of those artistic and literary associations which we are accustomed to connect with the word Renaissance, these seem to me the most essential points to bear in mind about this movement. Then, when we have studied the diverse antecedent circumstances of the German and Italian races, when we take into account their national qualities, and estimate the different aims and divergent enthusiasms evoked in each by humanistic ardor, we shall perceive how it came to pass that Renaissance and Reformation clashed together in discordant opposition to the Catholic Revival.

V.

Italy, through the Roman Republic, the Roman Empire, and the Roman Church, gave discipline, culture, and religion to the Western world. But, during the course of this civilizing process, a force arose in Northern Europe which was destined to transfer the center of gravity from the Mediterranean basin northwards. The Teutonic tribes effaced the Western Empire, adopted Christianity, and profoundly modified what still survived of Latin civility among the Occidental races. A new factor was thus introduced into the European community, which had to be assimilated to the old; and the genius of the Italian people never displayed itself more luminously than in the ability with which the Bishops of Rome availed themselves of this occasion. They separated the Latin from the Greek Church, and, by the figment of the Holy Roman Empire, cemented Southern and Northern Europe into an apparently cohesive whole. After the year A.D. 800, Europe, from the Baltic to the Mediterranean, acknowledged a dual headship; Papacy and Empire ranking as ideals under which the unity of Christendom subsisted in a multiplicity of separate and self-evolving nations.

The concordat between Latin Church and German Empire, the one representing traditions of antique intelligence and southern habits of State organization, the other introducing the young energies of half-cultivated peoples and the chivalry of the North, was never perfect. Yet, incomplete as the fusion between Roman and Teuton actually was, it had a common basis in religion, and it enabled the federated peoples to maintain recognized international relations. What we now call Renaissance and Reformation revealed still unreconciled antagonisms between Southern and Northern, Latin and German, factors in this mediaeval Europe. Italy, freed for a while from both Papacy and Empire, expressed her intellectual energy in the Revival of Learning, developing that bold investigating spirit to which the names of Humanism or of Rationalism may be given. The new learning, the new enthusiasm for inquiry, the new study of the world and man, as subjects of vital interest irrespective of our dreamed-of life beyond the grave, stimulated in Italy what we know as Renaissance; while in Germany it led to what we know as Reformation. The Reformation must be regarded as the Teutonic counterpart to the Italian Renaissance. It was what emerged from the core of that huge barbarian factor, which had sapped the Roman Empire, and accepted Catholicism; which lent its vigor to the mediaeval Empire, and which now participated in the culture of the classical Revival. As Italy restored freedom to human intelligence and the senses by arts and letters and amenities of refined existence, so Germany restored freedom to the soul and conscience by strenuous efforts after religious sincerity and political independence. The one people aiming at a restoration of pagan civility beneath the shadow of Catholicism, the other seeking after a purer Christianity in antagonism to the Papal hierarchy, initiated from opposite points of view that complete emancipation of the modern mind which has not yet been fully realized.

If we inquire why the final end to which both Renaissance and Reformation tended--namely, the liberation of the spirit from mediaeval prepossessions and impediments--has not been more perfectly attained, we find the cause of this partial failure in the contradictory conceptions formed by South and North of a problem which was at root one. Both Renaissance and Reformation had their origin in the revival of learning, or rather in that humanistic enthusiasm which was its vital essence. But the race-differences involved in these two movements were so irreconcilable, the objects pursued were so divergent, that Renaissance and Reformation came into the conflict of chemical combination, producing a ferment out of which the intellectual unity of Europe has not as yet clearly emerged. The Latin race, having created a new learning and a new culture, found itself at strife with the Teutonic race, which at the same period developed new religious conceptions and new political energies.

The Church supplied a battle-field for these hostilities. The Renaissance was by no means favorable to the principles of Catholic orthodoxy; and the Italians showed themselves to be Christians by convention and tradition rather than by conviction in the fifteenth century. Yet Italy was well content to let the corrupt hierarchy of Papal Rome subsist, provided Rome maintained the attitude which Leo X. had adopted toward the liberal spirit of the Classical Revival. The Reformation, on the other hand, was openly antagonistic to the Catholic Church. Protestantism repudiated the toleration professed by skeptical philosophers and indulgent free-thinkers in the South, while it repelled those refined persons by theological fervor and moral indignation which they could not comprehend. Thus the Italian and the German children of humanism failed to make common cause against Catholicism, with which the former felt no sympathy and which the latter vehemently attacked. Meanwhile the Church awoke to a sense of her peril. The Papacy was still a force of the first magnitude; and it only required a vigorous effort to place it once more in an attitude of domination and resistance. This effort it made by reforming the ecclesiastical hierarchy, defining Catholic dogma, and carrying on a war of extermination against the twofold Liberalism of Renaissance and Reformation.

That reactionary movement against the progress of free thought which extinguished the Italian Renaissance and repelled the Reformation, has formed the subject of the two preceding volumes of my work. It could not have been conducted by the Court of Rome without the help of Spain. The Spanish nation, at this epoch paramount in Europe, declared itself fanatically and unanimously for the Catholic Revival. In Italy it lent the weight of arms and overlordship to the Church for the suppression of popular liberties. It provided the Papacy with a spiritual militia specially disciplined to meet the exigencies of the moment. Yet the center of the reaction was still Rome; and the Spanish hegemony enabled the Roman hierarchy to consolidate an organism which has long survived its own influence in European affairs.

VI.

After the close of the Great Schism Rome began to obey the national impulses of the Italians, entered into their confederation as one of the five leading powers, and assumed externally the humanistic culture then in vogue. But the Church was a cosmopolitan institution. Its interests extended beyond the Alps, beyond the Pyrenees, beyond the oceans traversed by Portuguese and Spanish navigators. The Renaissance so far modified its structure that the Papacy continued politically to rank as an Italian power. Its headquarters could not be removed from the Tiber, and by the tacit consent of Latin Catholicism the Supreme Pontiff was selected from Italian prelates. Yet now, in 1530, it began to play a new part more consonant with its mediaeval functions and pretensions. Rome indeed had ceased to be the imperial capital of Europe, where the secular head of Christendom assumed the crown of Empire from his peer the spiritual chieftain. The Eternal City in this new phase of modern history, which lasted until Vittorio Emmanuele's entrance into the Quirinal in 1870, gave the Pope a place among Catholic sovereigns. From his throne upon the seven hills he conducted with their approval and assistance the campaign of the Counter-Reformation. Instead of encouraging and developing what yet remained of Renaissance in Italy, instead of directing that movement of the self-emancipating mind beyond the stage of art and humanism into the stage of rationalism and science, the Church used its authority to bring back the middle ages and to repress national impulses. It made common cause with Spain for a common object--the maintenance of Italy in a state of political and intellectual bondage, and the subjugation of such provinces in Europe as had not been irretrievably lost to the Catholic cause. The Italians, as a nation, remained passive, but not altogether unwilling or unapproving spectators of the drama which was being enacted under Papal leadership beyond their boundaries. Once again their activity was merged in that of Rome--in the action of that State which had first secured for them the Empire of the habitable globe, and next the spiritual hegemony of the Western races, and from the predominance of which they had partially disengaged themselves during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. It was the Papacy's sense of its own danger as a cosmopolitan institution, combined with the crushing superiority of Spain in the peninsula, which determined this phase of Italian history.

The Catholic Revival, like the Renaissance, may in a certain sense be viewed as a product of Italian genius. This is sufficiently proved by the diplomatic history of the Tridentine Council, and by the dedication of the Jesuits to Papal service. It must, however, be remembered that while the Renaissance emanated from the race at large, from its confederation of independent republics and tyrannies, the Catholic Revival emanated from that portion of the race which is called Rome, from the ecclesiastical hierarchy imbued with world-wide ambitions in which national interests were drowned. There is nothing more interesting to the biographer of the Italians than the complicated correlation in which they have always stood to the cosmopolitan organism of Rome, itself Italian. In their antique days of greatness Rome subdued them, and by their native legions won the overlordship of the world. After the downfall of the Empire the Church continued Roman traditions in an altered form, but it found itself unable to dispense with the foreign assistance of Franks and Germans. The price now paid by Italy for spiritual headship in Europe was subjection to Teutonic suzerains and perpetual intriguing interference in her affairs. During the Avignonian captivity and the Great Schism, Italy developed intellectual and confederative unity, imposing her laws of culture and of state-craft even on the Papacy when it returned to Rome. But again at the close of the Renaissance, when Italian independence had collapsed, the Church aspired to spiritual supremacy; and at this epoch she recompensed her Spanish ally by aiding and abetting in the enslavement of the peninsula. Still the Roman Pontiff, who acted as generalissimo of the Catholic armies throughout Europe, was now more than ever recognized as an Italian power.

VII.

In his review of Ranke's History of the Popes Lord Macaulay insists with brilliant eloquence upon the marvelous vitality and longevity of the Roman Catholic Church. He describes the insurrection of the intellect against her rule in Provence, and her triumph in the Crusade which sacrificed a nation to the conception of mediaeval religious unity. He dwells on her humiliation in exile at Avignon, her enfeeblement during the Great Schism, and her restoration to splendor and power at the close of the Councils. Then he devotes his vast accumulated stores of learning and his force of rhetoric to explain the Reformation, the Catholic Revival, and the Counter-Reformation. He proves abundantly what there was in the organism of the Catholic Church and in the temper of Papal Rome, which made these now reactionary powers more than a match for Protestantism. 'In fifty years from the day on which Luther publicly renounced communion with the Papacy, and burned the bull of Leo before the gates of Wittenberg, Protestantism attained its highest ascendency, an ascendency which it soon lost, and which it never regained.' This sentence forms the theme for Lord Macaulay's survey of the Catholic Revival. Dazzling and fascinating as that survey is, it fails through misconception of one all-important point. Lord Macaulay takes for granted that conflict in Europe, since the publication of Luther's manifesto against Rome, has been between Catholicism and Protestantism. Even after describing the cataclysm of the French Revolution, he winds up his argument with these words: 'We think it a most remarkable fact that no Christian nation, which did not adopt the principles of the Reformation before the end of the sixteenth century, should ever have adopted them. Catholic communities have, since that time, become infidel and Catholic again; but none has become Protestant.' This is tantamount to regarding Protestantism as something fixed and final in itself, as a permanent and necessary form of Christianity. Here lies the fallacy which makes his reasoning, in spite of all its eloquence, but superficial. Protestantism, in truth, has never been more than a half-way house or halting-place between Catholicism and what may variously be described as free thought or science or rationalism. Being in its origin critical--being, as its name implies, a protest and an opposition--Protestantism was doomed to sterility, whenever it hardened into one or other of its dogmatic forms. As critics and insurgents, Luther and Calvin rank among the liberators of the modern intellect. As founders of intolerant and mutually hostile Christian sects, Luther and Calvin rank among the retarders of modern civilization. In subsequent thinkers of whom both sects have disapproved, we may recognize the veritable continuators of their work in its best aspect. The Lutheran and Calvinist Churches are but backwaters and stagnant pools, left behind by the subsidence of rivers in flood, separated from the tidal stress of cosmic forces. Macaulay's misconception of the true character of Protestantism, which is to Catholicism what the several dissenting bodies are to the English Establishment, has diverted his attention from the deeper issues involved in the Counter-Reformation. He hardly touches upon Rome's persecution of free thought, upon her obstinate opposition to science. Consequently, he is not sufficiently aware that Copernicus and Bruno were, even in the sixteenth century, far more dangerous foes to Catholicism than were the leaders of the Reformed Churches. Copernicus and Bruno, the lineal ancestors of Helmholtz and Darwin, headed that opposition to Catholicism which has been continuous and potent to the present day, which has never retreated into backwaters or stagnated in slumbrous pools. From this opposition the essence of Christianity, the spirit which Christ bequeathed to his disciples, has nothing to fear. But Catholicism and Protestantism alike, in so far as both are dogmatic and reactionary, clinging to creeds which will not bear the test of scientific investigation, to myths which have lost their significance in the light of advancing knowledge, and to methods of interpreting the Scriptures at variance with the canons of historical criticism, have very much to fear from this opposition. Lord Macaulay thinks it a most remarkable fact that no Christian nation has adopted the principles of the Reformation since the end of the sixteenth century. He does not perceive that, in every race of Europe, all enlightened thinkers, whether we name Bacon or Descartes, Spinoza or Leibnitz, Goethe or Mazzini, have adopted and carried forward those principles in their essence. That they have not proclaimed themselves Protestants unless they happened to be born Protestants, ought not to arouse his wonder, any more than that Washington and Heine did not proclaim themselves Whigs. For Protestantism, when it became dogmatic and stereotyped itself in sects, ceased to hold any vital relation to the forward movement of modern thought. The Reformation, in its origin, was, as I have tried to show, the Northern and Teutonic manifestation of that struggle after intellectual freedom, which in Italy and France had taken shape as Renaissance. But Calvinism, Lutheranism, Zwinglianism, and Anglicanism renounced that struggle only less decidedly than Catholicism; and in some of their specific phases, in Puritanism for example, they showed themselves even more antagonistic to liberal culture and progressive thought than did the Roman Church.

