III. IRON…

III. IRON

BY E. C. HARDER AND F. T. EDDINGFIELD

USES OF IRON

The uses of iron ore are so well known that their enumeration is hardly necessary. From iron ore are manufactured cast iron, wrought iron, and steel. By the addition of one or more other elements, chiefly silicon, carbon, chromium, nickel, manganese, vanadium, sulphur, and phosphorus, in quantities less than 5 per cent. and usually less than 1 per cent., various qualities, such as hardness, toughness, elasticity, durability, brittleness, density, porosity, endurance, resistance to oxidation or corrosion, malleability, and fusibility, can be controlled and given to the cast iron or steel in the desired degree.

The uses of the products of iron ore are so common that the finding of objects which do not contain some of them is difficult. Besides being used as a metal, iron enters into the manufacture of paints (especially red, yellow, and blue), chemicals of various kinds, medicines, coloring matter in glass and pottery, and in the form of specular hematite it is made into jewelry. Considerable amounts of iron ore are also consumed annually for flux in the smelting of silver, copper, lead, and other metalliferous ores.

Iron and its products are more widely used than any other metal; and the yearly production of pig iron makes up 94 to 96 per cent. of the total amount of all the metals produced in the world, and in normal times averages about 80,000,000 tons annually.

GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION

Iron ores are associated with many different classes of rocks--sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic. Where associated with sedimentary rocks the ores may be the result of direct sedimentation or may be later replacements of sedimentary beds by magmatic or meteoric iron-bearing waters. Many iron-ore deposits associated with sedimentary rocks are formed by the enrichment of original iron-bearing beds, either by solution and transportation of iron compounds or by the removal of other associated mineral constituents.

Among those important iron-ore deposits of sedimentary origin that have undergone little or no further enrichment since deposition, except perhaps directly at the surface, are the iron ores of the Clinton type of the eastern United States, the Wabana iron ores of Newfoundland, the “minette” ores of the Lorraine district in northern France, Luxemburg, and southern Germany, the oolitic siderite beds of the Cleveland district in northern England, and the hematite ores of Minas Geraes in Brazil. The most important of the sedimentary iron ores that are the result of further enrichment since deposition are those of the Lake Superior district in the United States.

Iron ores associated with igneous rock are mostly of deep-seated origin, usually having been formed by solutions that accompanied or followed the intrusion of the rocks with which the ores are associated. These ores are of two main classes: (1) Those associated with siliceous igneous rocks; and (2) those associated with basic igneous rocks. The ores associated with siliceous igneous rocks consist either of hematite or, more commonly, magnetite. They occur in granite, syenite, and monzonite, and in gneiss derived from these by metamorphism. Many important ore deposits in different countries belong to this class, among them being the magnetite and hematite deposits of Swedish Lapland and of central Sweden, the magnetite bodies of the Adirondacks and northern New Jersey in the eastern United States, various magnetite and hematite bodies in California and elsewhere in the western United States, the mixed hematite and magnetite deposits of the south coast of Cuba, most of the iron-ore bodies of Chile, and the newly developed iron ores of Manchuria. As a class, the iron ores associated with siliceous igneous rocks rank next in importance to iron ores of sedimentary origin.

Iron-ore deposits associated with basic igneous rocks are nearly all of a distinct type known as titaniferous magnetites. These ores consist of a mixture of magnetite and ilmenite in varying proportions, and therefore carry a variable amount of titanium. Many large ore deposits of this class are found in different parts of the world, among the larger ones being certain ore bodies in Wyoming, in the Adirondack region, and elsewhere in the United States, and several deposits in Norway and in northern and southern Sweden.

