LVIII. SCIENTIFIC OBJECTS FOR THE HOUSEHOLD
At the beginning of the seventeenth century there was at Lyons a very remarkable mansion built by a man named Nicholas Grollier de Servière. This house was filled with all the most remarkable curiosities and inventions of the period. The owner belonged to an ancient family. His great-uncle, Jean Grollier, had amassed a magnificent library, the best in France. His father was also a celebrated adherent of Henry IV., and M. Servière himself had inherited much scientific taste and intelligence from his ancestors. His house was full of curiosities, ingenious machines, and mysterious clocks, concerning some of which things we shall have something to say in this chapter.
M. de Servière’s ingenuity was first apparent in the circular reading desk, or wheel-desk, on which he put all the books he was likely to require within a certain time. He seated himself by this revolving desk, and then was enabled to read any book or paper he desired by merely turning the wheel with his hands and thus bringing it under his vision. In these days it is equally possible to collect useful articles either of an electric nature or otherwise. We have already described the electric pen and the writing machine, with some other things which might be included in our list of domestic appliances, but the Chromograph has not been yet illustrated.
THE CHROMOGRAPH.
When we have written with a certain well-known violet “ink” upon a sheet of paper and applied it to a soft gelatinous surface and rubbed it a few times, we shall obtain an impression of the writing on the gelatine. By pressing blank sheets of paper upon this we may pull off quite a number of copies of our letter or circular. This practice is now so well known that it is scarcely necessary to detail it. The layer of gelatine is made up as follows, and any of the recipes will suffice.
1. Gelatine 100 grammes, water 375 grammes, glycerine 375 grammes, kaolin 50 grammes. (Lebaigueé.)
2. Gelatine 100 grammes, dextrine 100 grammes, glycerine 1000 grammes, sulphate of baryta q.s. (W. Wartha.)
3. Gelatine 100 grammes, glycerine 1,200 grammes, bouillie de sulphate de baryta, strained, 500 cubic centimètres. (W. Wartha.)
4. Gelatine 1 gramme, glycerine à 30° 4 grammes, water 2 grammes. (Kwaysser and Husak.)
The “mixture” is shaken until it cools to the point of thickening, and then poured into a zinc vessel. The kaolin or the sulphate of baryta makes the composition white. It can be treated again with gelatine and molasses employed for printing rollers. When the proofs have been taken from the frame the surface may be rubbed with a damp sponge, and then it will be ready for use again immediately. The introduction of dextrine facilitates the cleansing of the surface plate.
THE CAMPYLOMETER.[42]
This instrument, constructed by Lieutenant Gaumet, is very easily carried in the pocket, and by a very simple process gives (1) the length of any line, straight or curved, traced on a map or plan; (2) the actual length corresponding to a “graphical” length on maps of the scale of 1/80000 or 1/100000, or on maps which are multiples of these numbers.
The instrument consists of a toothed disc, the circumference of which is dentated exactly in five centimètres. The faces of this disc each carry a system of divisions; one is divided into four parts, the other into five. The circumference of the disc (5 centimètres) corresponds to the 4 kilomètres of the scale of 1/80000, and to 5 kilomètres of that of 1/100000. The division 1/40 of the disc in the former scale measures 100 mètres, and is in it the same as 1/50 of the other scale.
The toothed disc moves upon a micro-metric screw, the markings of which are 0·0015 of a mètre, and a small “rule” or “reglet” carries equal graduations, as the screw representing lengths so follow:—
1. 5, 10, 15, 20 50 centi. according to metric scale. 2. 5, 10, 15, 20 50 kil. scale 1/100000; 3. 4, 8, 12, 16 40 kil. 1/80000;
The micro-metric screw is fixed in a frame so made as to form a kind of indicator or guide at one side.
To make use of the campylometer, bring the zero of the disc opposite the zero of the rule (reglet), then place the instrument on the map in a perpendicular position; the point will serve as guide, and move the disc upon the line, whether direct or sinuous, of which you wish to ascertain the length.
When this has been done, note the last graduation of the “reglet” beyond which the disc has stopped, add to the value of this graduation the complementary length shown by the division of the disc which is opposite the “reglet.” To find the length of a material line we must add to the number of centimètres shown by the upper graduation the complement in millimètres furnished by the division to the 1/50th.
For example, suppose we read 20 upon the upper scale, 35 the division to the 1/50 opposite the “reglet”; the length obtained is 20 centimètres plus 35 millimètres, or 0·235 mètres. If we are measuring upon a map on the 1/100000 scale, the upper graduations represent kilomètres, the complementary divisions on the 1/50 scale hundredths of mètres.
For example, suppose again 20 be the superior graduation, 35 the division to the 1/50 of the disc as before; the distance measured is 20 kilomètres plus 3,500 mètres, or 23,500 mètres.
On the map the lower graduation of the “reglet” is used. For instance, if 12 be the upper graduation of the division to 1/40 of the distance opposite to the “reglet,” the distance measured will be 12,700 mètres.
The campylometer has been specially constructed for maps on the 1/80000 and 1/100000 scales, and calculations can be made easily for any maps whose scales are multiples or sub-multiples of these. But the instrument will serve equally well for all maps or plans of which the numerical scale is known. We must multiply the length of the line expressed in millimètres by the denominator of the scale divided by 1,000.
So upon an English map to the 1/63360, a length of 155 millimètres corresponds to a “natural” length of 63,360 multiplied by 155, or 9820·80 mètres.
Thus we perceive that the employment of the campylometer does not necessitate the tracing of a graphic scale, but only the knowledge of the numerical scale. When the former only is known, the campylometer may be used in the following manner:—
Having traced with the disc the line you wish to measure, carry the instrument to the zero of the scale and let it run inversely the length of that scale, until the zero of the disc returns opposite to the zero of the “reglet.” The point at which the disc is stopped on the scale indicates the length of the line measured upon the map. If the scale be smaller than the line measured, repeat the operation as many times as may be necessary.
If it is desirable to ascertain upon a map of a scale of 1/20000 the distance represented by 1,200 mètres, we have only to place the toothed disc so that its position marks four times the required distance—that is, 4,800 mètres on the map of 1/80000 (for 4 times 20 = 80). Then move the disc in the given direction until the zero returns opposite the zero of the “reglet”; this limit will mark the extremity of the length required.
Explanations are not easy upon paper, but the instrument is found very easy in actual use. It is employed by the military staff for calculating distances of any kind, curves or straight lines. On the march, or even on horseback, the campylometer can be employed.
MYSTERIOUS CLOCKS.
The clocks represented in the two following illustrations (figs. 878 and 879), are well worthy of being placed in the house of any amateur of science. They are made of transparent crystal, and though all mechanism is cleverly concealed they keep capital time. The former clock (fig. 878) is the invention of Robert Houdin, and consists of two crystal discs superposed and enclosed in the same frame. One carries the usual numerals, the other moves upon its centre with the minute hand attached, and its rotation induces by the ordinary method the movement of the hour hand. The requisite motion is transmitted to the dial by gear disposed along the circumference and hidden within the metallic frame, and is itself put in motion by clockwork, enclosed in the pedestal of the timepiece.
M. Cadot, in his clock (fig. 879), retains the plates, but adopts the rectangular form, so as to preclude all idea of rotation, and to puzzle those who are acquainted with the working of Houdin’s clock. The minute hand cannot, in this instance, be fixed to the second glass plate, it preserves its independence. This movable plate has only a very slight angular movement around its centre, which oscillation or “play” is permitted in the interior of the rectangular dial. A little spring movement, hidden in the central nut of the “hand,” provides in progressive rotation the oscillation of the transparent plate, which cannot be perceived to move.
To produce this “balance” motion the plate is supported upon a bar in the lower part of the metal frame. After the direct oscillation of which we have spoken, a little spring puts the machinery back. The direct displacement is produced by a vertical piston which raises the end of the bar. This piston rests upon a bent lever communicating with a wheel with thirty triangular teeth. Finally this wheel turns upon its axis once in an hour by a clockwork arrangement in the pedestal of the clock. Each tooth takes two minutes to pass, and the movement is communicated to the minute hand, which thus goes round the dial in the hour. The hour hand is controlled by a delicate arrangement hidden in the base. The illustration and notes will explain the working.
M. Henri Robert has also invented a very interesting clock, and one calculated to excite much curiosity (fig. 881).
We can see nothing but a crystal dial, perfectly transparent, upon the surface of which two “hands” move, as upon an ordinary clock face. There is no machinery visible, and electricity may be credited with the motive power, because the dial is suspended by two wires. But they will soon be perceived not to be connected with the hands, and all search for the mechanism will be fruitless.
The hands, moreover, turn backwards or forwards, and may be moved by a treacherous finger, but will always return as by a balanced motion to their position, not the hour which they were at, but to the time which it actually is. They will take their proper place notwithstanding all efforts to the contrary, and will then, if let alone, indicate the time as steadily as ever.
The hands of this very mysterious timepiece carry their own motive power, and consist of unequally balanced levers, so to speak, in which the clockwork arrangement is intended to disturb the equilibrium. This property is employed to indicate the hour and the minute, as we will attempt to show.
The minute hand is the balance, and it is very exactly poised. In the round box fitted to the end of this hand a plate of platinum is displaced by clockwork. The centre of gravity being displaced every instant by the revolution of the weight which goes round once in an hour, the minute hand is forced to follow, and carries the hour hand with it. By the hidden arrangements the hands are dependent one upon the other, but remain independent in movement. If they be moved backwards or forwards they will return automatically to their respective places, and if turned quickly round the minute hand will return to the proper minute, and the hour hand to the hour.