Whatever may be thought about the future of Catholicism (and no prudent man will utter prophecies upon such matters), there can be no doubt that the universal mind of the Christian races, whether Catholic or Protestant, has been profoundly penetrated and permeated with rationalism, which, springing simultaneously in Reformation and Renaissance out of humanism, has supplied the spiritual life of the last four centuries. This has created science in all its branches. This has stimulated critical and historical curiosity. This has substituted sound for false methods of inquiry, the love of truth for attachment to venerable delusion. This has sustained the unconquerable soul of man in its persistent effort after liberty and its revolt against the tyranny of priests and princes. At present, civilization seems threatened by more potent foes than the Roman Church, nor is it likely that these foes will seek a coalition with Catholicism.

As a final remark upon this topic, it should be pointed out that Protestantism, in spite of the shortcomings I have indicated, has, on the whole, been more favorable to intellectual progress than Catholicism. For Protestantism was never altogether oblivious of its origin in revolt against unjust spiritual domination, while Catholicism has steadily maintained its conservative attitude of self-defense by repression. This suffices to explain another point insisted on by Lord Macaulay--namely, that those nations in which Protestantism took root have steadily advanced, while the decay of Southern Europe can be mainly ascribed to the Catholic Revival. The one group of nations have made progress, not indeed because they were Protestants, but because they were more obedient to the Divine Mind, more in sympathy with the vital principle of movement, more open to rationalism. The other group of nations have declined, because Catholicism after the year 1530, wilfully separated itself from truth and liberty and living force, and obstinately persisted in serving the false deities of an antiquated religion.

VIII.

Few periods in history illustrate the law of reaction and retrogression, to which all processes of civil progress are subject, more plainly and more sadly than the one with which I have been dealing in these volumes. The Renaissance in Italy started with the fascination of a golden dream; and like the music of a dream, it floated over Europe. But the force which had stimulated humanity to this delightful reawakening of senses and intelligence, stirred also the slumbering religious conscience, and a yearning after personal emancipation. Protestantism arose like a stern reality, plunging the nations into confused and deadly conflict, arousing antagonisms in established orders, unleashing cupidities and passions which had lurked within the breasts of manifold adventurers. The fifteenth century closed to a solemn symphony. After the middle of the sixteenth, discord sounded from every quarter of the Occidental world. Italy lay trampled on and dying. Spain reared her dragon's crest of menacing ambition and remorseless fanaticism. France was torn by factions and devoured by vicious favorites of corrupt kings. Germany heaved like a huge ocean in the grip of a tumultuous gyrating cyclone. England passed through a complex revolution, the issue of which, under the sway of three Tudor monarchs, appeared undecided, until the fourth by happy fate secured the future of her people. It is not to be wondered that, in these circumstances, a mournful discouragement should have descended on the age; that men should have become more dubitative; that arts and letters should have seemed to pine upon unfertile ground. The nutriment they needed was absorbed by plants of fiercer and ranker growth, religious hatreds, political greeds, relentless passions burning in the hearts of princes and of populations.

IX.

Italy had already given so much of mental and social civilization to Europe, that her quiescence at this epoch can scarcely supply a substantial theme for rhetorical lamentations. Marino and Guido Reni prove that the richer veins of Renaissance art and poetry had been worked out. The lives of Aldus the younger and Muretus show that humanism was well-nigh exhausted on its native soil. This will not, however, prevent us from deploring the untimely frost cast by persecution on Italy's budding boughs of knowledge. While we rejoice in Galileo, we must needs shed tears of fiery wrath over the passion of Campanella and the stake of Bruno. Meanwhile the tree of genius was ever green and vital in that Saturnian land of culture. Poetry, painting, sculpture, and architecture, having borne their flowers and fruits, retired to rest. Scholarship faded; science was nipped in its unfolding season by unkindly influences. But music put forth lusty shoots and flourished, yielding a new paradise of harmless joy, which even priests could grudge not to the world, and which lulled tyranny to sleep with silvery numbers.

Thanks be to God that I who pen these pages, and that you who read them, have before us in this year of grace the spectacle of a resuscitated Italy! In this last quarter of the nineteenth century, the work of her heroes, Vittorio Emmanuele, Mazzini, Garibaldi, and Cavour, stands firmly founded. The creation of united Italy, that latest birth of the Italian genius, that most impossible of dreamed-of triumphs through long ages of her glory and greatness, compensates for all that she has borne in these three hundred years. Now that Rome is no longer the seat of a cosmopolitan theocracy, but the capital of a regenerated people; now that Venice joins hands with Genoa, forgetful of Curzola and Chioggia; now that Florence and Pisa and Siena stand like sisters on the sacred Tuscan soil, while Milan has no strife with Naples, and the Alps and sea-waves gird one harmony of cities who have drowned their ancient spites in amity,--the student of the splendid and the bitter past may pause and bow his head in gratitude to Heaven and swear that, after all, all things are well.

X.

There is no finality in human history. It is folly to believe that any religions, any social orders, any scientific hypotheses, are more than provisional, and partially possessed of truth. Let us assume that the whole curve of human existence on this planet describes a parabola of some twenty millions of years in duration.[239] Of this we have already exhausted unreckoned centuries in the evolution of pre-historic man, and perhaps five thousand years in the ages of historic records. How much of time remains in front? Through that past period of five thousand years preserved for purblind retrospect in records, what changes of opinion, what peripeties of empire, may we not observe and ponder! How many theologies, cosmological conceptions, polities, moralities, dominions, ways of living and of looking upon life, have followed one upon another! The space itself is brief; compared with the incalculable longevity of the globe, it is but a bare 'scape in oblivion.' And, however ephemeral the persistence of humanity may be in this its earthly dwelling-place, the conscious past sinks into insignificance before those aeons of the conscious future, those on-coming and out-rolling waves of further evolution which bear posterity forward. Has any solid gain of man been lost on the stream of time to us-ward? We doubt that. Has anything final and conclusive been arrived at? We doubt that also. The river broadens, as it bears us on. But the rills from which it gathered, and the ocean whereto it tends, are now, as ever in the past, inscrutable. It is therefore futile to suppose, at this short stage upon our journey, while the infant founts of knowledge are still murmuring to our ears, that any form of faith or science has been attained as permanent; that any Pillars of Hercules have been set up against the Atlantic Ocean of experience and exploration. Think of that curve of possibly twenty million years, and of the five thousand years remembered by humanity! How much, how incalculably much longer is the space to be traversed than that which we have left behind! It seems, therefore, our truest, as it is our humblest, wisdom to live by faith and love. 'And now abideth faith, hope, charity, these three; but the greatest of these is charity.' Love is the greatest; and against love man has sinned most in the short but blood-bedabbled annals of his past. Hope is the virtue from which a faithful human being can best afford to abstain, unless hope wait as patient handmaid upon faith. Faith is the steadying and sustaining force, holding fast by which each one of us dares defy change, and gaze with eyes of curious contemplation on the tide which brought us, and is carrying, and will bear us where we see not. 'I know not how I came of you and I know not where I go with you; but I know I came well and I shall go well.' Man can do no better than live in Eternity's Sunrise, as Blake put it. To live in the eternal sunrise of God's presence, ever rising, not yet risen, which will never reach its meridian on this globe, seems to be the destiny, as it should also be the blessing, of mankind.

[Footnote 239: Twenty millions of years is of course a mere symbol, x or y.]

INDEX.

A

ACADEMIES, Italian, the flourishing time of, i. 52.

ACCIAIUOLI, Roberto, i. 33.

ACCOLTI, Benedetto, conspirator against Pius IV., i. 132.

ACCORAMBONI, Claudio (father of Vittoria), i. 356.

---Marcello (brother of Vittoria): intrigues for the marriage of his sister with the Duke of Bracciano, i. 358 sqq.; procures the murder of her husband, 362; employs a Greek enchantress to brew love-philters, 365; his death, 372.

---Tarquinia (mother of Vittoria), i. 356.

---Vittoria, the story of, i. 355 sqq.; her birth and parentage, 356; marriage with Felice Peretti, 357; intrigue with the Duke of Bracciano, 360; the murder of her husband, 362; her marriage with Bracciano, 364; annulled by the Pope, 364, 366; the union renounced by the Duke, 365; put on trial for the murder of Peretti, ib.; their union publicly ratified by the Duke, 366; flight from Rome, ib.; death of Bracciano, 367; her murder procured by Lodovico Orsini, 369.

'ACTS of Faith,' i. 107, 176, 187.

ADMINISTRATOR, the (Jesuit functionary), i. 273.

'ADONE,' Marino's: its publication, ii. 264; critique of the poem, 266 sqq.

ALBANI, Francesco, Bolognese painter, ii. 355, 358.

ALEXANDER VI., Pope, parallel between, and Pope Paul IV., i. 106.

ALFONSO II., Duke of Ferrara: sketch of his Court, ii. 28 sqq.; his second marriage, 30; treatment of Tasso, 38, 51, 53, 58, 60 sqq.; his third marriage, 66; estimate of the reasons why he imprisoned Tasso, 66 sqq.

ALFONSO the Magnanimous: arrangements under his will, i. 4.

ALIDOSI, Cardinal Francesco, murder of, i. 36.

ALLEGORY, hypocrisy of the, exemplified in Tasso, ii. 44; in Marino, 272; in Ortensi's moral interpretations of Bandello's Novelle, 272 n.

ALTEMPS, Cardinal d' (Mark of Hohen Ems), legate at Trent, i. 119 n.

ALVA, Duke of, defeat of the Duke of Guise by, i. 103.

'AMADIS of Gaul,' the favorite book of Loyola in his youth, i. 232.

AMIAS, Beatrice, mother of Francesco Cenci, i. 346.

'AMINTA,' Tasso's pastoral drama, first production of, ii. 39; its style, 114.

ANGELUZZO, Giovanni, Tasso's first teacher, ii. 12.

ANIMA Mundi, Bruno's doctrine of, ii. 177.

ANTONIANO, a censor of the Gerusalemme Liberata, ii. 43.

---Silvio, a boy improvvisatore, anecdote of, ii. 328.

AQUAVIVA, the fifth General of the Jesuits, i. 248.

AQUITAINE, Duke of, Guercino's painting of in Bologna, ii. 367.

ARAGONESE Dynasty, the, in Italy, i. 4.

ARBUES, Peter, Saint of the Inquisition in Aragon, i. 161, 178.

ARETINO, Pietro, i. 42, 70; satire of on Paul IV., 108.

'ARIE Divote,' Palestrina's, ii. 335.

ARISTOTLE'S Axiom on Taste, ii. 371, 374.

ARMADA, Spanish, i. 149.

ARMI, Lodovico dall', a bravo of noble family, i. 409; accredited at Venice as Henry VIII.'s 'Colonel,' 410; his career of secret diplomacy, 411; negotiations between Lord Wriothesley and Venice regarding the ban issued against him, 412; his downfall, 413; personal appearance, 414; execution, 415.

ARNOLFINI, Massimiliano, paramour of Lucrezia Buonvisi, i. 331; procures the assassination of her husband, 332; flight from justice, 332; outlawed, 336; his wanderings and wretched end, 339.

ART of Memory, Bruno's, ii. 139.

ART of Poetry, Tasso's Dialogues on the, ii. 22, 24; influence of its theory on Tasso's own work, 25.

ASSISTANTS, the (Jesuit functionaries), i. 273.

ASTORGA, Marquis of, i. 22.

AURORA, the Ludovisi fresco of, ii. 368.

AVILA, Don Luigi d', i. 128.

B

BAGLIONI, Malatesta, i. 46.

BAINI'S Life of Palestrina, ii. 316 sqq.

BALBI, Cesare, on Italian decadence, ii. 3.

BANDITTI, tales illustrative of, i. 388 sqq.

'BANDO' (of outlawry), recitation of the terms of a, i. 328.

BARBIERI, Giovanni Francesco, see IL GUERCINO.