An important group of iron-ore deposits has resulted from mineral replacement along the contact of sedimentary rocks with igneous intrusives. These ores usually occur in limestones not far from intrusive masses of granite, monzonite, syenite or diorite, but they may be found within the igneous rocks themselves, near the contact. They are rarely associated with the more basic igneous rocks. These ores are known as igneous contact ores, and their origin is ascribed to iron-bearing solutions that accompanied or followed the intrusion of the igneous rocks with which the ores are associated. Such ores are extremely widespread, occurring in practically every continent. Locally, extensive deposits exist, as in the Cornwall district of Pennsylvania, in the western United States and British Columbia, in Chile, and in China and Japan. Igneous contact ores have furnished only a relatively small percentage of the world’s total production of iron ore, however.

There are also widespread replacement deposits in sedimentary rocks that are not associated with igneous rocks. These are believed to be formed by ordinary meteoric waters which dissolve disseminated iron minerals from certain beds or masses of rock, and redeposit the mineral elsewhere in a more concentrated form. Such ore deposits may be roughly tabular and resemble bedded deposits, or they may be very irregular. Most deposits of this type consist of siderite which has replaced limestone, but hematite and limonite deposits formed by replacement also exist. Among the important deposits of this group are the siderite ores of Bilbao, Spain, largely altered to limonite near the surface; the siderite ore of Eisenerz, Styria; and the hematite deposits near Hartville, Wyoming. Small deposits of siderite, hematite, and limonite of this type are found in many parts of the world.

Besides the classes of iron ores already mentioned, widely distributed iron ores occur as residual products derived from the weathering of either igneous or sedimentary rocks. These ores have been formed by the concentration of iron-bearing materials originally disseminated through the rocks whose weathered products they now constitute. They are mainly in the form of limonite and occur either as large bodies of relatively pure ore or as aggregates of irregular masses of various sizes imbedded in clays. To this class belong the brown iron ores associated with clay in the Appalachian region of the United States, the limonite ores of parts of Russia, and similar ores in Korea. In this class should also be included the extensive limonite deposits derived from the weathering of serpentine which have recently been developed along the north coast of Cuba, as well as the lateritic iron-ore deposits found in many tropical countries. Limonite ores associated with clays have been smelted since early ages, owing to their accessibility and the ease with which they could be smelted by crude methods. They have, however, furnished a decidedly minor percentage of the world’s production of iron ore.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

The iron ore consumed by the world has been obtained principally from the four great iron-producing countries: United States, Germany, France and Great Britain.

Other countries that yield important quantities of iron ore are, in the order of their importance: Spain, Russia, Sweden, Luxemburg, Austria-Hungary, Cuba, Newfoundland, and Algeria. The normal annual output in each one of these countries is more than one million tons. Minor amounts of iron ore are produced in many other countries.

TABLE 11.--IRON-ORE OUTPUT OF PRINCIPAL PRODUCING COUNTRIES, 1910-1917, IN GROSS TONS[12]

--------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+ Country | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | --------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+ North America: | | | | Canada[13] | 231,623| 187,807| 192,753| Cuba[13] | 1,462,498| 1,163,714| 1,397,797| Newfoundland[13] | 1,108,762| 1,171,992| 1,251,968| United States | 57,014,906| 43,876,552| 55,150,147| South America: | | | | Chile | ... | 28,150| 6,546| Venezuela[14] | ... | ... | 12,100| Europe: | | | | Austria-Hungary | 4,592,572| 4,779,851| 4,997,311| Belgium | 121,024| 148,130| 164,734| France | 14,375,984| 16,376,967| 18,858,668| Germany |[17]28,257,579|[17]29,408,812|[17]33,180,258| Greece | 527,040| 493,106| 424,835| Italy | 542,578| 367,900| 572,900| Luxemburg | ([18]) | ([18]) | ([18]) | Norway | 100,834| 217,051| 401,665| Portugal | 3,307| 19,233| 28,947| Russia | ([19]) | ([19]) | ([19]) | Spain | 8,530,310| 8,635,523| [20]8,990,743| Sweden | 5,465,234| 6,056,868| 6,595,044| United Kingdom | 15,226,015| 15,519,424| 13,790,391| Asia: | | | | China | [21]130,472| [21]109,542| [21]201,561| Chosen (Korea) | 104,627| 96,902| 121,224| India | 54,626| 366,212| 580,029| Japan | 132,921| 144,001| 168,479| Philippine Islands| 148| 216 | 347| Africa: | | | | Algeria | 1,048,228| 1,057,087| 1,171,252| Morocco | 186,149| ([16]) | ([16]) | Madagascar | ([23]) | ([23]) | 22| Natal | 50| | | Togoland | ([16]) | 394| ([16]) | Tunis | 327,756| 397,638| 470,866| Australia: | 157,821| 122,361| 113,989| --------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+