The mechanism is simple and ingenious; the principle, however, is not absolutely novel, and before M. Robert applied it many attempts had been made to move indicators by the machinery they themselves contained. But M. Robert has succeeded in adapting the idea beneficially and usefully, giving it a practical as well as an elegant shape.
A NEW CALCULATING DIAL.
The small instrument herewith illustrated (figs. 882 and 883) is very serviceable for calculators, and its size adapts it for the waistcoat pocket. It can be used to calculate by addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Logarithms can be found, and the powers and roots of numbers—even trigonometrical calculations may be made by its aid. We need not go into any details regarding the principle of the little “circle.” Such explanations are only wearying and unsatisfactory at best. The principle is, simply stated, the theorem that the logarithm of the product of two numbers is equal to the sum of their logs. The size of the dial will of course regulate the length of the calculation. The instrument depicted permits of calculation to three figures with exactitude. M. Boucher, the inventor, hopes to succeed in perfecting an instrument of small size which will combine all desiderata, and calculate to high powers.
THE PEDOMETER.
We all know how useful it is to be able to calculate distances approximately when upon an excursion or walking tour, and much trouble is taken by many tourists to ascertain the number of miles they may have walked in a certain time. The rapid success which the Pedometer has gained is a testimony to the need it has adapted itself to fill.
The pedometer is much like an ordinary watch in appearance and size. We perceive a dial with figures and spaces to show the number of paces walked. The cut represents the mechanism, which is exceedingly simple.
In the fig. 884, B is a counter-poise at the extremity of a lever, which oscillates around an axis, A. A screw, V, serves to limit the extent of these oscillations, and a spring which acts upon the counter-poise holds the latter to the upper end. The apparatus is completed by a movement which counts the number of oscillations of the lever.
So much being understood, it will be presumed that if we give to the instrument an “up-and-down” movement, the spring which holds the counter-poise, B, being too weak to compensate the force of inertion of the latter, it gives way and presses against the screw, V. When the opposite movement takes place the counter-poise is at the end of its course, and so on. Thus during a walk each step produces an oscillation which the counter registers.
In the hands of a careful observer, such a pedometer is capable of registering exact results, and the number of paces being counted, a very good idea of the number of yards and miles passed over can be arrived at.
FOOTNOTES:
[42] Kampulos, a curve; metron, measure.
LIX. SCIENCE AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY
All branches of applied science are capable of giving us important hints and rendering us great service in all the conditions of our daily life, and as we have at various times throughout this volume mentioned useful domestic inventions applicable for use by means of water, air, etc., we may describe some more particularly relating to the inside of the house, and the science of domestic economy.
Sometimes during the winter we may feel it very difficult, if not impossible, to keep the room warm. This we can do, however, by means of double windows.
Why is it that the double window as used in Russia keeps out the cold so well? Is it because the room is defended against frost by two windows instead of there being only one to resist it?—Not entirely. Such an explanation is not sufficient. If one be protected against the exterior cold, it is, thanks to the mass of air which is imprisoned, between the two windows. Extraordinary as it may appear, the air is a very bad conductor of heat, and forms the best insulator that one can find. The heat of the apartment is then perfectly retained by means of the air between the double windows.
In the same way the double window is not less useful during the summer, for it prevents the entrance of the heated air into the house. The double window may therefore be compared to the bournous of the Arab and the cloak of the Spaniard, which preserves from heat as well as guards against cold.
The double windows also perform another service. The glasses form a hot-house. The sun heats the air which is enclosed, and thus between the panes ferns and even vines will flourish. The windows are very easy to make, and in the event of any reader desiring to construct one or more, we give the dimensions. (See fig. 885.)
T T, is the exterior frame of the window. The two panes are mounted on a frame of wood, and are represented by A A´ and B B´ The sashes are represented apart, P and P´ are the shutters of sheet iron, which, if the walls be not so thick as represented, can be replaced by a spring-blind, which descends between the windows.
SEWING MACHINE WORKED BY A DOG.
Animals have been employed for all time to draw carriages and the plough, etc. But these animal “motors” are usually employed under defective conditions, and therefore without full profit. The inert mass of the animals remains quite unutilized, his force only is employed, and there are many objections on the score of humanity, as well as from a mechanical standpoint, and great muscular tension with suffering may be inflicted upon an animal which is continually mounting a wheel or such contrivance for raising water. There was in the Paris Exhibition a threshing machine put in motion by a horse walking upon a pair of rollers which constituted an “endless” way, and we will now briefly describe a machine which utilizes animal force and weight. It is the invention of M. Richard of Paris, who has made many mechanical apparatus for industrial purposes.
The principle of the invention (fig. 886) consists in the animal utilizing all the force resulting from his dead-weight. A small box contains the dog very easily. In the illustration we see the dog at rest, and in that case he maintains his centre of gravity and exercises no force upon the wheel. But when the box is inclined, the mere weight of the animal is sufficient merely to turn the wheel in the direction of the arrows. The dog, finding himself sliding away, naturally endeavours to move forward, and the rotation of the wheel is continued; the best results are obtained when the body is placed entirely upon the descending line, and this result is owing only to the weight of the animal.
There is a resting-place, just above and outside the “endless” way traversed by the dog. A basin with water is also provided for the animal.
M. Robert was let to this discovery in the following way:—He employs a large number of sewing-machine hands, and finding that the working of the machines had an injurious effect upon the health of the workers, he determined to substitute, in part, other labour for that of female hands. He then thought out his “quadrupedal motors,” which are worked by intelligent dogs. There is very little trouble or expense connected with the working, so a great saving is effected, as the dogs cost little, and are cheaply fed. The result is that M. Robert has four heavy machines occasionally at work, which are kept in motion by dogs at a very small expense.
A CLOCK-LAMP.
The illustration (fig. 887) represents an ingenious arrangement, which, by means of combustion of oil in a lamp, indicates the hour of the night. The design explains itself. Two vertical tubes are fixed above the reservoir of oil. The left tube contains oil, and is marked with the hours; the right tube burns the oil as a lamp.
The apparatus is so constructed by the inventor, M. H. Behn, that a certain quantity of oil is consumed exactly in one hour between two graduations of the hour-tube. A reflector placed beside the lamp enables one to see the time by night very plainly.
AN “ALARUM” LAMP.
The apparatus represented below (fig. 888) is an ordinary “alarum” lamp. It is surmounted by a petroleum lamp, which carries a burner that remains lighted all night, and which serves as a night-light. The “alarum” carries an index, represented by the dotted lines in the illustration, and the hands are fixed (with the index) to the hour you wish to rise in the morning. The index is fitted with an arrangement which lets loose a vertical bar represented on the right of the figure. This bar is held by a spring, and carries a toothed rack which acts upon and raises the wick. At the proper time the bar is loosed, and the lamp-wick is raised, diffusing a strong and sudden light through the apartment. This illumination, in concert with an alarum-bell, generally succeeds in awaking the heaviest sleeper.
A GOOD PETROLEUM LAMP.
This lamp (fig. 889) burns gazoline without the least odour or danger of explosion. It will serve equally well for petroleum or naphtha. The gazoline used ought to be 660 grammes weight to the litre.
The central portion of the lamp under consideration has an orifice, A B, which extends through the upper part, and by which the air is admitted to the centre of the flame. Two vertical plates divide the air-current into four portions. The chimney-rest, or gallery, forms with the glass three concentric envelopes, so arranged in stages that the air, when it reaches the plates, may be more and more carried under the flame. The orifices, a b, carefully regulated, give access to the exterior air. Including the central one, there are four currents of air, of which three strike against the flame. These are very excellent conditions for obtaining perfect combustion, and, consequently, there is an entire absence of smell and smoke, while the light is very powerful.
We may add that any glass will be found suitable to this lamp, and that, in consequence of the separation of the hot air by the currents mentioned, all danger of the glasses breaking from over-heating is avoided. In provincial districts, where lamp-glasses are not plentiful, this characteristic will be appreciated. The lamp can only be filled when it is extinguished, and thus the chances of explosion are practically obviated. A burner of twelve lines will give double the light of a moderator of the same capacity, and cost only a penny or less per hour. The light is perfectly still and clear.
A NEW TAP.
This new tap is the invention of M. Guyonnet, a Frenchman. The illustration (fig. 890) gives a very good idea of its construction, and it permits the gradual release of the liquid without any of the sudden rush which ordinary taps, or “bungs,” are apt to do. The plug is covered with indiarubber, and follows a double curve, which reduces the force of the liquid, and the indiarubber removes any incrustation from the bung hole into which it may be fitted, and closes the aperture effectively without force.
In order to guard against a contingency, which, however, is an unlikely one, the “envelope” (casing) has been made in two pieces, one of which can never be displaced; the head only can be moved, and it is easily detached. The plug adapts itself to the aperture as a button to the buttonhole, and only costs about three halfpence (15 centimes). Ice has no effect upon the aperture of the barrel, thanks to the indiarubber covering of the plug. So, altogether, such a tap will be found useful and very cheap.
THE TRAPEZE AND SWING.
We may here notice the simple trapeze and swing for children, which can be easily fitted up in any house between two rooms. The advantages of gymnastics for the young are incontestable, but practically there are difficulties in the way, particularly for those living in towns, but a skilful American has solved the problem in an ingenious way. He has found means to suspend the trapeze and a swing between the doorposts of a room without nails or any unsightly wood supports. The trapeze is simply suspended as represented in the accompanying illustrations.