BARCELONA, the Treaty of, i. 15.

BARNABITES, Order of the: their foundation, i. 80.

BAROCCIO, Federigo, ii. 349.

BAROZZA, a Venetian courtezan, i. 394, 396.

BASEL, Council of, i. 94.

BEARD, unshorn, worn in sign of mourning, i. 36.

BEDELL, William (Bishop of Kilmore), on Fra Paolo and Fra Fulgenzio, ii. 231.

BEDMAR'S conspiracy, ii. 186.

BELLARMINO, Cardinal, on the inviolability of the Vulgate, i. 212; relations of, with Fra Paolo Sarpi, ii. 213, 222; his censure of the Pastor Fido, 251.

BELRIGUARDO, the villa of, Tasso at, ii. 53.

BEMBO, Pietro, i. 30, 41.

BENDEDEI, Taddea, wife of Guarini, ii. 245.

BENTIVOGLI, the semi-royal offspring of King Enzo of Sardinia, ii. 304.

BIBBONI, Cecco: his account of how he murdered Lorenzino de'Medici, i. 488 sqq.; his associate, Bebo, details of the life of a bravo, 389; tracking an outlaw, 392; the wages of a tyrannicide, 394; the bravo's patient watching, 395; the murder, 397; flight of the assassins, 399; their reception by Count Collalto, 401; they seek refuge at the Spanish embassy, 402; protected by Charles V.'s orders, 403; conveyed to Pisa, 404; well provided for their future life, ib.

BITONTO. Pasquale di, one of the assassins of Sarpi, ii. 212.

BLACK garments of Charles V., the, i. 43.

BLACK Pope, the, i. 275.

BLOIS, Treaty of, i. 12.

BOBADILLA, Nicholas, associate of Ignatius Loyola, i. 240; his work as a Jesuit in Bavaria, 258.

BOLOGNA and Modena, humors of the conflict between, ii. 304.

BOLOGNESE school of painters, the, ii. 343 sqq.; why their paintings are now neglected, 375 sqq.; mental condition of Bolognese art, 376.

BONELLI, Michele, nephew of Pius V., i. 147.

BONIFAZIO of Montferrat, Marquis, one of the Paleologi, i. 23.

BORGIA, Francis (Duke of Gandia), third General of the Jesuits, i. 256; prevented by Loyola from accepting a Cardinal's hat, 260.

BORROMEO, Carlo: his character, i. 115; a possible successor to Pius IV., 135; ruled in Rome by the Jesuits, 142; his intimacy with Sarpi, ii. 194.

---Federigo, i. 115; letter of, forbidding soldiers' visits to convents, 316 n.

BRANCACCIO, Diana, treachery of, towards the Duchess of Palliano, i. 378; her murder, 379.

'BRAVI,' maintenance of by Italian nobles, i. 313; tales illustrative of, 388 sqq.; relations of trust between bravi and foreign Courts, 409.

BRIGANDAGE in Italy, i. 416.

BROWN, Mr. H.F., his researches in the Venetian archives, i. 189 n.

BRUCCIOLI, Antonio, translator of the Bible into Italian, i. 76.

BRUNO, Giordano: his birth, and training as a Dominican, ii. 129; early speculative doubts, 130; Il Candelajo, 131, 183; early studies, 133; prosecution for heresy, 134; a wandering student, 135; at Geneva, 136; Toulouse, 137; at the Sorbonne, 138; the Art of Memory, 139, 154; De Umbris Idearum, ib.; relations with Henri III., 140; Bruno's person and conversation, 141; in England, ib.; works printed in London, 142; descriptions of London life, ib.; opinion of Queen Elizabeth, 143; lecturer at Oxford, 144; address to the Vice-Chancellor, 146; academical opposition, 147; the Ash-Wednesday Supper, ib.; in the family of Castelnau, 148; in Germany, 149; Bruno's opinion of the Reformers, ib.; the De Monade and De Triplici Minimo, 150; Bruno in a monastery at Frankfort, 151; invited to Venice, 153; a guest of Mocenigo there, 154; his occupations, 156; denounced by Mocenigo and imprisoned by the Inquisition, 157; the heads of the accusation, 157 sqq.; trial, 159; recantation, 160; estimate of Bruno's apology, 161; his removal to and long imprisonment at Rome, 163; his execution, 164; evidence of his martyrdom, 164 sqq.; Schoppe's account, 165; details of Bruno's treatment in Rome, 167; the burning at the stake, 167 sq.; Bruno a martyr, 168; contrast with Tasso, 169; Bruno's mental attitude, 170 sq.; his championship of the Copernican system, 172; his relation to modern science and philosophy, 173; conception of the universe, 173 sqq.; his theology, 175; the Anima Mundi, 177; anticipations of modern thought, 178, 182; his want of method, 180; the treatise on the Seven Arts, 182; Bruno's literary style, 182 sqq.; his death contrasted with that of Sarpi, 239 n.

BRUSANTINI, Count Alessandro (Tassoni's 'Conte Culagna'), ii. 301, 306.

BUCKET, the Bolognese, ii. 305.

BUONCOMPAGNO, Giacomo, bastard, son of Gregory XIII., i. 150.

---Ugo, see GREGORY XIII.

BUONVISI, Lucrezia, story of, i. 330; intrigue with Arnolfini, 331; murder of her husband, 332; Lucrezia suspected of complicity, 334; becomes a nun (Sister Umilia), ib.; the case against her, 338; amours of inmates of her convent, 340; Umilia's intrigue with Samminiati, ib.; discovery of their correspondence, 341; trial and sentences of the nuns, 344; Umilia's last days, 345.

---Lelio, assassination of, i. 332.

BURGUNDIAN diamond of Charles the Bold, the, i. 38.

C

CALCAGNINI, Celio, letter of, on religious controversies, i. 74.

CALVAERT, Dionysius, a Flemish painter in Bologna, ii. 355.

CALVETTI, Olimpio (one of the assassins of Francesco Cenci), i. 350.

CALVIN, i. 73; his relation to modern civilization, ii. 402.

CAMBRAY, Treaty of (the Paix des Dames), i. 9, 15.

CAMERA Apostolica, the, venality of, i. 140.

CAMERINO, Duchy of, i. 86.

CAMPANELLA, on the black robes of the Spaniards in Italy, i. 44.

CAMPEGGI, Cardinal Lorenzo, i. 21.

CAMPIREALI, Elena, the tale of, i. 428.

CANELLO, U.A., on Italian society in the sixteenth century, i. 304 n.

CANISIUS, lieutenant of Loyola in Austria, i. 259; appointed to the administration of the see of Vienna, 260.

CANOSSA, Antonio, conspirator against Pius IV., i. 132.

CAPELLO, Bianca, the story of, i. 382.

CAPPELLA, Giulia (Rome), school for training choristers, ii. 316.

CARACCI, the, Bolognese painters, ii. 345, 349 sqq.

CARAFFA, Cardinal, condemned to death by Pius IV., i. 115.

---Giovanni Pietro (afterwards Pope Paul IV.), causes the rejection of Contarini's arrangement with the Lutherans, i. 78; helps to found the Theatines, 79; made Cardinal by Paul III., 88; hatred of Spanish ascendency, 89; becomes Pope Paul IV., 102; quarrel with Philip II., 102 sqq.; opens negotiations with Soliman, 103; reconciliation with Spain, 104; nepotism, ib.; indignation against the misdoings of his relatives, 106; ecclesiastical reforms, 107 sq.; zeal for the Holy Office, 107 n.; personal character, 108; his death, ib.; his earlier relations with Ignatius Loyola, 242.

CARAFFESCHI, evil character of the, i. 105; four condemned to death by Pius IV., 115, 318.

CARAVAGGIO, Michelangelo Amerighi da, Italian Realist painter, ii. 363 n.

CARDINE, Aliffe and Leonardo di (Caraffeschi), condemned to death by Pius IV., i. 115.

CARDONA, Violante de (Duchess of Palliano), story of, i. 373 sqq.; her accomplishments, 374; character, ib.; passion of Marcello Capecce for her, ib.; her character compromised through Diana Brancaccio, 378; murder of Marcello and Diana by the Duke, ib.; death of Violante at the hands of her brother, 380.

CARLI, Orazio: description of his being put to the torture, i. 333 sq.

CARLO Emmanuele of Savoy, Italian hopes founded on, ii. 246, 286; friend of Marino, 262; kindness to Chiabrera, 290; treatment of Tassoni, 298.

CARNESECCHI, condemned by the Roman Inquisition to be burned, i. 145.

CARPI, attached to Ferrara, i. 40.

CARRANZA, Archbishop of Toledo, condemned by the Roman Inquisition to be burned, i. 145.

CASA, Giovanni della (author of the Capitolo del Forno), i. 393, 395.

CASTELNAU, Michel de, kindness of towards Giordano Bruno, ii. 141, 148.

---Marie de, Bruno's admiration for, ii. 148.

---Pierre de, the first Saint of the Inquisition, i. 161.

CATALANI, Marzio (one of the assassins of Francesco Cenci), i. 350.

CATEAU Cambresis, the Peace of, i. 48.

CATHOLIC Revival, the inaugurators of, at Bologna, i. 16; transition from the Renaissance to, 65; new religious spirit in Italy, 67; the Popes and the Council of Trent, 96 sqq.; a Papal triumph, 130; the Catholic Reaction generated the Counter-Reformation, 133; its effect on social and domestic morals, 301 sqq.

CELEBRITY, vicissitudes of, ii. 368.

CELIBACY, clerical, the question of, at Trent, i. 123.

CELLANT, Contessa di, the model of Luini's S. Catherine, ii. 360 n.

'CENA delle Ceneri, La,' Bruno's, i. 85 n.; ii. 140, 142, 183.

CENCI, Beatrice, examination of the legend of, i. 351 sqq.

---Francesco: bastard son of Cristoforo Cenci, i. 346; his early life, ib.; disgraceful charges against him, 348; compounds by heavy money payment for his crimes, ib.; violent deaths of his sons, ib.; severity towards his children, 349; his assassination procured by his wife and three children, 350; the murderers denounced, ib.; their trial and punishments, 351.

---Msgr. Christoforo, father of Francesco Cenci, i. 346.

CENTINI, Giacomo: story of his attempts by sorcery on the life of Urban VIII., i. 425.

CESI, Msgr., invites Tasso to Bologna, ii. 22.

CHARLES V., his compact with Clement VII., i. 15; Emperor Elect, 16; relations with Andrea Doria, 17; at Genoa, 18; his journey to Bologna, 20; his reception there, 22; the meeting with Clement, 23; mustering of Italian princes, 25; negotiations on Italian affairs, 26 sqq.; a treaty of peace signed, 31; the difficulty with Florence, 32; the question of the two crowns, 34 sqq.; description of the coronation, 37 sqq.; the events that followed, 39 sqq.; the net results of Charles's administration of Italian affairs, 45 sqq.; his relations with Paul III., 100; his abdication, 102; he protects the assassins of Lorenzino de'Medici, 403.

CHARLES VIII., of France: his invasion of Italy, i. 8.

CHIABRERA, Gabriello: his birth, ii. 287; educated by the Jesuits, ib.; his youth, 288; the occupations of a long life, 289; courtliness, 290; ode to Cesare d'Este, 291; Chiabrera's aim to remodel Italian poetry on a Greek pattern. 292 sqq.; would-be Pindaric flights, 296; comparison with Marino and Tassoni, ib.

CIOTTO, Giambattista, relations of, with Giordano Bruno, ii. 152 sqq.

CISNEROS, Garcia de, author of a work which suggested S. Ignatius's Exercitia, i. 236.

CLEMENT VII.: a prisoner in S. Angelo, i. 14; compact with Charles V., 15; their meeting at Bologna, 16 sqq.; negotiations with the Emperor Elect, 26 sqq.; peace signed, 31.

CLEMENT VIII.: his Concordat with Venice, i. 193; Index of Prohibited Books issued by him, ib.; his rules for the censorship of books, 198 sqq.; he confers a pension on Tasso, ii. 76.

CLOUGH, Mr., lines of, on 'Christianized' monuments in Papal Rome, i. 154.

COADJUTORS, Temporal and Spiritual (Jesuit grades), i. 271.

COLLALTO, Count Salici da, patron of the bravo Bibboni, i. 400.

COLONNA, the, reduced to submission to the Popes, i. 7.

---Vespasiano, Duke of Palliano, i. 77.

---Vittoria, i. 77; letter to, from Tasso in his childhood, ii. 15.