--------------------+-----------+-----------+-------------+ Country | 1913 | 1914 | 1915 | --------------------+-----------+-----------+-------------+ North America: | | | | Canada[13] | 274,673| 218,620| 355,457| Cuba[13] | 1,582,431| 821,110| 827,448| Newfoundland[13] | 1,433,858| 566,000| 775,403| United States | 61,980,437| 41,439,761| 55,526,490| South America: | | | | Chile | 13,878| 62,506| 144,783| Venezuela[14] | 57,225| 2,400| | Europe: | | | | Austria-Hungary | 5,233,055| 3,939,248|[15]1,218,367| Belgium | 147,048| 81,063| 4,646| France | 21,572,835| ([16]) | ([16]) | Germany | 26,771,598| ([16]) | ([16]) | Greece | 308,640| 294,573| 154,951| Italy | 593,618| 695,124| 669,262| Luxemburg | 7,215,514| 4,926,980| 6,040,765| Norway | 535,869| 641,790| 706,379| Portugal | 48,392| 6,532 | ([16]) | Russia | 7,947,191| ([16]) | ([16]) | Spain | 9,703,177| 6,710,357| 5,527,552| Sweden | 7,357,845| 6,482,904| 6,774,909| United Kingdom | 15,997,328| 14,867,582| 14,235,012| Asia: | | | | China |[22]416,342|[22]488,258| 537,047| Chosen (Korea) | 139,370| 179,062| 206,510| India | 370,845| 441,674| 390,270| Japan | 168,897| 134,193| 133,933| Philippine Islands| 546 | 392| ([16]) | Africa: | | | | Algeria | 1,327,320| 1,097,101| 805,547| Morocco | ... | ... | ... | Madagascar | | | | Natal | ... | ... | ... | Togoland | | | | Tunis | 584,649| 244,528| 281,304| Australia: | [24]90,712| 177,938| 370,887| --------------------+-----------+-----------+-------------+

--------------------+----------+----------- Country | 1916 | 1917 --------------------+----------+----------- North America: | | Canada[13] | 245,693| 192,210 Cuba[13] | 712,716| 553,485 Newfoundland[13] | 903,625| 788,820 United States |75,167,672| 75,288,851 South America: | | Chile | 55,281| 4,921 Venezuela[14] | | Europe: | | Austria-Hungary | ([16]) | ([16]) Belgium | 29,951| 16,732 France | ([16]) | ([16]) Germany | ([16]) | ([16]) Greece | 83,647| 62,366 Italy | 927,406| 978,174 Luxemburg | 6,643,689| 4,436,682 Norway | 865,700| ([16]) Portugal | ([16]) | ([16]) Russia | ([16]) | ([16]) Spain | 5,762,733| 5,461,857 Sweden | 6,876,278| 6,119,263 United Kingdom |13,494,658| 14,845,734 Asia: | | China | 274,078| 299,465 Chosen (Korea) | 241,412| ([16]) India | 411,758| 413,273 Japan | 156,263| ([16]) Philippine Islands| ([16]) | ([16]) Africa: | | Algeria | 923,598| 1,048,722 Morocco | ... | ... Madagascar | | Natal | ... | ... Togoland | | Tunis | 361,593| 596,261 Australia: | 390,108|[25]328,310 --------------------+----------+-----------

[12] BURCHARD, E. F., “Iron Ore, Pig Iron and Steel”: U. S. Geol. Survey “Mineral Resources,” 1915 and 1917, with additions and revisions. (The above figures are, so far as possible, based on official reports and, where these are lacking, on the technical press.)