The bar, B (see fig. 892), is of wood, terminating in screws enclosed in the grooves of the wood, at the extremity of which indiarubber discs are fixed (C and C´). When the bar is placed between the side posts of the open door and with the indiarubber in contact with the sides, the bar, B, is vigorously screwed in the direction of the arrow, and this motion is transmitted to the indiarubber discs which press against the door, and the apparatus remains fixed. The trapeze cords, or the swing ropes, can be fastened to the bar with hooks, as shown in the illustration, and the solidity and safety of the bar may be tested by putting heavy weights upon the ropes before venturing upon the swing, or trapeze. Even violent exercises may be indulged in without any fear of falling if the bar be firmly screwed against the sides of the door.
SIMPLE TOYS.
The accompanying illustration shows us a circlet of paper, very thin, fastened upon a frame, with paper wings fixed to the radii. This “screw” fashioned wings and the circlet can be kept up in the air by means of a hand screen. The effect will be observable in the rapid revolution of the little paper wheel, which must be very light and thin. (See fig. 893.)
There are many toys which can be controlled by the use of indiarubber springs. The bicyclist in the cut (fig. 894) is an instance in point. He turns around a pivot, and the tension of the spring keeps the machine in its place.
The swimming-fish (fig. 895) is moved by an indiarubber spring, much as the drawing-room kite is elevated in the air. The spring of indiarubber is twisted to make the fish swim, and the caoutchouc is adapted to a toothed wheel which has a clock-work motion that gives the tail a motion sideways and round, acting like a propeller, and thus the fish swims.
It is perhaps as well to say how these fish are managed, because then children will not break them, when they have been purchased, to see what is inside. Very young students are very fond of analyses of this nature, but synthesis, or putting together, is a far superior occupation in these circumstances to analysis, and to put together more lawful than to pull asunder.
TREE-FELLING BY STEAM.
The machine constructed a few years ago by Messrs. Ransome, and which was tried at Roupell Park, near London, seems to combine all the desiderata in the matter of mechanical tree-felling. Many experiments have been previously made by people to cut down trees by means of steam machinery, but none of them included all the conditions necessary for success. The Ransome Machine cut down four large trees in forty minutes.
The apparatus, as shown in the illustration, is not unlike, in appearance, the perforating machines employed in boring rocks, in which the drill is replaced by a saw. The cylinder is small, and works at high pressure; a piston moves the saw in a guide-frame. The machine is firmly fixed against the tree, and the support is fastened by a chain.
A rack arrangement provides for the turning of the machine as the saw continues to cut its way through the trunk of the tree.
The weight is not excessive, and the necessary steam is supplied by a portable furnace and boiler, which communicates with the saw-motion by a flexible tube. The saw can cut through a horizontal as well as through a perpendicular trunk—thus timber can be rapidly cut up.
Another ingenious sawing machine is that invented by Mr. W. W. Giles, of Chicago, United States, America. This apparatus is about eight feet long, and one extremity is fixed to the trunk of the tree to be operated on.
The operator sits upon a ledge or saddle at the opposite end, and putting his feet upon the treadles, pushes them and the saw forward; this movement is assisted by the weight of the hands on the lever. The saw, under these circumstances, cuts into the wood with great force, and when the operator pushes the lever forward he brings the force of his legs to bear at the same time, and carries the saw back again. So feet, hands, dead weight with the saw itself, combine at once upon the tree, and the blade quickly does its work. The saw is three feet long and is very easily manipulated.
A WAY OF PRESERVING GRAPES.
Remarkable progress has been made of late years in the conservation of various articles of food, and we may here speak of the preservation of the grape.
We will first mention M. R. Charmoux’s method, which is called the “Fresh Grape” system. The portion of the building used for the business is on the first floor, as nearly as possible in the centre of the building, so as to be guarded from damp. Two windows are sufficient for all purposes, one to the north, and one to the south. They may be merely kept shut on ordinary occasions, but when frost comes they must be draped and “packed” with nets filled with moss or dried seaweed. The principal one of the windows is to admit of the cleansing of the room and for the admission of air in the summer time, when there are not many grapes left.
In winter the apartment may be warmed by hot air, and if this cannot be managed the ordinary means must be resorted to to keep up the temperature. The upper clusters of grapes should first be picked, for shade conduces to longevity of the fruit, and the 20th October is about the time to commence. A fine day should be chosen; a cloudy day will suit provided there is no dew or dampness in the air.
The finest bunches are cut first, and care must be taken to separate them at the end of the stalk, having three “eyes” under the grape and two above it. The leaves should be at once cut off, and the grapes put with great caution into boxes or baskets to be taken to the preserving house, where each stalk is plunged into a phial holding about 125 grammes of water, into which, two or three days previously, a teaspoonful of wood charcoal has been put.
The phials are suspended as shown in the accompanying illustration (fig. 899), and then certain precautions must be observed: they must not be disturbed, nor must any draught be admitted, as the temperature must not descend below 1° to 2° cent. There is no necessity to change the water in the bottles; very little will evaporate between November and May, when the process ought to be finished, but the phials must neither be corked nor concealed.
In the dry process the same house can be used, and stagings are employed. These frames are furnished with grooved boxes inclined towards each other, and lined with very dry fern-leaves or straw (fig. 900). Some days after the phials have been filled cut the grapes successively at the first time, which generally begins about the 6th to the 12th of November. The grapes are then put in baskets and carefully carried to the preserving room, where they are ranged in the boxes so as not to touch. Each box contains about six kilogrammes of grapes.
All the time of the conservation process care must be taken to eradicate all grapes which change colour or alter in any way. If dampness be feared have a lighted stove in the room for a time. Grapes are also preserved en espalier, but not so well. Sometimes a mouldy smell will be perceived in the room; to prevent this ventilators should be placed in the ceiling, which must, however, never be opened until the mouldy smell renders such a proceeding absolutely necessary.
LX. SOME CURIOUS MODES OF TRANSIT
We have already noticed some novel means of locomotion in the water and in the air, and now a few of the means whereby locomotion is attained as a recreation or as an exhibition may be mentioned.
For instance, here is a very curious vehicle, and the explanation of it we give in the words of the anonymous inventor:—
“My vehicle will carry four people without counting the driver. It is strong, easy to draw, and can turn in a horse’s length. The driver completely controls the animal, and no dust is thrown up to inconvenience the sitters, for by the time it rises the car is well in advance of it. It is cheap; the harness is simple and safe. The horse is sheltered from heat and rain and flies. If he should fall, there is no more than ordinary danger to life and limb than if he fell in a carriage; and, last of all, no very showy animal is needed, so long as his wind is sound, and his legs and tail respectable. Travellers in this “trap” can sit in any position, back to back, or face to face, two and two. The weight is all near the collar, and the animal is under control most perfectly.
“The estimated cost is £40; the horse about £40, or less; harness (say), £7, which contrasts favourably with the expenses of an ordinary one horse vehicle.”
ENDLESS RAILS.
These adjuncts to locomotion can be adapted to any kind of vehicle, and are in pieces about two feet long, articulated, and resting upon a base to give the necessary stability. The endless rail entirely envelopes the wheels all along the train, and the right and left rails are quite independent of each other, and as the vehicles advance the rails are put down and raised again when the carriages have passed. In front there are two distributing wheels governed by the tractive power, so that as the engine, or the animal drawing the train turns aside, the rails are still laid down parallel as before, but the hind wheels will not permit of very sharp curves.
There are wheels also at the rear of the train, and as on curves one wheel will pass over more rail than another, and in the hinder wheels a differential arrangement is used, and when one goes back the other advances as much, and so the relative distance is kept up, for the rail does not alter in length at all. The wheels have double flanges to retain them on the line.
The system, considered from a mechanical point of view, gives striking results, and very little effort is required to put the train in motion. The resistance is very small, and much greater weights can, of course, be transported upon the endless rail than upon the ordinary road.
The experiment has been tried in the Tuilleries Gardens in Paris. Three carriages filled with children are drawn by two goats without any fatigue, and in the ordinary goat carriages at least twelve of the animals would be necessary—that is, four to each carriage. The economy of this mode of transport is therefore incontestable. The usual rate is about three-and-a-half to four miles an hour, so it is not adapted for travellers, but for merchandise.
The system might be applied to numerous vehicles on all kinds of roads for horses and oxen, in mines and factories, and in colonial plantations. M. Ader, the inventor, intended the system to be applied in the Landes, where the rails would lie close upon the sandy soil, and the expense of “metalling” roads would be entirely done away with. The adoption of the endless rail method of conveyance would prove a fortune to the Landes, where pine forests abound, and the wood and resin which is lost for want of transport could be removed and sold to advantage.
The endless rail may also be used upon the ordinary road in places where the highways are out of repair.
THE SMALLEST STEAMBOAT IN THE WORLD.
The picture (fig. 904) shows us the Nina, the tiniest steamer afloat. The keel is somewhat over twelve feet in length, and about three feet wide, the depth of water ten inches. A speed of about five-and-a-half miles an hour can be obtained with a pressure of one hundred pounds. It is a twin-screw “ship” with propellers of three blades. The Nina was built on the lines of the Nautilus, of cedar and oak, and coppered. It is stated to be a marvel of solidity and lightness. The chimney is movable, and can be lowered at pleasure if a bridge be too low. There is ample room for provisions for the occupant in a frame which can be attached to the sides or fixed astern. The boat is easily carried in sections, and can be transported easily from place to place.