COMANDINO, Federigo, Tasso's teacher, ii. 19.

COMPANY OF JESUS, see JESUITS.

CONCLAVES, external influences on, in the election of Popes, i. 134.

CONFEDERATION between Clement VII. and Charles V., i. 31.

'CONFIRMATIONS,' Fra Fulgenzio's, ii. 201.

CONSERVATISM and Liberalism, necessary contest between, ii. 386.

'CONSIDERATIONS on the Censures,' Sarpi's, ii. 201.

CONSTANCE, Council of, i. 92.

CONTARINI, Gasparo: his negotiations between Catholics and Protestants, i. 30; treatment of his writings by Inquisitors, 31; suspected of heterodoxy, 72; intimacy with Gaetano di Thiene, 76; his concessions to the Reformers repudiated by the Curia, 78; memorial on ecclesiastical abuses, 79.

---Simeone: his account of a plague at Savigliano, i. 419 sq.

'CONTRIBUTIONS of the Clergy, Discourse upon the,' Sarpi's, ii. 221.

COPERNICAN system, the, Bruno's championship of, ii. 172.

COREGLIA, one of the assassins of Lelio Buonvisi, i. 333 sqq.

CORONATION of Charles V., description of, i. 34 sqq.; notable people present at, 39 sqq.

CORSAIRS, Tunisian and Algerian, raids of, on Italian coasts, i. 417.

COSCIA, Giangiacopo, guardian of Tasso's sister, ii. 16.

COSIMO I. of Tuscany, the rule of, i. 46, 47.

COSTANTINI, Antonio, Tasso's last letter written to, ii. 77; sonnet on the poet, 78.

COTERIES, religious, in Rome, Venice, Naples, i. 75 sqq.

COUNTER-REFORMATION: its intellectual and moral character, i. 63; the term defined, 64 n.; decline of Renaissance impulse, 65; criticism and formalism in Italy, ib.; contrast with the development of other European races, 66; transition to the Catholic Revival, 67; attitudes of Italians towards the German Reformation, 71; free-thinkers, 73; the Oratory of Divine Love, 76; the Moderate Reformers, ib.; Gasparo Contarini, 78; new Religious Orders, 79; the Council of Trent, 97, 119; Tridentine Reforms, 107, 134; asceticism fashionable in Rome, 108, 142; active hostilities against Protestantism, 148; the new spirit of Roman polity, 149 sqq.; work of the Inquisition, 159 sqq.; the Index, 195 sqq.; twofold aim of Papal policy, 226; the Jesuits, 229 sqq.; an estimate of the results of the Reformation and of the Counter-Reformation, ii. 385 sqq.

COURIERS, daily post of, between the Council of Trent and the Vatican, i. 121.

COURT life in Italy, i. 20, 37, 41, 51; ii. 17, 29, 65, 201, 251.

CRIMES of violence, in Italy in the sixteenth century, i. 304 sqq.

CRIMINAL procedure, of Italian governments in the sixteenth century, i. 308 sqq.

CRITICISM, fundamental principles of, ii. 370; the future of, 374.

CROWNS, the iron and the golden, of the Emperor, i. 34.

CULAGNA, Conte di, see BRUSANTINI.

CURIA, the, complicity of, with the attempts on Sarpi's life, ii. 213.

D

'DATATARIO:' amount and sources of its income, i. 140.

DATI, Giovanbattista, amount of, with nuns, i. 341 sq.

'DECAMERONE,' Boccaccio's expurgated editions of, issued in Rome, i. 224 sq.

DELLA CRUSCANS, the, attack of, on Tasso's poetry, ii. 35, 72, 117 n.

'DE Monade,' Bruno's, ii. 150, 152 n., 167.

DEPRES, Josquin, the leader of the contrapuntal style in music, ii. 316.

'DE Triplici Minimo,' Bruno's, ii. 150, 152 n., 167.

'DE Umbris Idearum,' Bruno's, ii. 139.

DEZA, Diego, Spanish Inquisitor, i. 182.

DIACATHOLICON, the, meaning of the term as used by Sarpi, i. 231; ii. 202.

DIALOGUES, Tasso's, ii. 22, 112.

DIRECTORIUM, the (Lainez' commentary on the constitution of the Jesuits), i. 249.

DIVINE Right of sovereigns, the: why it found favor among Protestants, i. 296.

DOMENICHINO, Bolognese painter, ii. 355; critique of Mr. Ruskin's invectives against his work, 359 sqq.

DOMINICANS, the, ousted as theologians by the Jesuits at Trent, i. 101; their reputation for learning, ii. 130.

DOMINIS, Marcantonio de, publishes in England Sarpi's History of the Council of Trent, ii. 223.

DONATO, Leonardo, Doge of Venice, ii. 198.

DORIA, Andrea: his relations with Charles V., i. 18.

---Cardinal Girolamo, i. 21.

E

ECLECTICISM in painting, ii. 345 sqq., 375 sqq.

ECONOMICAL stagnation in Italy, i. 423.

ELIZABETH, Queen (of England), Bruno's admiration of, ii. 143.

EMANCIPATION of the reason, retarded by both the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation, ii. 385 sqq.

EMIGRANTS from Italy, regulations of the Inquisition regarding, i. 227.

ENZO, King (of Sardinia), a prisoner at Bologna, ii. 304.

EPIC poetry, Italian speculations on, ii. 24; Tasso's Dialogues on, 26.

'EROICI Furori, Gli,' Bruno's, ii. 142, 183.

ESPIONAGE, system of among the Jesuits, i. 273.

ESTE, Alfonso d' (Duke of Ferrara), relations of, with Charles V., i. 40.

---Cardinal Ippolito d', i. 127 sq.

---Cardinal Luigi d', Tasso in the service of, ii. 12, 27.

---Don Cesare d', Chiabrera's Ode to, ii. 291.

---House of, their possessions in Italy, i. 45. 48.

---Isabella d', at the coronation of Charles V.. i. 21.

---Leonora d', the nature of Tasso's attachment to, ii. 31 sqq., 36, 40, 51, 54 n., 56, 68; her death, 71.

---Lucrezia d', Tasso's attachment to, ii. 32, 39; her marriage, 35; her death, 40 n.

EVOLUTION in relation to Art, ii. 371 sqq.

'EXERCITIA Spiritualia' (Loyola's), i. 236; manner of their use, 267 sqq.

EXTINCTION of republics in Italy, i. 45 sqq.

F

FABER, Peter, associate of Loyola, i. 239; his work as a Jesuit in Spain, 258.

FARNESE, Alessandro, see PAUL III.

---Giulia, mistress of Alexander VI., i. 81.

---Ottavio (grandson of Paul III.), Duke of Camerino, i. 86.

---Pier Luigi (son of Paul III.), Duke of Parma, i. 86.

FEDERATION, Italian, the five members of the, i. 3 sqq.; how it was broken up, 11.

FERDINAND, Emperor, successor of Charles V., i. 102, 118; his relations with Canisius and the Jesuits, 259.

FERRARA, i. 7; settlement of the Duchy of, by Charles V., i. 40; life at the Court of, ii. 29, 65, 247, 251.

FERRUCCI, Francesco, i. 46.

FESTA, Costanzo, the Te Deum of, ii. 329.

FINANCES of the Papacy under Sixtus V., i. 152.

FIORENZA, Giovanni di, one of the assassins of Sarpi, ii. 212.

FLAMINIO, Marcantonio, i. 76.

FLEMISH musicians in Rome, ii. 316 sqq.

FLORENCE: condition of the Republic in 1494, i. 10; Siege of the town (1530), 30 sq.; capitulation, 46; under the rule of Spain, ib.; extinction of the Republic, 47; the rule of Cosimo I., 49.

FORMALISM, the development of, i. 66.

FOSCARI, Francesco, the dogeship of, i. 9.

FRANCIS I.: his capture at Pavia, i. 9, 13.

FRECCI, Maddalo de', the betrayer of Tasso's love-affairs, ii. 51.

FREDERICK II., Emperor: his edicts against heresy, i. 163.

FREETHINKERS, Italian, i. 73 sq.

FULGENZIO, Fra, the preaching of at Venice, ii. 207; his biography of Sarpi, ib.

FULKE GREVILLE, a supper at the house of, described by Giordano Bruno, ii. 142, 147.

G

GALLICAN CHURCH, the: its interests in the Council of Trent, i. 126.

GALLUZZI'S record of Jesuit attempts to seduce youth, i. 284.

GATTINARA, Cardinal, Grand Chancellor of the Empire, i. 31.

GAMBARA, Veronica, i. 41.

GENERAL Congregation of the Jesuits, functions of the, i. 273.

GENERAL of the Jesuits, position of, in regard to the Order, i. 272.

GENOA, becomes subject to Spain, i. 18.

GENTILE, Valentino, i. 73.

GERSON'S Considerations upon Papal Excommunications, translated by Sarpi, ii. 200.

'GERUSALEMME Conquistata,' Tasso's, ii. 75, 114 sq., 124.

'GERUSALEMME Liberata:' at first called Gottifredo, ii. 35; its dedication, 38, 47 sq.; submitted by Tasso to censors, 43; their criticisms, 43 sq., 50; successful publication of the poem, 71; its subject-matter, 92; the romance of the epic, 93; Tancredi, the hero, 94; imitations of Dante and Virgil, 95 sqq.; artificiality, 100; pompous cadences, 101; oratorical dexterity, 102; the similes and metaphors, ib.; Armida, the heroine, 106.

GHISLIERI, Michele, see PIUS V.

---Paolo, a relative of Pius V., i. 147.

GIBERTI, Gianmatteo, Bishop of Verona, i. 19.

GILLOT, Jacques, letter from Sarpi to, on the relations of Church and State, ii. 203.

GIOVANNI FRANCESCO, Fra, an accomplice in the attacks on Sarpi, ii. 214.

'GLI ETEREI,' Academy of, at Padua, ii. 26.

GOLDEN crown, the, significance of, i. 34.

GONGORISM, i. 66.

GONZAGA, Cardinal Ercole, ambassador from Clement VII. to Charles V., i. 19.

---Cardinal Scipione, a friend of Tasso, ii. 26, 42, 46, 67, 73.

---Don Ferrante, i. 25.

---Eleanora Ippolita, Duchess of Urbino, i. 37.

---Federigo, Marquis of Mantua, i. 26.

---Vincenzo, obtains Tasso's release, ii. 73; the circumstances of his marriage, i. 386.

'GOTTIFREDO.' Tasso's first title for the Gerusalemme Liberata, ii. 35.

GOUDIMEL, Claude: his school of music at Rome, ii. 323.

GRANADA, Treaty of, i. 12.

GRAND style (in art), the so-called, ii. 379.

GREGORY XIII., Pope (Ugo Buoncompagno): his early career and election, i. 149; manner of life, 150; treatment of his relatives, 151; revival of obsolete rights of the Church, 152; consequent confusion in the Papal States, ib.

GRISON mercenaries in Italy, i. 103 n.

GUARINI, on the death of Tasso, ii. 69 n.; publishes a revised edition of Tasso's lyrics, 72; Guarini's parentage, 244; at the Court of Alfonso II. of Ferrara, 245; a rival of Tasso, ib.; engaged on foreign embassies, 246; appointed Court poet, 247; domestic troubles, 249; his last years, 251; his death, ib.; argument of the Pastor Fido, ib.; satire upon the Court of Ferrara, 254; critique of the poem, 255; its style, 256; comparison with Tasso's Aminta, 275.

GUELF and Ghibelline contentions: how they ended in Italy, i. 57.

GUICCIARDINI, Francesco, i. 33.

GUISE, Duke of: his defeat by Alva, i. 103; his murder, 129.

GUZMAN, Domenigo de (S. Dominic), founder of the Dominican Order, i. 162.

H

HEGEMONY, Spanish, economical and social condition of the Italians under, i. 50; the evils of, 61.

HENCHENEOR, Cardinal William, i. 36.

HENRI III., favor shown to Giordano Bruno by, ii. 139.

HENRI IV., the murder of, i. 297.

HENRY VIII.: his divorce from Katharine of Aragon, i. 44.

HEROICO-comic poetry, Tassoni's Secchia Rapita, the first example of, ii. 303.

'HISTORY of the Council of Trent,' Sarpi's, ii. 222 sqq.

HOLY Office, see INQUISITION.

HOLY Roman Empire, the, ii. 393.

HOMATA, Benedetta, attempted murder of by Gianpaolo Osio, i. 323 sqq.

HOMICIDE, lax morality of the Jesuits in regard to, i. 306 n.