[13] Shipments.

[14] Exports to United States.

[15] For Hungary only.

[16] Statistics not available.

[17] Includes Luxemburg.

[18] Included in Germany.

[19] Russia produced 2,936,024 long tons of pig iron in 1910; 3,536,417 long tons in 1911, and 4,131,890 long tons in 1912.

[20] Includes 1,563 long tons of argentiferous iron ore.

[21] Exports.

[22] From Tayeh deposits only.

[23] Madagascar produced about 8 long tons of iron in 1910 and 1.5 long tons in 1911.

[24] For South Australia and Queensland.

[25] For South Australia only.

TABLE 12.--PIG IRON MANUFACTURED IN PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES IN 1850, 1890, 1900, AND 1910 TO 1916, IN GROSS TONS[26]

-------------------+---------+----------+----------+----------+ Country | 1850 | 1890 | 1900 | 1910 | -------------------+---------+----------+----------+----------+ United States | 563,755| 9,202,703|13,789,242|27,303,567| Germany | 350,000| 4,584,882| 8,381,373|14,559,509| Great Britain |2,300,000| 7,904,214| 8,959,691|10,217,022| France | 405,653| 1,931,188| 2,669,966| 3,974,478| Russia | 227,555| 912,561| 2,889,789| 2,992,058| Austria-Hungary | 250,000| 910,685| 1,472,695| 2,153,788| Belgium | 144,452| 775,385| 1,001,872| 1,822,821| Canada | ... | 19,439| 86,090| 740,210| Sweden | 150,000| 483,155| 518,263| 594,385| Spain | ... | 176,598| 289,315| 367,423| Italy | ... | 14,094| 23,569| 347,657| Japan | ... | ... | ... | 186,794| Other countries[27]| 10,000| 80,000| 100,000| 200,000| +---------+----------+----------+----------+ Total |4,401,415|26,994,904|40,181,865|65,459,712| -------------------+---------+----------+----------+----------+

-------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ Country | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914[27] | -------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ United States |23,649,547|29,726,937|30,966,152|23,332,244| Germany |15,404,648|17,586,521|19,004,022|14,162,147| Great Britain | 9,718,638| 8,889,124|10,481,917| 9,005,898| France | 4,309,498| 4,870,913| 5,227,378| 3,500,000| Russia | 3,531,807| 4,133,000| 4,474,757| 4,190,000| Austria-Hungary | 2,056,839| 2,276,141| 2,335,170| 1,500,000| Belgium | 2,072,836| 2,307,853| 2,318,767| 1,500,000| Canada | 824,368| 912,878| 1,015,118| 705,972| Sweden | 624,367| 688,757| 728,103| 629,608| Spain | 402,209| 396,872| 418,061| 400,000| Italy | 298,144| 373,960| 420,011| 379,028| Japan | 200,000| 200,709| 236,491| 295,428| Other countries[27]| 250,000| 350,000| 250,000| 200,000| +----------+----------+----------+----------+ Total |63,342,901|72,713,565|77,876,347|59,800,325| -------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

-------------------+----------+---------- Country | 1915[27] | 1916[28] -------------------+----------+---------- United States |29,916,213|39,434,797 Germany |11,603,874|13,000,000 Great Britain | 8,793,659| 9,047,983 France | 4,000,000| 5,000,000 Russia | 3,638,000| 4,300,000 Austria-Hungary | 1,929,000| 2,000,000 Belgium | 500,000| 1,000,000 Canada | 825,420| 1,069,541 Sweden | 755,000| 750,000 Spain | 421,000| 440,000 Italy | 389,000| 454,923 Japan | 312,957| 379,574 Other countries[27]| 200,000| 500,000 +----------+---------- Total |63,284,123|77,000,000 -------------------+----------+----------

[26] “Metal Statistics,” 1914 to 1918, with some additions and changes.