The weights of the various portions are as follows:—The hull 90 lb., boiler 80 lb., engine 25 lb., machinery 20 lb.; total, 215 lb. Forty pounds of good charcoal can be packed into the sides of the boat in racks. The rudder can be so connected by wires that the feet will perform the function of steering, thus leaving the hands free to attend to the engine, so the occupant is perfectly at liberty to go where and how he pleases.
For river navigation or calm sea-steaming the Nina is admirably adapted, and any one who can be stoker, steersman, and engineer, as well as passenger and crew, will enjoy a trip in such a boat. Such a steamer costs about £250, but it might be less. It may be added that the Nina has uniformly behaved well, and was built by Fordham of New York.
A MECHANICAL CARRIAGE.
A distinguished savant of the seventeenth century, Ozanam by name, a member of the Academy of Science, gave in 1693 a curious description of a mechanical carriage, which may perhaps be regarded as the parent of the velocipede and the bicycle. We here reproduce the engravings from Ozanam’s work and his words.
“Some years ago,” wrote the philosopher in 1693, “there may have been seen in Paris a chaise,” as in the picture, “and which a servant, by pressing alternately upon treadles” (as in the detail), “caused to progress by turning two small wheels hidden in a frame between the hinder pair of wheels of the chaise. The description I give as I received it from M. Richard, the doctor of Rochelle.
“A A is a roller attached to the box behind the vehicle, B is a pulley, over which the cord that works with the treadles passes; C and D are the treadles, with pedals, F F. The wheels, H H, being thus put in motion, the large wheels are moved, and when the hind wheels move forward, the foremost ones must advance also, and the sitter has only to guide the machine by the reins he holds attached to the guiding axle.”
THE END.
INDEX.
Aberration, Chromatic, 104.
” of sphericity, 105.
Absorption of light, 95.
Acid, Acetic, 411.
” Citric, 414.
” Formic, 415.
” Lactic, 415.
” Malic, 414.
” Oxalic, 414.
” Tannic, 414.
” Tartaric, 414.
Acoustics, Instruments for, 180.
” The science of, 166.
Actinozoa, The, 710.
Action and reaction, 35.
” Catalytic, 328.
” Electro-chemical, 220.
Adhesion of fluids, 25.
Aerolites, Meteorites or, 493.
Age, The great ice, 595.
Agricultural, Science in, 7.
Air, Composition of, 340.
” Composition of the, 45.
” As motive power, 57.
” Experiments with, 45.
” Movement by heat, 82.
” Pressure of, in bodies, 292.
” ” on mountains, 55.
” ” the, 45.
” Science in open, 6.
” Weight of the, 50.
” pump, Experiments, 45.
” ” Description, 51.
” ” Sprengel’s, 51.
Alarum lamp, A new, 760.
Albumen, 422.
Alchemists, Celebrated, 336.
Alchemy, 336.
Alcoholic thermometers, 80.
Alcohol, 419.
Alembic, The, 357.
Algæ, Mosses and, 688.
Alkali, Definition of an, 310.
Alphabets, Telegraphic, 238, 241.
Alps, Electric clouds in the, 291.
Alum, 440.
Aluminum, 393, 439.
Amber, 421.
Amebæ, The, 705.
Ammonia, Uses of, 361.
Ammonite, 18.
Ammonium, 393, 437.
” never found, 365.
Amorphous crystals, 431.
Anæsthetic, A new, 13.
Analysis of chance, 726.
” Spectrum, 145.
Anamorphoses, 135.
Anatomy of the eye, 102.
Anemones, Sea, 710.
Angles, how to measure, 474.
Animal electricity, 283.
Animals, Classifications of, 701.
” Vertebrate, etc., 700.
Annelidæ, The, 714.
Annulosa, The, 714.
Anthelion, An, 300.
Antimony, Uses of, 404, 446.
Apparatus for Botanists, 17.
” Geologists, 17.
” Mineralogists, 17.
Appliances, Astronomical, 557.
Aqua regia, 325.
Aquarium, A home-made, 9.
Aquarius constellation, 540.
Aquatic experiments, 9.
Arachnida, The, 723.
Arc, Voltaic, 223.
Archimedes, Principle of, 68.
” Story of, 68.
Areometer, Use of the, 27.
Aries, Constellation, 536.
Arsenic, 386, 446.
Artesian wells, 604.
Ascents, Celebrated balloon, 301.
Ascent, Gay-Lussac’s, 298.
Astatic galvanometer, The, 227.
Asteroids, The, 527.
Astræa, Discovery of, 528.
Astronomers, Celebrated, 468.
Astrology, Early practice of, 467.
Astronomy, Definition of, 466.
” History of, 466.
” Terms used in, 471.
Atmosphere, Composition of, 340.
” the same, 628.
Atmospheric boat, The, 452.
” electricity, 283.
Atom, Definition of an, 309.
Atomic or combining weight, 309.
” theory, The, 309.
Attraction, Capillary, 25, 64.
” Chemical, 25.
” Molecular, 65.
” of cohesion, 24.
Audiphone, The, 185.
” Uses of the, 185.
Augites, 439.
Aurora borealis, Cause of, 646.
Autophone, Principle of, 184.
” Use of the, 183.
Axis, Floral, 679.
Azimuth compass, The, 260.
Azote, 359.
Balance, Chemists’, 26.
” Hydrostatic, 26.
” Laws of, 25.
Balard, Experiments of, 27.
Ballooning, Sensational, 302.
Balloons, Accidents to, 297.
” Early ascents in, 296.
” Endeavours to steer, 306.
” Filling, 305.
” Principle of, 305.
Band, A phantom, 196.
Barium, 393.
Barometer, Aneroid, The, 53.
” Glycerine, The, 54.
” Pascal’s, 52.
” Weather forecasts, 652.
Barometers, Various, 53.
Barytes, 393, 438.
Bases, Definitions of, 310, 415.
Batteries, Different galvanic, 222.
Battery, electric, Description, 208.
Beaches, Mirage on, 18.
Bear, The Great, 542.
Bell, diving, The, described, 56.
Bernard Palissy, Saying of, 1.
Bessemer process, The, 399.
Bicyclist, A toy, 765.
Binocular vision, 141.
Biology, Meaning of, 658.
Bird, M. Tatin’s artificial, 451.
Birds, Mechanical, 449.
Blue John, 395.
” Lias, The, 586.
Boat, Atmospheric, 452.
Bores, or tidal waves, 613.
Boron, 386.
” Mineral nature of, 435.
”Boss” puzzle, The, 731.
Botanists, Apparatus for, 17.
Botany, Introduction to, 657.
Boxes, Scientific money, 745.
Breezes, Sea and land, 630.
British Isles, Date of the, 593.
Bromine, where found, 367.
Bronze Age, The, 598.
Bulb, What is a, 667.
” Wollaston’s, 91.
Bullets formed by electricity, 264.
Bunter formation, The, 585.
Buoyancy of water, The, 67.
Burglar-detector, A new, 195.
Butterflies, Capture of, 16.
Cabinets, Optical, 98.
Cadot’s clock, 752.
Cæsum, 393.
Calamine, 403.
Calcium, 393, 437.
Calculation, Machine for, 755.
Caloric, Theory of, 72.
Calyx, The, 675.
Cambrian system, 575.
Camera obscura, The, 140.
” photographic, The, 151.
Camphor, 421.
Campylometer, Construction, 750.
” Use of the, 749.
Cancer, Constellation, 538.
Candle, The burning of, 155.
Capillarity, 25.
” Description of, 64, 25.
Capillary attraction, 64, 25.
Capricornus, Constellation, 539.
Carbon, Importance of, 368.
” Mineral nature of, 435.
Carbonic acid, 343.
” Danger of, 374.
Carboniferous formation, The, 578.
Carbonization, Slow, 423.
Card, to perforate by electricity, 215.
Caseine, 422.
Castelli, Experiment of, 78.
Catalepsy, How to induce, 12.
” in fowls, 12.
Cataleptic fowl, The, 12.
Cell, A botanical, 661.
Cells, Animal, 704.
” Plant, 661.
Cellular tissues, 661.
Cementation, 398.
Centre of Gravity, 25.
” magnitude, 34.
” parallel forces, 34.
Centrifugal force, 43.
Cephalopods, 725.
Ceres, Discovery of, 528.
Chalk, Fossils of the, 589.
Chance, Analysis of, 726.
Chemical attraction, 25.
Chemistry, Early history of, 336.
” Introduction to, 307.
” Organic, 410.
” Sleight of hand and, 335.
” The science of, 22.
” without a laboratory, 313.
Children,, Simply-made toys for, 764.
” Trapeze and swing for, 763.
Chladni’s figures, 195.
Chlorine, 366.
” Uses of, 367.
Chloroform, Use of, 420.
Chlorophane, 333.
Chlorophyl, Definition of, 660.
Chromatic aberration, 104.
Chromosphere, The sun’s, 499.
Chromium, 404, 446.
Chromograph, The, 748.
Chronograph, The, 478.
Chronometers, Solar, Use of, 563.
Circles, Optical illusions with, 131.
Circulating fountain, The, 454.
Cirripeds, The, 723.
Classification of animals, 701.
” plants, 694.
Clay, Uses of, 321.
Cleavage attribute of minerals, 432.
Clepsydra, The, 479.
Climate, Differences in, 653.