HOSIUS, Cardinal, legate at Trent, i. 118.

HUMANISM, the work of, ii. 385, 391; what it involved, 392; Rationalism, its offspring, 404.

HUMANITY, the past and future of, ii. 408 sqq.

I

IL BORGA, a censor of the Gerusalemme Liberata, ii. 43.

'IL Candelajo,' Giordano Bruno's comedy, ii. 131, 183.

IL GUERCINO (G.F. Barbieri), Bolognese painter, ii. 365; his masterpieces, 367.

'IL PADRE di Famiglio,' Tasso's Dialogue, ii. 63.

'IL Pentito,' Tasso's name as one of Gli Eterei, ii. 26.

INGEGNERI, Antonio, a friend of Tasso, ii. 64; publishes the Gerusalemme, 71.

INDEX Expurgatorius: its first publication at Venice, i. 192; effects on the printing trade there, 193; the Index in concert with the Inquisition, 194; origin of the Index, 195; local lists of prohibited books, ib.; establishment of the Congregation of the Index, 197; Index of Clement VIII., 198; its preambles, ib.; regulations, 199 sq.; details of the censorship and correction of books, 201; rules as to printers, publishers, and booksellers, 203; responsibility of the Holy Office, 204; annoyances arising from delays and ignorance on the part of censors, 205; spiteful delators of charges of heresy, 207; extirpation of books, 208; proscribed literature, 209; garbled works by Vatican students, 210; effect of the Tridentine decree about the Vulgate, 212; influence of the Index on schools and lecture-rooms, 213; decline of humanism, 218; the statutes on the Ratio Status, 220; their object and effect, 221; the treatment of lewd and obscene publications, 223; expurgation of secular books, 224.

INQUISITION, the, i. 159 sqq.; the first germ of the Holy Office, 161; developed during the crusade against the Albigenses, ib.; S. Dominic its founder, 162; introduced into Lombardy, etc., 164; the stigma of heresy, 165; three types of Inquisition, 166; the number of victims, 166 n.; the crimes of which it took cognizance, 167; the methods of the Apostolical Holy Office, 168; treatment of the New Christians in Castile, 169, 171; origin of the Spanish Holy Office, 170; opposition of Queen Isabella, 171; exodus of New Christians, 172; the punishments inflicted, ib.; futile appeals to Rome, 173; constitution of the Inquisition, 174; its two most formidable features, 175; method of its judicial proceedings, 176; the sentence and its execution, 177; the holocausts and their pageant, ib.; Torquemada's insolence, 179; the body-guard of the Grand Inquisitor, 180; number of Torquemada's victims, 181; exodus of Moors from Castile, 182; victims under Torquemada's successors, ib.; an Aceldama at Madrid, 184; the Roman Holy Office, ib.; remodelled by Giov. Paolo Caraffa, 185; 'Acts of Faith' in Rome, 186; numbers of the victims, 187; in other parts of Italy, 188; the Venetian Holy Office, 190; dependent on the State, ib.; Tasso's dread of the Inquisition, ii. 42, 45, 49, 51; the case of Giordano Bruno, 134, 157 sqq.; Sarpi denounced to the Holy Office, 195.

INTELLECTUAL and social activity in Italian cities, i. 51.

INTERDICT of Venice (1606), ii. 198 sqq.; the compromise, 205.

INVASION, wars of, in Italy, i. 11 sqq.

IRON crown, the, sent from Monza to Bologna, i. 36.

'ITALIA Liberata,' Trissino's, ii. 24, 303.

ITALIA Unita, ii. 407.

ITALY: its political conditions in 1494, i. 2 sqq.; the five members of its federation, 3; how the federation was broken up, 11; the League between Clement VII. and Charles V., 31; review of the settlement of Italy effected by Emperor and Pope, 45 sqq.; extinction of republics, 47; economical and social condition of the Italians under Spanish hegemony, 48; intellectual life, 51; predominance of Spain and Rome, 53 sqq.; Italian servitude, 58; the evils of Spanish rule, 59 sqq.; seven Spanish devils in Italy, 61; changes wrought by the Counter-Reformation, 64 sqq.; criticism and formalism, 65; transition from the Renaissance to the Catholic Revival, ib.; attitude of Italians towards the German Reformation, 71.

J

JESUITS, Order of: its importance in the Counter-Reformation, i. 229; the Diacatholicon, 231; works on the history of the Order, 231 n.; sketch of the life of Ignatius Loyola, 231 sqq.; the first foundation of the Exercitia, 236; Peter Faber and Francis Xavier, 239; the vows taken by Ignatius and his neophytes at Paris, 240; their proposed mission to the Holy Land, 241; their visits to Venice and Rome, 242 sq.; the name of the Order, 244; negotiations in Rome, 245; the fourth vow, 246; the constitutions approved by Paul III., 247; the Directorium of Lainez, 249; the original limit of the number of members, ib.; Loyola's administration, 250; asceticism deprecated, 251; worldly wisdom of the founder, 253; rapid spread of the Order, 254; the Collegium Romanum, 255; Collegium Germanicum, ib.; the Order deemed rivals by the Dominicans in Spain, ib.; successes in Portugal, 256; difficulties in France, 257; in the Low Countries, ib.; in Bavaria and Austria, 258; Loyola's dictatorship, 259; his adroitness in managing distinguished members of his Order, 260; statistics of the Jesuits at Loyola's death, ib.; the autocracy of the General, 261; Jesuit precepts on obedience, 263 sq.; addiction to Catholicism, 266; the spiritual drill of the Exercitia Spiritualia, 267; materialistic imagination, 268; psychological adroitness of the method, 269; position and treatment of the novice, 270; the Jesuit Hierarchy, 271; the General, 272; five sworn spies to watch him, 273; a system of espionage through the Order, 274; position of a Jesuit, ib.; the Black Pope, 275; the working of the Jesuit vow of poverty, 275 sq.; revision of the Constitutions by Lainez, 277; the question about the Monita Secreta, 277 sqq.; estimate of the historical importance of the Jesuits, 280 sq.; their methods of mental tyranny, 281; Jesuitical education, 282; desire to gain the control of youth, 283; their general aim the aggrandizement of the Order, 284; treatment of etudes fortes, ib.; admixture of falsehood and truth, 285; sham learning and sham art, 286; Jesuit morality, 287; manipulation of the conscience, 288; casuistical ethics, 290; system of confession and direction, 293; political intrigues and doctrines, 294 sqq.; the theory of the sovereignty of the people, 296; Jesuit connection with political plots, 297; suspected in regard to the deaths of Popes, 298; the Order expelled from various countries, 299 n.; relations of Jesuits to Rome, 299; their lax morality in regard to homicide, 306 n., 314; their support of the Interdict of Venice, ii. 198 sqq.

JEWS, Spanish, wealth and influence of, i. 169; adoption of Christianity, ib.; attacked by the Inquisition, 170; the edict for their expulsion, 171; its results, 172.

JULIUS II.: results of his martial energy, i. 7.

---III., Pope (Giov. Maria del Monte), i. 101.

K

KEPLER, high opinion of Bruno's speculations held by, ii. 164.

KINGDOMS and States of Italy in 1494, enumeration of, i. 3.

L

'LA Cuccagna,' a satire by Marino, ii. 263.

LAINEZ, James, associate of Ignatius Loyola, i. 240; his influence on the development of the Jesuits, 248; his commentary on the Constitutions (the Directorium), 249; his work in Venice, etc., 254; abject submission to Loyola, 262.

LATERAN, Council of the, i. 95.

LATIN and Teutonic factors in European civilization, ii. 393 sqq.

LATINI, Latino, on the extirpation of books by the Index, i. 208.

LEGATES, Papal, at Trent, i. 97 n., 119.

LE JAY, Claude, associate of Ignatius Loyola, i. 240; his work as a Jesuit at Ferrara, 254; in Austria. 258.

LEONI, Giambattista, employed by Sarpi to write against the Jesuits, ii. 200.

LEPANTO, battle of, i. 149.

LESCHASSIER, Sarpi's letters to, ii. 229, 235.

'LE Sette Giornate,' Tasso's, ii. 75, 115, 124.

LEYVA, Antonio de, at Bologna, i. 22.

---Virginia Maria de (the Lady of Monza): birth and parentage, i. 317; a nun in a convent of the Umiliate, 318; her seduction by Gianpaolo Osio, 318 sqq.; birth of her child, 321; murder of her waiting-woman by Osio, 322; the intrigue discovered, 323; attempted murder by Osio of two of her associates, 324; Virginia's punishment and after-life, 329.

LONDON, Bruno's account of the life of the people of, ii. 142; social life in, 143.

LORENTE'S History of the Inquisition, cited, 171 sqq.; his account of the number of victims of the Holy Office, i. 181, 183 n.

LORRAINE, Cardinal: his influence in the Council of Trent, i. 125 sq.

LO SPAGNOLETTO (Giuseppe Ribera), Italian Realist painter, ii. 363.

LOUISA of Savoy, one of the arrangers of the Paix des Dames, i. 16.

LOUIS XII.: his descent into Lombardy, and its results, i. 9; allied with the Austrian Emperor and the King of Spain, i. 12.

LOYOLA, Ignatius, founder of the Jesuits: his birth and childhood, i. 231; his youth and early training, ib.; illness at Pampeluna, 232; pilgrimage to Montserrat, 234; retreat at Manresa, ib.; his romance and discipline, 235; journey to the Holy Land, 237; his apprenticeship to his future calling, ib.; imprisoned by the Inquisition, 238; studies theology in Paris, ib.; gains disciples there, 239; his methods with them, ib.; with ten companions takes the vows of chastity and poverty, 240; Ignatius at Venice, 241; his relations with Caraffa and the Theatines, 242; in Rome, 243; the name of the new Order, 244; its military organization, 245; the project favored by Paul III., ib.; the Constitution approved by the Pope, 247; his worldly wisdom, 248 n.; Loyola's creative force, 249; his administration, 250 sq.; dislike of the common forms of monasticism, 251; his aims and principles, 252; comparison with Luther, 253; rapid spread of the Order, 254; special desire of Ignatius to get a firm hold on Germany, 258; his dictatorship, 259; adroitness in managing his subordinates, 260; autocratic administration, 261; insistence on the virtue of obedience, 263; devotion to the Roman Church, 265; the Exercitia Spiritualia, 267 sqq.; Loyola's dislike of asceticism, 270; his interpretation of the vow of poverty, 275; his instructions as to the management of consciences, 287 sq.; his doctrine on the fear of God, 304 n.

LUCERO EL TENEBROSO, the Spanish Inquisitor, i. 180.

LUINI'S picture of S. Catherine, ii. 360.

LULLY, Raymond: his Art of Memory and Classification of the Sciences, adapted by Giordano Bruno, ii. 139.

LUNA, Don Juan de, i. 47.

LUTHER, Bruno's high estimate of, ii. 149; his relation to modern civilization, 402.

LUTHERAN soldiers in Italy, i. 44.

LUTHERANISM in Italy, i. 185.

M

MACAULAY, Lord, on Sarpi's religious opinions, ii. 227 n.; critique of his survey of the Catholic Revival, 400 sqq.

MAIN events in modern history, the, ii. 383 sqq.

MALATESTA, Roberto, leader of bandits in the Papal States, i. 152.

MALIPIERO, Alessandro, a friend of Sarpi, ii. 210.

MALVASIA, Count C.C., writings of, on the Bolognese painters, ii. 350 n.

MANRESA, Ignatius Loyola at, i. 234.

MANRIQUE, Thomas, Master of the Sacred Palace, an expurgated edition of the Decamerone issued by, i. 224.

MANSO, Marquis: his Life of Tasso, ii. 54, 56, 58, 64, 70, 115; friend of Marino in his youth, 261.

MANTUA, raised to the rank of a duchy, i. 27.

MANUZIO, Aldo (the younger), ill-treatment of, in Rome, i. 217 sq.

---Paolo: works produced at his press in Rome, i. 220; a friend of Chiabrera, ii. 287.

MARCELLUS II., Pope (Marcello Cervini), i. 97, 101.

MARGARET of Austria, one of the arrangers of the Paix des Dames, i. 16.

MARIANAZZO, a robber chief, refusal of pardon by, i. 309.

MARIGNANO, Marquis of (Gian Giacomo Medici), i. 109, 115.

MARINISM, i. 66; ii. 299, 302.

MARINO, Giovanni Battista: his birth and parentage, ii. 260; escapades of his youth in Naples, 261; at the Court of Carlo Emanuele, 262; his life in Turin, ib.; at the Court of Maria de'Medici, 263; successful publication of the Adone, 264; return to Naples, 265; critique of the Adone, 266 sq.; the Epic of Voluptuousness, 268; its effeminate sensuality, 268 sq.; cynical hypocrisy, 270; the character of Adonis, 272; ugliness and discord, 273; Marino's poetic gifts, 274; great variety of episodes, 276; unity of theme, 277; purity of poetic style rarely attained, 279; false rhetoric, 280; Marinism, 281; verbal fireworks, 282; Marino's real inadequacy, 285; the Pianto d'Italia, 286; comparison of Marino with Chiabrera, 296.

MARTELLI, Giovan Battista, a bravo attendant on Lorenzino de'Medici, i. 396.

MARTUCCIA, a notorious Roman courtesan, i. 375.

MASANIELLO, cause of the rising of, in Naples, i. 49.

MASSACRE of S. Bartholomew, i. 55, 149.

MASSIMI, Eufrosina (second wife of Lelio Massimi), the murder of, i. 354 sq.

---Lelio: violent deaths of the five sons whom he cursed, i. 355 sq.

'MATERIE Beneficiarie, Delle,' Sarpi's, ii. 219.

MAXIMILIAN, Emperor, allied against Venice with Louis XII., i. 12.

MAZZOLA, Francesco (Il Parmigianino), i. 42.

MEDA, Caterina da (waiting-woman of Virginia de Leyva), murder of, i. 322.

MEDIAEVAL habits, survival of, in Italy in the sixteenth century, i. 306.

MEDICI, de', family of: their advances towards Despotism, i. 10; violent deaths of members, 382 sqq.; eleven murdered in a half-century, 387.

---Alessandro, Duke of Florence, i. 19, 46, 388.

---Cosimo, i. 46; made Grand Duke of Tuscany, 47.

---Giovanni, i. 11.

---Ippolito, i. 19.

---Lorenzino, assassination of his cousin Alessandro (Duke of Florence) by, i. 388; details of his own murder, 389 sqq.

---Lorenzo, i. 10.

---Maria, the Court of, as Regent of France, ii. 263.

---Piero, i. 10.

MEDICI, Gian Giacomo (brother of Pius IV.), i. 50, 109.

---Giovanni Angelo, see PIUS IV.

---Margherita (sister of Pius IV.), mother of Carlo Borromeo, i. 115 n.

MENDOZA, Don Hurtado de, i. 47.

MERSENNE, evidence of, as to the burning of Giordano Bruno, ii. 164 n.

METAPHYSICAL speculators in Italy, i. 73.

METAURUS, the, Tasso's ode to, ii. 63.

METEMPSYCHOSIS, Bruno's doctrine of, ii. 160.

MEXICO, the early Jesuits in, i. 260.

MIANI, Girolamo, founder of the congregation of the Somascans, i. 79; his relations with Loyola, 242.

MICANZI, Fulgenzio, see FULGENZIO, FRA.

MILAN, Duchy of: its state in 1494, i. 8.

MOCENIGO, Giovanni: his character, ii. 152; invites Giordano Bruno to Venice, 153; the object of the invitation, 154; their intercourse, 155; Bruno denounced to the Inquisition by Mocenigo, 157.

---Luigi, on the relations between Pius IV. and Cardinal Morone, i. 110 n.

MODENA and Bologna, humors of the conflict between, ii. 304.

MONOPOLIES, system of, in Italy, i. 49.

MONTALTO, Cardinal, nephew of Sixtus V., i. 157.

MONTEBELLO, Baron, the tale of, i. 428.

MONTECATINO, Antonio, an enemy of Tasso at Ferrara, ii. 48, 50, 60, 62; his downfall, 66.

MONTE OLIVETO, the monastery of, Tasso at, ii, 74.

MONZA, the Lady of, see LEYVA, VIRGINIA MARIA DE.

MORALS, social and domestic, in Italy, effect of the Catholic Revival on, i. 301 sqq.; outcome of the Tridentine decrees, 302; hypocrisy and ceremonial observances, 303; sufferings of the lower classes, ib.; increase of crimes of violence, 304; mistrust between the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie, 306; survival of mediaeval habits, ib.; brigandage, 307; criminal procedure, 308; mutual jealousy of States afforded security to refugee homicides, 309; toleration of outlaws, 310; the Lucchese army of bandits, 311; honorable murder, 312; maintenance of bravi, ib.; social violence countenanced by the Church, 314; sexual morality, 315; state of convents, 316; profligate fanaticism, ib.; convent intrigues, 318 sqq.

MORATO, Peregrino, letter from Celio Calcagnini to, i. 74.

MORNAY, Duplessis, Sarpi's letters to, ii. 229.

MORONE, Cardinal, i. 26; Papal legate at Trent, 97 n.; imprisoned by Paul IV., 110; relations with Pius IV., ib.; liberal thinkers among his associates, 111 n.; his work in connection with the Council of Trent, 127.

---Girolamo, i. 26, 72.

MUNICIPAL wars, Italian, ii. 304.

MURDERS in Italy in the sixteenth century, i. 305 sqq.

MURETUS: his difficulties as a professor in Rome, i. 214, 216.

MURTOLA, Gasparo, attempted assassination of the poet Marino by, ii. 263.

MUSIC, Italian, decadence of, in the sixteenth century, ii. 315; foreign musicians in Rome, 316; the contrapuntal style, 317; licenses allowed to performers, ib.; the medleys prepared by composers, ib.; disgraceful condition of Church music, 318; orchestral ricercari, 320 n.; Savonarola's opinion of the Church music of his time, ib.; musical aptitude of the people, 322; lack of a controlling element of correct taste, ib.; advent of Palestrina, ib.; the Congregation for the Reform of Music, 325; rise of the Oratorio, 334; music in England in the sixteenth century, 338; rise of the Opera, 340.

MUSICIANS, Italian, of the seventeenth cenutry, ii. 243.

N

NAPLES, kingdom of, separated from Sicily, i. 4; its extent, ib.; in the hands of Spain, 12.

NASSAU, Count of, i. 38.

NATURE, the study of, among Italian philosophers, ii. 128.

NEPOTISM, Papal: the Caraffas, i. 104 sq.; the Borromeos, 115; the Ghislieri, 147; Gregory XIII.'s relatives, 151; estimate of the incomes of Papal nephews, 156 sqq.

NEW Christians, the, in Spain, see JEWS.

NOBILI, Flaminio de', a censor of the Gerusalemme Liberata, ii. 43.

NOLA, survival of Greek customs in, ii. 132.

NOVICES, Jesuit, position of, i. 271.

NUNNERIES, state of, in the sixteenth century, i. 315 sqq.

O

OMERO, Fuggiguerra, sobriquet chosen by Tasso in his wanderings, ii. 64.

OPERA, rise of the, in Florence, ii. 341.

ORANGE, Prince of, leader of the Spanish army in the siege of Florence, i. 18.

ORATORIO (Musical), the: its origins in Rome, ii. 334.

ORATORY of Divine Love, the, i. 76.

ORSINI, the, reduced to submission to the Popes, i. 7.

---Paolo Giordano (Duke of Bracciano): his passion for Vittoria Accoramboni, i. 358; his gigantic stature and corpulence, 359; poisons his first wife, 360; treatment by Sixtus V., 363; secret marriage with Vittoria, 364; renounces the marriage, 365; ratifies the union by public marriage, 366; flight from Rome, ib.: death of the Duke, 367.

---Prince Lodovico: procures the murder of Vittoria Accoramboni and her brother, i. 368; siege of his palace, 370; his violent death, 371.

---Troilo, lover of the Duchess of Bracciano, i. 360; details of his murder by Ambrogio Tremazzi, 405 sqq.

OSIO, Gianpaolo: his intrigue with Virginia de Leyva, i. 318 sqq.; murders her waiting-woman, 322; attempts to murder two other nuns, 324; his letter of defence to Cardinal Federigo Borromeo, 326; condemned to death and outlawed, 327; terms of the Bando, 328; his end, 329.

OSORIO, Don Alvaro, Grand Marshal of Spain, i. 22.

OUTLAWRY in Italy in the sixteenth century, i. 307 sqq.

OXFORD, Giordano Bruno's reception at, ii. 144.

P

PACHECO, Cardinal, the foe of the Caraffeschi, i. 105.

PADUAN school of scepictism, the, influence of, on Tasso, ii. 20.

PAGANELLO, Conte, assassin of Vittoria Accoramboni, i. 371.

PAINTING in the late years of the sixteenth century, ii. 344; Eclecticism, 345; influence of the Tridentine Council, 347; the Mannerists, 348; Baroccio, 349; the Caracci, 350 sqq.; studies of the Bolognese painters, 352; academical ideality, 354; Guido, Albani, Domenichino, 355 sqq.; criticism of Domenichino's work, 359; the Italian Realists, 363 sqq.; Lo Spada, 364; Il Guercino, 365; critical reaction against the Eclectics, 368; fundamental principles of criticism, 370 sqq.

PAIX des Dames, i. 9, 16.

PALAZZO Vernio, Academy (musical) of the, ii. 340; distinguished composers of its school, 341.

PALEARIO, Aonio: his opinion of the Index, i. 197, 214.

PALESTRINA, Giovanni Pier Luigi: his birth and early musical training, ii. 323; uneventful life of the Princeps Musicae, 324; relations with the Congregation for Musical Reform, 325; the legend and the facts about Missa Papae Marcelli, 326 sqq., 331 n.; Palestrina's commission, 331; the three Masses in competition, 332; the award by the Congregation and the Pope, 334; Palestrina's connection with S. Filippo Neri, 334; Arie Divote composed for the Oratory, 335 sq.; character of the new music, 335; influence of Palestrina on Italian music, 336; estimate of the general benefit derived by music from him, 337 sq.

PALLAVICINI, on Paul IV.'s seal for the Holy Office, i. 107 n.

PALLAVICINO, Matteo, murder of, by Marcello Accoramboni, i. 358.

PALLIANO, Duchess of, see CARDONA, VIOLANTE DE.

---Duke of (nephew of Paul IV.), murders committed by, i. 379; his execution, 380.

PANCIROLI, Guido, Tasso's master in the study of law, ii. 20.

PAPACY, the, its position after the sack of Rome, i. 13; tyranny of, arising from the instinct of self-preservation, 54; dislike of, for General Councils, 90; manipulation of the Council of Trent, 97 sqq., 119 sqq.; its supremacy founded by that Council, 131; later policy of the Popes, 149 sqq., 226.

PAPAL States, the: their condition in 1447, i. 5; attempts to consolidate them into a kingdom, 6.

PARMA and Piacenza, creation of the Duchy of, by Paul III., i. 86.

PARMA, Duchy of, added to the States of the Church, i. 7.

PARMIGIANINO, Il, painting of Charles V. by, i. 42.

PARRASIO, Alessandro, one of the assassins of Sarpi, ii. 212.

PART-SONGS, French Protestant, influence of, on Palestrina, ii. 324.

PASSARI, Pietro, amours of, with the nuns of S. Chiara, Lucca, i. 340 sq.

'PASTOR Fido,' Guarini's, critique of, ii. 252 sqq.

PAUL III., Pope, sends Contarini to the conference at Rechensburg, i. 78; receives a memorial on ecclesiastical abuses, 79; establishes the Roman Holy Office, 80; sanctions the Company of Jesus, ib.; his early life and education, 81; love of splendor, 82; peculiarity of his position, ib.; the Pope of the transition, 84; jealous of Spanish ascendency in Italy, 85; creates the Duchy of Parma for his son, 86 sqq.; members of the moderate reforming party made Cardinals, 88; his repugnance to a General Council, 90; indiction of a Council to be held at Trent, 97; difficulties of his position, 100; his death, 101; his connection with the founding of the Jesuit Order, 245.

PAUL IV., Pope, see CARAFFA, GIOV. PIETRO.

PAUL V., Pope: details of his nepotism, i. 157 n.; places Venice under an interdict, ii. 198.

PAVIA, the battle of, 13.

PELLEGRINI, Cammillo, panegyrist of Tasso, ii. 72.

PEPERARA, Laura, Tasso's relations with, ii. 31.

PERETTI, Felice (nephew of Sixtus V.), husband of Vittoria Accoramboni, i. 357; his murder, 358.

PESCARA, Marquis of, husband of Vittoria Colonna, i. 25.

'PESTE di S. Carlo, La,' i. 421.

'PETRARCA, Considerazioni sopra le Rime, del,' Tassoni's, ii. 298, 300.