” Meaning of the term, 652.
Climatology, 651.
Clock, A cosmographical, 559.
” Cadot’s, 752.
” Houdin’s, 752.
” Roberts’, 753.
Clock-lamp, A, 759.
Clocks, Ancient, 479.
” Mysterious, 752.
” Watches and, 479.
Clouds, Causes of, 634.
” Classification of, 635.
” Electricity in, 287.
” Vapour and, 634.
Coal, Formation of, 375.
Coal found in basins, 581.
” measures, Animal life of, 578.
” period, Plants of the, 80.
Cobalt, Nickle and, 401, 445.
Cock, A cataleptic, 12.
Cohesion attribute of minerals, 431.
” Attraction of, 24.
Coke ovens, 370.
Coleoptera, The, 720.
Collection of insects, 8.
Colouring of flowers, Artificial, 329.
Colours, Star, 548.
Coma, 416.
Combustion, 345.
Comets, Celebrated, 492.
” distinguished by, 491.
Commutator, The, 236.
Compass, Azumith, The, 260.
” Invention of the, 259.
” Mariners’, To make, 201.
” Ordinary form of the, 259.
Compensation in optics, 132.
Composition of the atmosphere, 340.
Conduction of electricity, 202.
Conductors, electric, List of, 210.
” Heat, 89.
Constellations, Northern, 541.
” Southern, 543.
” The chief, 536.
Copper, 401, 445.
Coral insect, The, 620.
” islands, 619.
Corals, 710.
Cords, Knots, and puzzles, 775.
Corolla, The, 675.
Cost of light, 101.
Crabs, 723.
” Hermit, 723.
Crust, The earth’s, 566.
Crustacea, The, 722.
Crystallization, Instantaneous, 319.
Crystallography, 424.
” The study of, 427.
Crystals, Definition of term, 426.
” Forms of, 427.
” Systems of, 427, et. seq.
Cucumbers, Sea, 714.
Cups, Volta’s crown of, 220.
Curiosity, The age of, 8.
Currents, Air, winds, and, 629.
Curves, Various sound, 176.
Cyanogen, 378.
Daguerreotypes described, 152.
Dark spot, The, 134.
Dazzling top, The, 128.
Dead Sea, Drowning in the, 67.
Decomposition, 423.
Definition of physics, 22.
Definitions, Scientific, 4.
Density, Laws about, 24.
Despatch, The pneumatic, 57.
Devonian system, 576.
Dew, Hail and, 641.
Diamonds, Cutting of, 369.
Dip, Magnetic, 256.
Discharges, Electric, 214.
Discoveries, Astronomical, 468.
Discs, Rotating use of, 108.
Distances, Measurement of, 482.
Distillation, Sublimation and, 86.
Dogs, New work for, 758.
Double stars, List of, 547.
Dress, Boyton’s swimming, 460.
Drops, Prince Rupert’s, 81.
Drummond light, The, 160.
Dunes, History of the, 615.
Dyes, Hair, 326.
Ear, Anatomy of the, 166.
Earth, Constitution of the, 568.
” Crust of the, 566.
” Facts about the, 508.
” Formation of the, 566.
” Form of the, 504.
” Latitude and longitude of, 504.
” Motion of the, 504.
” Rate of motion of the, 504.
” Stoppage of the, 507.
” Track of the, 506.
Earthquakes, Motion of, 623.
” Volcanoes and, 620.
Ebullition, 83.
” Temperature for, 83.
Echo, Causes of, 171.
” Definition of an, 171.
Eclipses, Causes of, 518.
” Lunar, 519.
” Solar, 519.
Ecliptic, The, 497.
Egg, electric, The, 214.
Elasticity, Motion by, 36.
Electric egg, The, 214.
” light, How to produce, 265.
” machine, To make an, 207.
” pen, The, 248.
” toys, 279.
Electricity a mystery, 197.
” Animal and other, 282.
” Conduction of, 202.
” decomposes water, 226.
” Derivation of, 197.
” Domestic lighting by, 271.
” in clouds, 287.
” in medicine, 230.
” Negative and positive, 203.
” Novel applications of, 250.
” not to be played with, 205.
” Static and dynamic, 209.
” Velocity of, 212.
Electro-magnetism, 255, 260.
Electro-motograph, The, 262.
Electroplating, 227.
Electrotyping, 229.
Electrodes, Poles or, 221.
Electrolysis, 226.
Electrometer, Torsion, The, 209.
Electrophorus, How to make, 198.
” Peiffer’s, 279.
Electroscope, To make an, 206.
Elements, Definition of the, 307.
” Electrical relation, 410.
” Phial of the four, 47.
” Table of the, 308.
Emulsion process, The, 153.
Encrinites, The, 713.
Endless rails, Use of, 771.
Endogens, Enogens and, 665.
Endosmose, 663, 692.
Energy changed into heat, 91.
Entozoa, The, 716.
Eocene formation, The, 591.
Epidermis of plants, 664.
Epsom salts, 395.
Equator, Magnetic, 256.
Equilibrium, Laws of, 28.
Equatorial, The, 478.
Equinoctial, The, 495.
Equinoxes, Precession of the, 497.
” Solstices and, 496.
Eruption, Signs of an, 621.
Estimation, ocular, Illusions of, 116.
Ether, 419.
” Stillness of, 168.
” The nature of, 93.
Eudrometer, Use of the, 353.
Europe, Geological date of, 593.
Eusthenes, Experiment by, 38.
Evaporation defined, 83.
” Laws of, 84.
Exogens, Endogens and, 665.
Experiments, Some of Edison’s, 269.
Eye, Accommodation in the, 103.
” Light in the, 142.
” The, an optical instrument, 102.
Faculae, what they are, 498.
Fata Morgana, The, 649.
Felspars, 442.
Fertilization of plants, 682.
Fibrine, 422.
Figures, Chladni’s, 195.
Fiords, Norwegian, 615.
Fire, Green, 393.
” Red, 395.
Fish, A fossil, 577.
” Electric, 284.
” Magic, 281.
” New swimming toy, 765.
” Star, 713.
Fishes, how they breathe, 358.
Fixed stars, The, 535.
Flames, Sensitive, 195.
” Singing, 195.
Flowers, artificial, Colouring of, 329.
” what are they, 675.
Fluorine, 368.
Flying, Earliest attempts at, 294.
Foraminifera, The, 705.
Force, Centrifugal, 43.
” Definition of a, 4.
Forces, Natural, 22.
” Parallel centre of, 34.
Formation, Carboniferous, 578.
” Eocene, 591.
” Jurassic, 586.
” Lias, 586.
” Maestricht, 590.
” Miocene, 593.
” Oolite, 586.
” Permian, 582.
” Trias, 585.
” Wealden, 588.
Fountain, Circulating, 453.
Fracture, attribute of minerals, 433.
Franklin, Experiments of, 205.
Fraunhofer, Discovery of, 143.
Freezing machinery, 363.
” mixtures, 89.
Friction, Definition of, 40.
” Inertia and, 35, et sq.
Frogs, Electrified, 217.
” Tree, 11.
Fruit, Definition of, 684.
” How formed, 683.
Fruits produced by one carpel, 685.
” ” several, 685.
Fulgarites, 644.
Fungi, 690.
” Destructive, 690.
” Edible, 691.
” Propagation of the, 692.
Fusee, The, 481.
Fusion, Definition of, 88.
Future ages, The, 599.
Galaxy, The, 553.
Galena, Use of, 401.
Galileo, Tube of, 148.
Galleries, Whispering, 172.
Galvani, defeated by Volta, 218.
” Discovery of, 217.
Galvanometer, Astatic, 227.
” Pungent, 227.
” , Use of the, 223.
Galvanoscope, The, 227.
Game, The needle, 729.
Games, Mathematical, 726.
Garnets, Mineral nature of, 442.
Gas, Coal, 375.
” companies’ profits, 377.
” Definition of, 4.
” harmonicon, The, 351.
” Laughing, 361.
” Marsh, 347.
Gases, Liquids and, 44.
Gauges, Rain, 638.
Gazogene, Use of the, 373.
Gemini, Constellation, 537.
Gems, The precious, 443.
Generation of heat, 77.
Generator, gramme, The, 268.
Geography, Geology and, 564.
” Physical, 601.
” Sources of, 603.
Geologists, Apparatus for, 17.
Geology, what it teaches, 565.
Germany, experiment in, 13.
Geysers, The, 605.
” Theory of the, 84.
Ghost, Pepper’s, 138.
” stories, 161.
Ghosts, Explanations about, 161.
” substantial, 142.
Gilding, Processes of, 407.
Glacial period, Cause of the, 595.
” The, 595.
Glaciers, Ice-rivers and, 606.
Glass, Facts about, 384.
” perforated by electricity, 215.
Glauber’s salt, 393.
Globe, Motion of the, 504.
” Spherical form of the, 504.
Globes, terrestrial, Use of, 562.
Gold, Nuggets of, 407, 447.
” resists acid, 325.
” the king of metals, 325.
Goniometer, Use of the, 431.
Gramme generator, The, 268.
Grapes, method of preserving, 768.
Grapes, Room for preserving, 768.
Graphite, Plumbago or, 370.
Gravitation, Force of, 4, 486.
” Laws of, 2.
Gravity, Centre of, 25.
” less in the air, 24.
” same in all bodies, 24.
Green fire, 393.
Grit, Millstone, 581.
Grotto del Cave, The, 374.
Gulf Stream, The, 618.
Gum, 418.