PETRONI, Lucrezia, second wife of Francesco Cenci, i. 348 sq.

PETRONIO, S., Bologna, reception of Charles V. by Clement VII. at, i. 23; the Emperor's coronation at, 37 sqq.

PETRUCCI, Pandolfo, seduction of two sons of, by the Jesuits, i. 284.

PHILIP II. of Spain: his quarrel with Paul IV., i. 102; the reconciliation, 104.

PHILOSOPHERS of Southern Italy in the sixteenth century, ii. 126 sqq.

PIACENZA, added to the States of the Church, i. 7.

PICCOLOMINI, Alfonso, leader of bandits in the Papal States, i. 152.

'PIETRO Soave Polano,' anagram of 'Paolo Sarpi Veneto,' ii. 223.

PIGNA (secretary to the Duke of Ferrara), a rival of Tasso, ii. 34, 45, 48.

PINDAR, the professed model of Chiabrera's poetry, ii. 291, 294.

PIRATES, raids of, on Italy, i. 417.

PISA, first Council of, i. 92; the second, 95.

PIUS IV., Pope (Giov. Angelo Medici): his parentage, i. 109; Caraffa's antipathy to him, 110; makes Cardinal Morone his counsellor, ib.; negotiations with the autocrats of Europe, 111; his diplomatic character, 112; the Tridentine decrees, ib.; keen insight into the political conditions of his time, 113; independent spirit, 115; treatment of his relatives, ib.; his brother's death helped him to the Papacy, ib.; the felicity of his life, 116; the religious condition of Northern Europe in his reign, 117; re-opening of the Council of Trent, 119; his management of the difficulties connected with the Council, 127 sqq.; use of cajoleries and menaces, 129; success of the Pope's plans, 130; his Bull of ratification of the Tridentine decrees, 131; his last days, 132; estimate of the work of his reign, 133 sqq.; his lack of generosity, 142; coldness in religious exercises, 144; love of ease and good companions, 147.

PIUS V., Pope (Michele Ghislieri): his election, i. 137; influence of Carlo Borromeo on him, 137, 145, 147; ascetic virtues, 145; zeal for the Holy Office, 145; edict for the expulsion of prostitutes from Rome, 146; his exercise of the Papal Supremacy, 148; his Tridentine Profession of Faith, ib.; advocates rigid uniformity, 148; promotes attacks on Protestants, ib.

PLAGUES: in Venice, i. 418; at Naples and in Savoy, ib.; statistics of the mortality, 418 n.; disease supposed to be wilfully spread by malefactors, 420.

POETRY, Heroic, the problem of creating, in Italy, ii. 80.

POLAND, the crown of, sought by Italian princes, ii. 246.

POLE, Cardinal Reginald, i. 76; Papal legate at Trent, 97 n.

POMA, Ridolfo, one of the assassins of Sarpi, ii. 212.

POMPONIUS LAETUS, the teacher of Paul III., i. 81, 82.

POPULAR melodies employed in Church music in the sixteenth century, ii. 318.

PORTRAIT of Charles V. by Titian, i. 42.

'PRESS, Discourse upon the,' Sarpi's, ii. 220.

'PRINCEPS Musicae,' the title inscribed on Palestrina's tomb, ii. 325.

PRINTING: effects of the Index Expurgatorius on the trade in Venice, i. 192; firms denounced by name by Paul IV., 198, 208.

PROFESSED of three and of four vows (Jesuit grades), i. 271 sq.

PROLETARIATE, the Italian, social morality of in the sixteenth century, i. 224 sqq.

PROSTITUTES, Roman, expulsion of by Pius V., i. 146.

PROTESTANT Churches in Italy, persecution of, i. 186.

PROTESTANTISM in Italy, i. 71.

PROVINCES, Jesuit, enumeration of the, i. 161.

PUNCTILIO in the Sei Cento, ii. 288.

PURISTS, Tuscan, Tassoni's ridicule of, ii. 308.

PUTEO, Cardinal, legate at Trent, i. 119.

Q

QUEMADERO, the Inquisition's place of punishment at Seville, i. 178.

QUENTIN, S., battle of, i. 103.

QUERRO, Msgr., an associate of the Cenci family, i. 349, 350, 352.

R

'RAGGUAGLI di Parnaso,' Boccalini's, ii. 313.

RANGONI, the, friends of Tasso and of his father, ii. 6, 23.

'RATIO Status,' statutes of the Index on the, i. 220.

RATIONALISM, the real offspring of Humanism, ii. 404.

RAVENNA, exarchate of, i. 7.

REALISTS, Italian school of painters, ii. 363 sqq.

RECHENSBURG, the conference at, i. 78, 88

'RECITATIVO,' Claudio Monteverde the pioneer of, ii. 341.

REFORMATION, the: position of Italians towards its doctrines, i. 72.

REFORMING theologians in Italy, i. 76 sq.

RELIGIOUS Orders, new, foundation of, in Italy, i. 79 sq.

RELIGIOUS spirit of the Italian Church in the sixteenth century, i. 71.

RENAISSANCE and Reformation: the impulses of both simultaneously received by England, ii. 388.

RENEE of France, Duchess of Ferrara, i. 77.

RENI, Guido, Bolognese painter, ii. 355; his masterpieces, 358.

REPUBLICAN governments in Italy, i. 5.

RETROSPECT over the Renaissance, ii. 389 sqq.

REYNOLDS, Sir Joshua, admiration of, for the Bolognese painters, ii. 359, 375.

RIBERA, Giuseppe, see LO SPAGNOLETTO.

RICEI, Ottavia, attempted murder of, by Gianpaolo Osio, i. 323 sqq.

'RICERCARI,' employment of, in Italian music, ii. 343.

RINALDO, Tasso's, first appearance of, ii. 22; its preface, 82; its subject-matter, 84; its religious motive, 86; its style, 86 sqq.

RODRIGUEZ d'Azevedo, Simon, associate of Ignatius Loyola, i. 240; his work as a Jesuit in Portugal, 256, 262.

ROMAN University, the, degraded condition of, in the sixteenth century, i. 216.

ROME, fluctuating population of, i. 137; eleemosynary paupers, 139; reform of Roman manners after the Council of Trent, 141; expulsion of prostitutes, 146; Roman society in Gregory XIII.'s reign, 152; the headquarters of Catholicism, ii. 397; relations with the Counter-Reformation, 398; the complicated correlation of Italians with Papal Rome, 399; the capital of a regenerated people, 408.

RONDINELLI, Ercole, Tasso's instructions to, in regard to his MSS., ii. 35.

ROSSI, Bastiano de', a critic of the Gerusalemme Liberata, ii. 72.

---Porzia de' (mother of Torquato Tasso): her parentage, ii. 5, 7; her marriage, 7; her death, probably by poison, 9; her character, 12; Torquato's love for her, 15.

---Vittorio de': his description of the ill-treatment of Aldo Manuzio in Rome, i. 217 sq.

ROVERE, Francesco della (Duke of Urbino), account of, i. 36.

RUBBIERA, a fief of the Empire, i. 40.

RUSKIN, Mr., on the cause of the decline of Venice, i. 423 n.; invectives of, against Domenichino's work, ii. 359.

S

SACRED Palace, the Master of the: censor of books in Rome, i. 201.

SALMERON, Alfonzo, associate of Ignatius Loyola, i. 240; in Naples and Sicily, 254.

SALUZZO ceded to Savoy, i. 56.

SALVIATI, Leonardo, a critic of the Gerusalemme Liberata, ii. 72.

SAMMINIATI, Tommaso, intrigue and correspondence of, with Sister Umilia (Lucrezia Buonvisi), i. 341 sqq.; banished from Lucca, 344.

S. ANNA, the hospital of, Tasso's confinement at, ii. 66 sqq.

SAN BENITO, the costume of persons condemned by the Inquisition, i. 177.

SANSEVERINO, Amerigo, a friend of Bernardo Tasso, ii. 14.

---Ferrante di, Prince of Salerno, i. 38; ii. 6 sqq.

SANTA CROCE, Ersilia di, first wife of Francesco Cenci, i. 347.

SANVITALE, Eleonora, Tasso's love-affair with, ii. 48.

SARDINIA, the island of, a Spanish province, i. 45.

SARPI, Fra Paolo: his birth and parentage, ii. 185; his position in the history of Venice, 186; his physical constitution, 189; moral temperament, 190; mental perspicacity, 191; discoveries in magnetism and optics, 192; studies and conversation, 193; early entry into the Order of the Servites, ib.; his English type of character, 194; denounced to the Inquisition, 195; his independent attitude, 196; his great love for Venice, 197; the interdict of 1606, 198; Sarpi's defence of Venice against the Jesuits, 199 sqq.; pamphlet warfare, 201; importance of this episode, 202; Sarpi's theory of Church and State, 203; boldness of his views, 205; compromise of the quarrel of the interdict, ib.; Sarpi's relations with Fra Fulgenzio, 207; Sarpi warned by Schoppe of danger to his life, 208; attacked by assassins, 209; the Stilus Romanae Curiae, 211; history of the assassins, 212; complicity of the Papal Court, 213; other attempts on Sarpi's life, 214 sq.; his opinion of the instigators, 216; his so called heresy, 218; his work as Theologian to the Republic, 219; his minor writings, 221; his opposition to Papal Supremacy, ib.; the History of the Council of Trent, 222; its sources, 223; its argument, 224; deformation, not reformation, wrought by the Council, 225; Sarpi's impartiality, 226; was Sarpi a Protestant? 228; his religious opinions, 229; views on the possibility of uniting Christendom, 230; hostility to ultra-papal Catholicism, 231; critique of Jesuitry, 233; of ultramontane education, 235; the Tridentine Seminaries, 235; Sarpi's dread lest Europe should succumb to Rome, 237; his last days, 238; his death contrasted with that of Giordano Bruno, 239 n.; his creed, 239; Sarpi a Christian Stoic, 240.

SARPI, citations from his writings, on the Papal interpretation of the Tridentine decrees, i. 131 n.; details of the nepotism of the Popes, 156 n., 157 n.; denunciation of the Index, 197 n., 206, 208 n.; on the revival of polite learning, 215; on the political philosophy of the statutes of the Index, 221; on the Inquisition rules regarding emigrants from Italy, 227 sq.; his invention of the name 'Diacatholicon,' 231; on the deflection of Jesuitry from Loyola's spirit and intention, 248; on the secret statutes of the Jesuits, 278; denunciations of Jesuit morality, 289 n.; on the murder of Henri IV., 297 n.; on the instigators of the attempts on his own life, ii. 215 n.; on the attitude of the Roman Court towards murder, 216; on the literary polemics of James I., 229; on Jesuit education and the Tridentine Seminaries, 237.

SAVONAROLA'S opinion of the Church music of his time, ii. 320 n.

SAVOY, the house of: its connection with important events in Italy, i. 16 n., 38, 56; becomes an Italian dynasty, 58.

'SCHERNO DEGLI DEI,' Bracciolini's, ii. 313.

SCHOLASTICS (Jesuit grade), i. 271.

SCHOPPE (Scioppius), Gaspar: sketch of his career, ii. 165, 208; his account of Bruno's heterodox opinions, 166; description of the last hours of Bruno, 167.

'SECCHIA RAPITA, LA,' Tassoni's, ii. 301 sqq.

SECONDARY writers of the Sei Cento, ii. 313.

SEI CENTO, the, decline of culture in Italy in, ii. 242; its musicians, 243.

SEMINARIES, Tridentine, ii. 235.

SERIPANDO, Cardinal, legate at Trent, i. 118.

SERSALE, Alessandro and Antonio, Tasso's nephews, ii. 72.

---Cornelia (sister of Tasso), ii. 7, 9, 15 sq., 55, 64; her children, 72.

SERVITES, General of the, complicity of, in the attempts on Sarpi's life, ii. 214.

SETTLEMENT of Italy effected by Charles V. and Clement VII., net results of, i. 45 sqq.

'SEVEN Liberal Arts, On the,' a lost treatise by Giordano Bruno, ii. 156, 182.

SFORZA, Francesco Maria, his relations with Charles V., i. 28.

---Lodovico (Il Moro, ruler of Milan), invites Charles VIII. into Italy, i. 8.

SICILY, separated from Naples, i. 4.

SIENA, republic of, subdued by Florence, i. 47.

'SIGNS of the Times, The,' a lost work by Giordano Bruno, ii. 136.

SIGONIUS: his History of Bologna blocked by the Index, i. 207.

SIMONETA, Cardinal, legate at Trent, i. 118, 121.