Gymnotus, Electricity of the, 284.
Gyroscope, Principle of the, 277.
” The, 742.
” The electric, 743.
Hail, Dew and, 641.
Halos, Lunar, 648.
Harmonograph, Construction, 175.
Havre, Mirage at, 19.
Heat, a series of vibrations, 74.
” Absorption of, 75.
” Conduction of, 89.
” Definition of, 72.
” Development of, 77.
” Expansion by, 81, 82.
” Generation of, 77.
” How to study, 75.
” Latent, 89.
” light and, Connection of, 94.
” Mechanical equivalents, 74.
” Material theory of, 72.
” produces changes of state, 89.
” Radiant, 90.
” Reflection and refraction, 92.
” Science of, 72.
” Sources of, 77.
” Specific, 88.
” spectrum, The, 146.
” the movement of particles, 91.
” Theory of, 72.
History, Natural, 4.
Holland, Sailing on land in, 463.
Home-made aquarium, A, 9.
Hope, Mathematical, 727.
” Moral, 727.
Horn, Alexander’s, 183.
Hornblend, 439.
Horoscopes, Early study of, 467.
Horses, Electric government of, 250.
Houdin’s clock, 752.
Household, Scientific objects for, 747.
Hydraulic Lift, The, 71.
” press, The, 61.
Hydraulics, 70.
Hydrogen, Apparatus for, 322.
” Bubbles of, 351.
” How to generate, 350.
Hydrometers, Table of, 420.
Hydrophilus, The, 10.
Hydrostatics, Principles of, 61.
Hydrozoa, The, 708.
Hymenoptera, The, 721.
Hypnotism, 13.
Ice, How to freeze, 76.
” The age of, 595.
Ice-rivers, Glaciers and, 606.
Ice-yachts, Canadian, 463.
Iceland, Geysers in, 605.
Igneous rocks, 571.
Illusions, Optical, 116.
” ” More about, 129.
Images, Accidental, 112.
Implements, Neolithic, 598.
” Palæolithic, 598.
Inclination, Magnetic, 256.
Indicator, Use of the celestial, 558.
Inertia, Definition of, 5.
” Experiments in, 37.
” Friction and, 35, et sq.
” Laws of, 35.
Inflorescence, 679.
” Varieties of, 680.
Infusoria, Divisions of the, 707.
” How to capture, 15.
” Origin of, 707.
” Study of, 7.
Inks, how made, 414.
Insects, 717.
” Anatomy of, 717.
” Collection of, 8.
” Eyes of, 718.
” Feet of, 718.
” Orders of, 720.
” Palace for, 10.
” Preservation of, 8.
” Transformations of, 719.
Insulators, electric, List of, 210.
Integrator, Boys’ mechanical, 264.
Intensity of sound, 171.
Iodine, 368.
Iron age, The, 598.
” Bar, 397.
” Mineral nature of, 443.
” Ores of, 444.
” Pig or cast, 397.
” Pyrophoric, 322.
” unites with oxygen, 321.
” whence obtained, 396.
Irradiation, Laws of, 106.
Islands, Coralline, 619.
Isoclinic lines, 257.
Isodynamic lines, 257.
Isogenic lines, 257.
Jar, Leyden, Home-made, 199.
Jardin, The, near Chamouni, 607.
Jelly-fish, 709,.
Jersey, Mirage in, 19.
Juggling, Balance experiments, 31.
Juno, Discovery of, 528.
Jupiter, Appearance of, 530.
” Moons of, 529.
” The planet, 528.
Jurassic formation, The, 586.
Keuper formation, The, 585.
Kinetic theory, The, 72.
Kite, A new, 448.
” Franklin’s, 286.
Knots and cords, Puzzle of, 775.
Laboratory, Chemistry without, 313.
Lactoscope, The, 157.
Ladd, Lontin and, 275.
Lakes, 627.
Lamp, A good petroleum, 761.
” A new alarum, 760.
” Dobereiner’s, 408.
” Gay-Lussac’s, 327.
” The Edison, 269.
” The safety, 347.
” The Swan, 271.
Land, Sailing on, 463.
” Water and, 603.
Lantern, Magic, 158.
Lapis-lazuli, 442.
Latent heat, 89.
Latex, what it is, 663.
Latitude, Longitude and, 505.
Laughing gas, 361.
Laurentian system, The, 573.
Lead, 401, 446.
” Crystallization of, 323.
Leaning, Laws concerning, 33.
” towers, Laws of, 33.
Leaves, Anatomy of, 671.
” Arrangement of, 673.
” The, 670.
” Varieties of, 671.
” Various, 150.
Leech, The, 714.
Lenses, Description of various, 150.
Leo, Constellation, 538.
Lepidoptera, The, 721.
Leyden jar, To make a, 199.
Lias, The, 586.
Libra, Constellation, 539.
Lichens, 689.
Lift, Hydraulic, 71.
Light, a vibratory motion, 93.
” Absorption of, 95.
” and its sources, 93.
” Cost of, 101.
” Decomposition of, 143.
” Definition of, 93.
Lightning, Different kinds of, 289.
Light distributed in rays, 94.
” electric, How to produce, 265.
” ” First discovery of, 221.
” heat and, Connection of, 94.
” in the eye, 142.
” of an electric spark, 119.
” oxy-hydrogen, The, 160.
” Polarization of, 155.
” producer of life, 660.
” Reflection of, 95.
” Refraction of, 96.
” Velocity of, 94.
” what made up of, 143.
” Zodiacal, 500.
Lightning, Forked and sheet, 289.
” Colour of, 288.
Lights, Bengal, how made, 404.
” Comparison of, 99.
Lime, Salts of, 393, 437.
Lines, Isoclinic, 257.
” Isodynamic, 257.
” Isogonic, 257.
” Isothermal, 653.
” oblique, Influence of, 121.
Linnæan system, The, 695.
Liquids, Definition of, 4.
” Displacement of, 69.
” Gases and, 44.
Lithium, 393.
Longitude, Latitude and, 505.
Lontin, Ladd and, 275.
Ludion, The, 57.
Luminous paint, 160.
” surfaces, Laws of, 107.
Machine, electric, To make an, 207.
” Tree-felling, 767.
” Writing, 246.
Machines, Electro-magnetic, 272.
Maestricht formation, The, 590.
Magic squares, 732.
” top, The, 740.
Magnesian limestone, The, 583.
Magnesium, 395, 439.
Magnet, A natural, 231.
” Definition of a, 231.
Magnetic dip, The, 256.
” inclination, 256.
Magnetism, Electro, 255.
” Terrestrial, 645.
Magnetization, 232.
Magnets in ancient times, 254.
Magnitude, Centre of, 34.
Man, cave, The, 598.
” during the Glacial Period, 597.
” prehistoric, 597.
” river-drift, The, 598.
Manganese, 400, 445.
Mars, Moons round, 526.
” The planet, 523.
Mathematical games, 726.
Matter, Definition of, 4.
Medullary rays, The, 669.
Medusæ, The, 709.
” Phosphorescence of, 740.
Megaphone, Mr. Edison’s, 183.
Membrane tympani, The, 166.
Menagerie for insects, 10.
Menisques in a barometer, 65.
Mercury, All about, 521.
” Fulminating, 420.
” Uses of, 405, 446.
Mesozoic period, The, 584.
Metals, Characteristics of, 388.
” Classification of, 389, 409.
” Common and precious, 320.
” in the spectroscope, 146.
” Noble, 405.
” Specific gravity of, 389.
” what they are, 388.
Meteorites, aerolites, or, 493.
Meteorology, 628.
” Phenomena of, 20.
Meteors, what are they? 490.
Mica, 443.
Microscope, Invention of the, 149.
” periscopic, The, 150.
” The spectrum, 147.
Microscopes, Reflecting, 150.
Milk, Constituents of, 422.
” Sugar of, 423.
Milky way, The, 553.
Millstone grit, 581.
Mineralogists, Apparatus for, 17.
Mineralogy, Crystallography, 424.
Mineral waters, 372.
Minerals, Amorphous, 431.
” Classification of, 424, 425.
” Definition of the term, 424.
” Synoptical table of the, 435.
Miocene formation, The, 593.
Mirage at Havre, 19.
” Cause of, 649.
” in Jersey, 19.
” on beaches, 18.
Mirrors, Remarks on, 95.
Mistral, The, 631.
Mixtures, Freezing, 89.
Molecule, Definition of a, 309.
Molluscs, 724.
Money-boxes, Scientific, 745.
Montgolfier, Discovery of, 2.
” Early balloons of, 295.
Monsoon, The, 630.
Moon, Description of the, 510.
” Eclipses of the, 519.
” Influences of on weather, 652.
” its influence on the tides, 517.
” Motion of the, 513.
” Phases of the, 515.
” Rate of progression of the, 513.
” Superstitions concerning, 510, 513.
” Surface of the, 511.
” Planetary, 489.
Morphine, 416.
Morse system, The, 241.
Morse’s telegraph, 233.
Mosses, Algæ and, 688.
Motion, Causes of, 40.
” Definition of, 40.
” Perpetual, 41.
Mould, Vegetable, 690.
Mountain strata, Contortion of, 625.
” What is a, 624.
Mountains, Causes of, 624.
” Slopes of, 625.
Movements, Synthesis of, 124.
Multiplier, First use of the, 232.
Mural circle, The, 478.
Musical pitch, 193.
Muslin, Incombustible, 313.
Myriapoda, The, 716.
Natural History, 4.
” Philosophy, 4.
” system, The, 699.
Nature, Balance of, 617.
” Forces of, 22.
” Need for knowing about, 3.
” Nothing mute in, 21.
” Smooth polish of, 14.
” Phenomena of, 3.
” what it is, 2.
Near-sightedness, 140.
Nebulæ, 551.
Needle, Game of the, 729.
” The magnetic, 231.
” machine, The, 238.
Negative and positive electricity, 202.
Neptune, The planet, 534.
Nichol’s prism, 156.
Nicholson’s classes of plants, 702.
Nickel, cobalt and, 401, 445.
Nicotine, 416.
Nina, The, 773.
Nitrogen, 359.
” Compounds of, 359.
” Monoxide, 361.
Nitrogenous substances, 422.
Nodal points, The, 194.
Nodes of sound waves, 169.
Noise distinguished from sound, 167.
Nomenclature, Astronomical, 471.
Normandy, A trip in, 6.
Object, A natural, 3.
Oils, Fats and, 421.
”Old Red” a fresh-water deposit, 577.
Oolite formation, The, 586.
Opium, 416.
Optical cabinets, 98.
Optics, The science of, 93.
Organic chemistry, 410.
Orion constellation, 544.
Orthoptera, The, 721.
Oxidation, 349.
Oxygen, Discovery of, 348.
” consumed by breathing, 342.
” How to obtain, 348.
Oysters, Light from shells of, 160.
Ozone, Use of, 344.
Paint, Luminous, 160.
Palace, Insects, 10.
Palæozoic systems, 573.
Pallas, Discovery of, 528.
Paper wheel toy, 764.
Parachutes, Descents by, 304.
Parallax, Explanation of, 484.
” Illustrations of, 483.
” Use of, 485.
Para-magnetic and dia-magnetic, 258.
Paraselenæ, Cause of, 648.
Paris, Great snowfall in, 20.
Pedometer, The, 756.
Peiffer’s electrophorus, 279.
Pen, electric, The, 248.
Pencil, Edison’s Pneumatic, 454.
Pendulum, Description of the, 42.
” The, 481.
” Variations in the, 42.
Period, The Glacial, 595.
Permian formation, The, 582.
” ” Fauna of, 582.
Phantom band, A, 196.
Pharaoh’s serpents, 315.
Phases of the Moon, 515.
Phenakistoscope, The, 110, 121.
Phenomena, Atmospheric, 642.
” Chemical, 22.
” Meteorological, 20.
” Nature, 3.
” of contrast, 112, 113.
” Physical, 22.
Phial of the four elements, 47.
Philosophy, Natural, 4.
Phonograph, Edison’s, 190.
Phosphorescence, 331.
Phosphorus, Bologna, 333.
” how obtained, 381.
Photography, Camera for, 151.
” Instantaneous, 153.
Photometers, 101.
Photometry, 101.
Photophone, The, 155.
Photosphere, The, 499.
Phraseology, Chemical, 338.
Physics, Meaning of, 22.
” Mechanical, 31.
Pile, A microscopic, 200.
” hermetic, The, 283.
” Volta’s first, 219.
” Zamboni, 221.
Pins, scarf, Electrical, 281.
Pisces, Constellation, 540.
Pistil, The, 678.
Pistils, Use of, 665.
Pitch, Musical, 193.
Plains, 626.
Planet, The giant, 528.
Planets, Comparative sizes of, 487.
” List of the, 487.
” Minor, 489, 527.
” Moons of the, 489.
Plant, Definition of a, 661.
Plants, Classification of, 694.
” Flowering, 664.
” Growth of, 665.
” Monœcious, 681.
” Non-flowering, 686.
” Similarity of, to animals, 658.
” Structure of, 661.
Plateaus, Tablelands or, 626.
Plating, Electro, 227.
Platinum, All about, 327.
” Uses of, 408, 447.
Plumbago, Graphite or, 370.
Plutonic rocks, The, 601.
Pneumatic despatch, The, 57.
Polaris, The star, 542.
Polarization of light, 155.
Polarizer, Use of a, 156.
Poles, Electrodes or, 221.
Pompeii, Paintings at, 121.
Porcelain, Manufacture of, 441.
Porosity, Definition of, 5.
Positive and negative electricity, 202.
Portuguese man-of-war, The, 709.
Potassium, 390, 437.
” Compounds of, 391.
Praxinoscope, The, 110, 123.
” theatre, The, 126.
Prehistoric man, 597.
Preservation of insects, 8.
Press, Hydraulic, 61.
Pressure, Fluid application of, 63.
” on the ocean bed, 616.
Prism, Nichols’, 156.
Probabilities, Science of, 726.
Protoplasm, Definition of, 659.
Protozoa, Definition of, 704.
Protractor, Use of the, 475.
Pump, The common, 57.
Punctum cæcum, The, 134.
Puzzle, The ”Boss,” 731.
Pyrites, Crystallized, 18.
” Iron, 444.
Pyrometer, The, 91.
Quadrant, Use of the simple, 476.
Quarry, Derivation of the term, 427.
Quartz, Varieties of, 436.
Quicksilver. See Mercury.
Quinine, 416.
Radiant heat, 90.
Rain, Causes of, 637.
” Distribution of, 637.
” Measurement of, 638.
” water, The, 71.
River-beds, Slope of, 626.
Rainbow, The, 647.
Rays, Medullar, 669.
Reaction, Action and, 35.
Recreation, Science and, 1.
Red fire, 395.
Reflection of heat, 92.
” light, 95.
” sound, 171.
Refraction of heat, 92.
Reaction of, light, 96.
” sound, 171.
Refractions, Table of, 479.
Reptiles, The age of, 585.
Repulsion in air-particles, 48.
Ruins, 421.
Rest, No absolute, 40.
Rhizome, Definition of, 667.
Rhone, Colours of the, 570.
Robert’s clock, 753.
Robin’s spectres, 138.
Rocks, Acidic, 602.
” Basic, 602.
” Igneous, 571, 601.
” Plutonic, 601.
” Sedimentary, 570.
” Volcanic, 601.
Roots, Various, 666.
Rubidium, 393.
Sagittarius, Constellation, 539.
Sailing on railroads, 465.
Salt, Glauber’s, 393.
” Epsom, 395.
” what meant by in chemistry, 311.
Sandstone, Old Red, 576.
” Upper Red, 585.
Sassoline, Boron or, 435.
Satellites, Planetary, 489.
Saturn, Rings of, 532.
” Satellites of, 532.
” The planet, 532.
” Tree of, 323.
Sawing, Machine for, 767.
Scale, diagonal, Use of the, 477.
Scarf-pins, Electrical, 281.
Scavengers, Nature’s, 713.
Scenograph, Description, 153.
Scheele, Apparatus used by, 28.
Science and Recreation, 1.
” Definitions of, 1-5.
” Domestic economy and, 757.
” in the open air, 6.
Scorpio, Constellation, 539.
Sea, At the bottom of the, 615.
” Saltness of the, 610.
” The, 610.
” anemones, 710.
” bed, Irregularity of the, 617.
” cucumbers, 714.
” urchins, 712.
” water, Buoyancy of, 67.
” ” Composition of, 610.
Sealing-wax, Experiments with, 197.
Seasons, Recurrence of the, 507.
Sedimentary rocks, 570.
Selenium, 386.
” Mineral nature of, 435.
Selenography, 510 et sq.
Semaphore, The, 232.
Serpents, Pharaoh’s, 315.
Sewing-machines, Motive power, 758.
Shadows, comic, 158.
Shot, how made, 403.
Signalling, 183.
Silicon, Silica and, 383, 436.
Silurian system, 575.
Silver dissolved by nitric acid, 326.
” how obtained, 406, 447.
” Uses of, 406.
Simoon, The, 631.
Sky, How to read the, 555.
” why blue, 647.
Sleet, Cause of, 640.
Sleight of hand, Chemistry and, 335.
Smelting, Melting and, 396.
Snow, Causes of, 639.
” Great falls of, 20.
” what it is, 639.
Soap, how made, 391.
Soap-bubbles, Notes on, 98.
Sodium, 392, 437.
” Experiments with, 317.
Solar chronometers, 563.
” spectrum, The, 143.
Solid, Definition of, 4.
Solitaire, explanation of puzzles, 736.
” The game of, 735.
Solstices, Equinoxes and, 496.
Sound impossible without air, 163.
” Intensity of, 171.
” Reflection of, 171.
” Refraction of, 171.
” transmitted by solids, 174.
” Velocity of, 169.
” Velocity of, varies, 170.
” what it is, 167.
” whence it arises, 167.
Sound-waves, Nodes of, 169.
” to see, 173.
Sounds, musical and unmusical, 167.
Sources of heat, 77.
Space, what it is, 4.
Spar, Derbyshire, 395.
Spark, Electric duration of, 213.
” Light of an electric, 119.
Speaking tubes, 172.
Specific gravity, 68.
” Huxley’s definition of, 70.
” of metals, 389.
Specific heat, 88.
Spectacles, Different glasses for, 150.
Spectra, Composition of, 147.
” ocular, 143.
Spectral illusions, 161.
Spectre, a visible, 161.
” of the Brocken, The, 650.
Spectres, Impalpable, 126.
” M. Robin’s, 138.
Spectroscope, Discovery of the, 145.
” Uses of the, 145.
Spectroscopy, Science of, 145.
Spectrum analysis, 145.
” heat, 146.
” solar, 143.