SIXTUS V., Pope: short-sighted hoarding of treasure by, i. 153; his enactments against brigandage, 152; accumulation of Papal revenues, ib.; public works, 153; animosity against pagan art, ib.; works on and about S. Peter's, 154; methods of increasing revenue, 155; nepotism, 157; development of the Papacy in his reign, 158; his death predicted by Bellarmino, 298; his behavior after the murder of his nephew (Felice Peretti), 362.

SODERINI, Alessandro, assassinated together with his nephew Lorenzino de'Medici, i. 398.

SOLIMAN, Paul IV.'s negotiations with, i. 103.

SOMASCAN Fathers, Congregation of the, i. 79.

S. ONOFRIO, Tasso's death at, ii. 78; the mask of his face at, 116.

SORANZO, on the character of Pius IV., i. 111 n.; on Carlo Borromeo, 116 n.; on the changes in Roman society in 1565, 143.

'SPACCIO della Bestia Trionfante, Lo,' Giordano Bruno's, ii. 132 n., 140, 165, 183 sq.

SPADA, Lionello, Bolognese painter, ii. 364.

SPAIN: its position in Italy after the battle of Pavia, i. 14.

SPANIARDS of the sixteenth century, character of, i. 59.

SPERONI, Sperone: his criticism of Tasso's Gerusalemme, ii. 44; a friend of Chiabrera, 287.

SPHERE, the, Giordano Bruno's doctrine of, ii. 135, 144 sq.

STENDHAL, De (Henri Beyle): his Chroniques et Nouvelles cited: on the Cenci, i. 351 sq.; the Duchess of Palliano, 373.

STERILITY of Protestantism, ii. 401.

STROZZI, Filippo, i. 46.

---Piero, i. 47.

T

TASSO, Bernardo (father of Torquato), i. 38; his birth and parentage, ii. 5; the Amadigi, 7, 11, 18, 35; his youth and marriage, 7; misfortunes, ib.; exile and poverty, 8; death of his wife, 9; his death, 10, 35; his character, ib.; his Floridante, 35.

---Christoforo (cousin of Torquato), ii. 14.

---Torquato: his relation to his epoch, ii. 2; to the influences of Italian decadence, 4; his father's position, 6; Torquato's birth, 7; the death of his mother, 9, 15; what Tasso inherited from his father, 11; Bernardo's treatment of his son, ib.; Tasso's precocity as a child, 12; his early teachers, ib.; pious ecstasy in his ninth year, 13; with his father in Rome, 14; his first extant letter, 15; his education, 16; with his father at the Court of Urbino, 17; mode of life here, 18; acquires familiarity with Virgil, 19; studies and annotates the Divina Commedia, ib.; metaphysical studies and religious doubts, 20; reaction, ib.; the appearance of the Rinaldo, 21; leaves Padua for Bologna, ib.; Dialogues on the Art of Poetry, 22, 24, 26; flight to Modena, 22; speculations upon Poetry, 23; Tasso's theory of the Epic, 24; he joins the Academy 'Gli Eterei' at Padua, as 'Il Pentito,' 26; enters the service of Luigi d'Este, 27; life at the Court of Ferrara, 28; Tasso's love-affairs, 31; the problem of his relations with Leonora and Lucrezia d'Este, 32 sqq., 48, 51; quarrel with Pigna, 34; his want of tact, ib.; edits his Floridante, 35; visit to Paris, ib.; the Gottifredo (Gerusalemme Liberata), 35, 38, 42, 48, 50; his instructions to Rondinelli, ib.; life at the Court of Charles IX., 36; rupture with Luigi d'Este, 38; enters the service of Alfonso, Duke of Ferrara, ib.; renewed relations with Leonora, ib.; production and success of Aminta, 39; relations with Lucrezia d'Este (Duchess of Urbino), ib.; his letters to Leonora, 41; his triumphant career, ib.; submits the Gerusalemme to seven censors, 43; their criticisms, ib.; literary annoyances, 44; discontent with Ferrara, 45; Tasso's sense of his importance, ib.; the beginning of his ruin, 46; he courts the Medici, 47; action of his enemies at Ferrara, 48; doubts as to his sanity, 49; his dread of the Inquisition, ib.; persecution by the courtiers, 50; revelation of his love affairs by Maddalo de'Frecci, 51; Tasso's fear of being poisoned, ib.; outbreak of mental malady, 52; temporary imprisonment, ib.; estimate of the hypothesis that Tasso feigned madness, 53; his escape from the Convent of S. Francis, 54; with his sister at Sorrento, 55; hankering after Ferrara, 56; his attachment to the House of Este, 57; terms on which he is received back, 58; second flight from Ferrara, 61; at Venice, Urbino, Turin, 63; 'Omero Fuggiguerra,' 64; recall to Ferrara, 65; imprisoned at S. Anna, 66; reasons for his arrest, 67; nature of his malady, 69; life in the hospital, 71; release and wanderings, 73; the Torrismondo, ib.; work on the Gerusalemme Conquistata and the Sette Giornate, 75; last years at Naples and Rome, 76; at S. Onofrio, 76; death, 78; imaginary Tassos, 79; condition of romantic and heroic poetry in Tasso's youth, 80; his first essay in poetry, 81; the preface to Rinaldo, 82; subject-matter of the poem, 84; its religious motive, 86; Latinity of diction, ib.; weak points of style, 88; lyrism and idyll, 89; subject of the Gerusalemme Liberata, 92; its romance, 94; imitation of Virgil, 97; of Dante, 97, 99; rhetorical artificiality, 100; sonorous verses, 101; oratorical dexterity, 102; similes and metaphors, ib.; majestic simplicity, 104; the heroine, 106; Tasso, the poet of Sentiment, 108; the Non so che, 109 sq.; Sofronia, Erminia, Clorinda, 109 sqq.; the Dialogues and the tragedy Torrismondo, 113; the Gerusalemme Conquistata and Le Sette Giornate, 115, 124; personal appearance of Tasso, 115; general survey of his character, 116 sqq.; his relation to his age, 120; his mental attitude, 122; his native genius, 124.

TASSONI, Alessandro: his birth, ii. 297; treatment by Carlo Emmanuele, 298; his independent spirit, ib.; aim at originality of thought, 299; his criticism of Dante and Petrarch, 300; the Secchia Rapita: its origin and motive, 301; its circulation in manuscript copies, 302; Tassoni the inventor of heroico-comic poetry, 303; humor and sarcasm in Italian municipal wars, 304; the episode of the Bolognese bucket, ib.; irony of the Secchia Rapita, 306; method of Tassoni's art, ib.; ridicule of contemporary poets, 307; satire and parody, 308; French imitators of Tasso, 310; episodes of pure poetry, 311; sustained antithesis between poetry and melodiously-worded slang, 312; Tassoni's rank as a literary artist, ib.

TAXATION, the methods of, adopted by Spanish Viceroys in Italy, i. 49.

TENEBROSI, the (school of painters), ii. 365.

TESTI, Fulvio, Modenese poet, ii. 314.

TEUTONIC tribes, relations of with the Italians, ii. 393; unreconciled antagonisms, 394; divergence, 395; the Church, the battle-field of Renaissance and Reformation, 395.

THEATINES, foundation of the Order of, i. 79.

THEORY, Italian love of, in Tasso's time, ii. 25; critique of Tasso's theory of poetry, 26, 42.

THIENE, Gaetano di, founder of the Theatines, i. 76.

THIRTY Divine Attributes, Bruno's doctrine of, ii. 139.

TINTORETTO'S picture of S. Agnes, ii. 361.

TITIAN, portrait of Charles V. by, i. 42.

TOLEDO, Don Pietro di, Viceroy of Naples, i. 38; ii. 7.

---Francesco da, confessor of Gregory XIII., i. 150.

TORQUEMADA, the Spanish Inquisitor, i. 173, 179, 181.

TORRE, Delia, the family of, ancestors, of the Tassi, ii. 5.

'TORRISMONDO,' Tasso's tragedy of, ii. 73, 113 sq.

TORTURE, cases of witnesses put to, i. 333 sqq.

TOUCH, the sense of, Marino's praises of, ii. 270.

TOULOUSE, power of the Inquisition in, ii. 137.

TRAGIC narratives circulated in manuscript in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, i. 372.

'TREATISE on the Inquisition,' Sarpi's, ii. 220.

---'on the Interdict,' Sarpi's, ii. 201.

TREMAZZI, Ambrogio: his own report of how he wrought the murder of Troilo Orsini, i. 405 sqq.; his notions about his due reward, 406.

TRENT, Council of: Indiction of, by Paul III., i. 97; numbers of its members, 97 n., 119 n.; diverse objects of the Spanish, French, and German representatives, 98, 122; the articles which it confirmed, 98; method of procedure, 99, 120; the Council transferred to Bologna, 100; Paul IV.'s measures of ecclesiastical reform, 107; the Council's decrees actually settled in the four Courts, 112, 119; its organization by Pius IV., 118 sqq.; inauspicious commencement, 119; the privileges of the Papal legates, 120; daily post of couriers to the Vatican, 121; arts of the Roman Curia, 122; Spanish, French, Imperial Opposition, 123; clerical celibacy and Communion under both forms, ib.; packing the Council with Italian bishops, 125; the interests of the Gallican Church, 126; interference of the Emperor Ferdinand, ib.; confusion in the Council, 126 n.; envoys to France and the Emperor, 127; cajoleries and menaces, 129; action of the Court of Spain, 130; firmness of the Spanish bishops, 130 n.; Papal Supremacy decreed, 131; reservation in the Papal Bull of ratification, 131 and note; Tridentine Profession of Faith (Creed of Pius V.), 148.

TUSCANY, creation of the Grand Duchy of, i. 47.

TWO SICILIES, the kingdom of the, i. 45.

'TYRANNY of the kiss,' the, exemplified in the Rinaldo, ii. 90; in the Pastor Fido, 255; in the Adone, 272.

U

UNIVERSAL Monarchy, end of the belief in, i. 34.

UNIVERSE, Bruno's conception of the, ii. 173 sqq.

UNIVERSITIES, Italian, i. 51.

'UNTORI, La Peste degli,' i. 421; trial of the Untoti, 421.

URBAN VIII., fantastic attempt made against the life of, i. 425 sq.

URBINO, the Court of, life at, ii. 17 sq.

V

VALDES, Juan: his work On the Benefits of Christ's Death, i. 76.

VALORI, Baccio, i. 33.

VASTO, Marquis of, i. 25.

VENETIAN ambassadors' despatches cited: on the manners of the Roman Court in 1565, i. 142, 147; the expulsion of prostitutes from Rome, 146.

VENICE, the Republic of, its possessions in the fifteenth century, i. 9; relations with Spain in 1530, 45; rise of a contempt for commerce in, 49; the constitution of its Holy Office, 190; Concordat with Clement VIII., 193; Tasso at, ii. 19 sq.; its condition in Sarpi's youth, 185; political indifference of its aristocracy, 186; put under interdict by Paul V., 198.

VENIERO, Maffeo, on Tasso's mental malady, ii. 52, 63.

VERONA, Peter of (Peter Martyr), Italian Dominican Saint of the Inquisition, i. 161.

VERVINS, the Treaty of, i. 48, 56.

VETTORI, Francesco, i. 33.

VIRGIL, Tasso's admiration of, ii. 25; translations and adaptations from, 98.

VISCONTI, the dynasty of, i. 8.

---Valentina, grandmother of Louis XII. of France, i. 8.

VITELLI, Alessandro, i. 46.

VITELLOZZI, Vitellozzo, influence of, in the reform of Church music, ii. 325.

VITI, Michele, one of the assassins of Sarpi, ii. 212.

'VOCERO,' the, i. 332.

VOLTERRA, Bebo da, associate of Bibboni in the murder of Lorenzino de'Medici, i. 390 sqq.

VULGATE, the: results of its being declared inviolable, i. 210.

W

WALDENSIANS in Calabria, the, i. 188.

WITCHCRAFT, chiefly confined to the mountain regions of Italy, i. 425; mainly used as a weapon of malice, ib.; details of the sorcery practised by Giacomo Centini, 425 sqq.

WIFE-MURDERS in Italy in the sixteenth century, i. 380 sq., 385.

X

XAVIER, Francis, associate of Ignatius Loyola, i. 239; his work as a Jesuit in Portugal, 256; his mission to the Indies, 260.

XIMENES, Cardinal, as Inquisitor General, i. 182.

Z

ZANETTI, Guido, delivered over to the Roman Inquisition, i. 145.

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