Sphericity, Aberration of, 105.
Spider tribe, The, 723.
Sponges, Nature of, 706.
” Reproduction of, 706.
Spots, Sun, 498.
Springs, Causes of, 604.
Squares, Magic, 731.
Stamens, The, 677.
” Uses of, 665.
Starch, Notes about, 417.
Star, pole, The, 494.
Star-fish, 713.
Stars, Clusters of, 551.
” Colours of the, 548.
” Distance of the, 544.
” Double and multiple, 546.
” Falling, 490.
” Fixed, 535.
” Lost, 550.
” Magnitude of the, 554.
” Motions of, 535.
” New, 550.
” Number of the, 536.
” Radiating form of, 105.
” Showers of, 491.
State, Changes of, produced by heat, 89.
Static electricity, 209.
Steam, Definition of, 91.
” Tree-felling by, 766.
Steamer, The smallest, 773.
Stem, Parts of the, 667.
” The, 667.
” Varieties of the, 667.
Stems, Tree, 668.
Stereoscope, Principle of the, 141.
” Reflecting, 141.
” Refracting, The, 141.
Stone, Pudding, 568.
Stories, Ghost, 161.
Strata, List of geological, 573.
Strepsiptera, The, 721.
Strings, Vibration of, 170.
Strontium, 395, 438.
Strontium, Luminous sulphates, 333.
Structure of plants, 661.
Strychnine, 416.
Sublimation and distillation, 86.
Substances, Indifferent, 417.
Substances, Nitrogenous, 422.
Sucker, The school-boy’s, 48.
Sugar, Refining of, 418.
Sulphur, Mineral, 435.
” Uses of, 379.
Sun, Density of the, 503.
” Distance of the, 503.
” Eclipses of the, 519.
” Form of the, 498.
” Motion of the, 496.
” Power of the, 503.
” Spots on the, 498.
” Volume of the, 503.
Suns, mock, Cause of, 648.
Sunset, Colours of the, 655.
Surfaces, luminous, Laws of, 107.
Swan lamps, The, 271.
Swimming, New apparatus for, 458.
Swing, Simple child’s, 763.
Symbols, Chemical table of, 308.
Synthesis of movements, 125.
Syphon recorder, Thomson’s, 244.
Syren, The, 194.
Syringes, An effect of atmospheric pressure, 63.
System, Cambrian, 575.
” Coal, 578.
” Devonian, 576.
” Laurentian, 573.
” Silurian, 575.
” The Solar, 487.
Systems, Palæozoic, 573.
Tablelands, Plateaus or, 626.
Tadpoles in aquaria, 10.
Talking head, How to work, 135.
Tangent galvanometer, The, 227.
Tanning, 414.
Tanning, Process of, 414.
Tap, A new kind of, 762.
Tape-worms, 716.
Tar, Uses of, 378.
Taurus, Constellation, 537.
Telegraph, Automatic, 243.
” electric, Discovery of, 232.
” ” Ordinary form of, 234.
Telegraphic system, New, 244.
Telegraphs, Early, 232.
Telegraphy, Practical, 239.
” Submarine, 243.
Telephone, Description of the, 186.
” Invention of the, 186.
Telescope, Achromatic, 149.
” Description of the, 147.
” Divided, explained, 135.
” Introduction of the, 469.
” reflector, The, 149.
Telescopes, 149.
Tellurium, 386.
Terminations, Chemical, 337.
Tertiary period, The, 591.
Thaumatrope, The, 110, 121.
Theatre, The praxinoscope, 126.
Theory, atomic, The, 309.
Thermo-dynamics, Definition of, 73.
Thermometer, How to make a, 79.
” Invention of the, 78.
Thermometers, Alcoholic, 80.
Thunder, Causes of, 291.
Thunderstorms, Precautions, 283.
Tides, Ebb and flow of, 612.
” Influence of the moon, 517.
” Science of the, 614.
Time, Ancient measurements of, 479.
” Equation of, 482.
” Sidereal, 478.
Tin, Crystallization of, 324.
” Uses of, 403, 446.
Tissues, Cellular and vascular, 661.
Top, The dazzling, 128.
” The magic, 740.
Topophone, Description of the, 180.
” Invention of the, 180.
Tops, Chromatic, 109.
” in optical physiology, 108.
Torpedo, Electricity of the, 285.
Torsion electrometer, The, 209.
Towers, leaning, Laws of, 33.
Toys, Electric, 279.
” Simple, 764.
Tramways, Electric, 272.
Transit, Curious modes of, 770.
” instrument, How to use, 477.
Trapeze, Simple home-made, 762.
Tree-felling, Steam power for, 766.
” frogs, 11.
Trias, The, 585.
” Upper and lower, 585.
Trolly-sailing, 465.
Trumpets, Speaking, 172.
Tube, Galileo’s, 148.
Tube well, The, 455.
Tuber, Definition of the, 667.
Tubes, Speaking, 172.
Tuning-fork, The, 193.
Type casting, 405.
” metal, 404.
Union, Chemical, involves heat, 311.
Uranus, The planet, 533.
Vacuum, Torricellian, 51.
Vanessa algina, 16.
Vapour, Clouds and, 634.
” what it is, 629.
Variations of the compass, 257.
Varnishes, 421.
Vascular tissues, 661.
Vehicle, A new two-wheeled, 770.
Velocipede, New water, 461.
Velocipedes, Ancient, 775.
Velocity, Acceleration of, 41.
” Definition of, 23.
” Facts about, 23.
” of Electricity, 212.
” of light, 94.
” Retarded, 41.
Ventilation, Notes on, 344.
Venus, The planet, 522.
Vessels, connected, Laws of, 62.
Vesta, Discovery of, 528.
Views, Dissolving, 160.
Vinegar, how prepared, 418.
Virgo, Constellation, 538.
Vision, Binocular, 141.
” Definition of, 103.
” Field of, 140.
” The eye and, 140.
Vivaria, 16.
Volcanic rocks, The, 601.
Volcanoes, Earthquakes and, 620.
” Formation of new, 623.
” Number of, 621.
Voltaic arc, The, 223.
Volume, Weight and, 59.
Waste, none in nature, 341.
Watches, Clocks and, 480.
Water a compound body, 353.
” a form of matter, 59.
” Action of, in Geography, 608.
” All about, 59.
” as ice, 355.
” as steam, 355.
” Buoyancy of, 67.
” Chemistry of, 352.
” decomposed by electricity, 226.
” Distillation of, 356.
” Effects of heat on, 82.
” Evaporation of, 7.
” freezing by evaporation, 85.
” Fresh, in the sea, 611.
” hot, grows lighter, 81.
” Land and, 603.
” Mineral, 372.
” Petrification of, 357.
” Pressure of, 60.
” Sea, composition of, 610.
” Spring, 353.
” sustained by air, 59.
” The force of, 60.
” the unit of specific gravity, 70.
Water-press, The, 61.
Water-ram, The, 71.
Waterspout, Cause of the, 643.
Waterspouts, How to destroy, 643.
Water-wheels, 71.
Waves, Height of the, 613.
” Hurricane, 613.
” Movement of the, 612.
” Standing and progressive, 169.
” Tidal, 613.
Way, Milky, 553.
Wealden formations, The, 588.
” ” Fauna of, 589.
” ” Flora of, 589.
Weather, Danger of forecasting, 655.
” forecasts, 651.
” indications, 656.
” Rules for prophesying, 656.
Weather-glass, The, 53.
Weight, Combining or atomic, 309.
” Definition of, 22.
Well tube, The, 455.
Wells, Artesian, 604.
” Gas, 606.
” Instantaneous, 457.
” Oil, 606.
Wheatstone’s telegraph, 242.
Whispering galleries, 172.
Wind, Pressure of the, 632.
” Use of the, 633.
Wind, Velocity of the, 630.
Windows, Double, 757.
Winds, Air currents and, 629.
” Cause of, 629.
” List of local, 631.
” Trade, 630.
Wine, Spirits of, 418.
Wire-drawing, 398.
Wollaston’s bulb, 91.
World, Study of the, 1.
Worms, The, 714.
Writing machine, The, 246.
Wings, Best form for, 450.
Yachts, Canadian ice, 463.
” Double sailing, 462.
Yellow spot, The, 140.
Zamboni pile, 221.
Zeolites, 440.
Zinc, Use of, 403, 446.
Zodiac, Signs of the, 471.
Zodiacal light, The, 500.
Zoology, Definition of, 700.
Zootrope, The, 121.
* * * * *
Transcriber’s Notes
Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected but variations in hyphenation and all other spelling and punctuation remains unchanged.
Italics are represented thus italic and bold thus =bold=.
The following corrections have been made:
Réamur has been corrected to Réaumur throughout.
Page 94 “There are seven primary colours in the sunlight, which is white. These can be divided or “dispersed,” and the shortest rays of the spectrum are found to be red, the longest violet.” has been corrected to longest red and shortest violet.
Page 109. “If, for instance, we place on a disc covered with blue and red sectors of equal size, a black disc, of which the sectors are alternately filled in or empty, the disc, as it turns round, will appear blue if the black sectors of the upper disc exactly cover the [red] sectors of the lower disc; and it appears red, if, on the contrary, the blue sectors are covered with the black;” [red] has been added.
Page 238. The footnote Monvel’s “Course of Physics.” appears, but there is no reference to it in the text.
Page 533. The time of revolution of Saturn’s Moons was given in d. h. sec., this has been corrected to d. h. min.