[27] Partly estimated.

[28] Largely estimated.

More than two-fifths of the total annual output of iron ore in the world has come from the United States, and of the American production more than 80 per cent. is generally produced in the Lake Superior district. This district is, therefore, by far the most important iron-ore district in the world, producing annually more than 30 per cent. of the world’s total of iron ore.

Germany and France have been next in importance to the United States as iron ore-producing countries, about 80 per cent. of the ore mined in these two countries being obtained from the Lorraine iron fields situated on the border. The annual output of these fields, which includes also the ores of Luxemburg, has been about 25 per cent. of the world’s production. The Lorraine district and the Lake Superior district together, therefore, produce somewhat more than one-half of the total iron ore annually mined in the world.

The iron ore produced in Great Britain is obtained mainly from the Cleveland district of northern England, this district furnishing about 40 per cent. of the British total, equivalent to about 2.6 per cent. of the world’s annual production. In comparison, the Birmingham district of Alabama and the Krivoi-Rog district of southern Russia, which are next in importance to the Lorraine and Lake Superior districts, furnish about 3.5 per cent. and 3.2 per cent., respectively, of the world’s annual production.

TABLE 13.--PRODUCTION AND MOVEMENT OF IRON ORE AND PRODUCTION OF PIG IRON, 1913[29]

Gross Tons

--------------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+---------- |Production| | | Apparent |Production | of | Iron ore | Iron ore |consumption| of | iron ore | imports | exports | (in part | pig iron | | | | stocks) | --------------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+---------- United Kingdom|15,997,328| 8,028,532| 21,223| 24,004,637|10,260,315 Canada | 307,634| 2,110,828| 126,124| 2,292,338| 1,015,118 Belgium | 149,450| 4,400,000| ...| 4,549,450| 2,484,690 France |19,160,407| 1,410,424|10,066,627| 10,504,264| 5,311,316 Italy | 603,116| 7,666| 20,000| 590,772| 426,755 Russia | 8,077,000| ...| 565,000| 7,512,000| 4,557,000 Austria | 3,039,324| 942,312| 106,071| 3,875,565| 1,757,864 Hungary | 2,059,000| ...| 700,000| 1,359,000| 623,000 Germany | | | | | (including | | | | | Luxemburg) |35,941,285|14,019,045| 2,613,158| 47,347,172|19,291,920 Spain | 9,861,668| ...| 8,907,202| 954,466| 424,774 Sweden | 7,475,571| ...| 6,440,000| 1,035,571| 730,257 United States |61,980,437| 2,594,770| ...| 64,575,207|30,966,152 Algeria | 1,349,000| ...| 1,350,000| | Chile | 70,000| ...| 65,000| | Cuba | 1,500,000| ...| 1,582,431| | Newfoundland | 1,605,900| ...| 1,605,920| | --------------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+----------

[29] Advisory Council, Dept. of Sci. and Indust. Research: “Report on the sources and production of iron and other metalliferous ores used in the iron and steel industry,” London, 1918, p. 12.

Table 11 shows the world’s production of iron ore from 1910 to 1917.

Table 12 shows the production of pig iron in 1850, 1890, 1900, and 1910 to 1916.

Table 13 shows the production and movement of iron ore and the production of pig iron for the year 1913.

POLITICAL AND COMMERCIAL CONTROL

=United States.=--The principal iron ores of the United States are the extensive pre-Cambrian hematite deposits of the Lake Superior region; the bedded fossiliferous ores of the Clinton type of Alabama and other southern states; the magnetite deposits of New York, northern New Jersey, and southeastern Pennsylvania; the limonite ores of the eastern and southern states; and the mixed hematite and magnetite ores of the West. The United States is the largest producer of iron ore in the world, and annually yields more than two-fifths of the world’s supply. More than 80 per cent. of the output comes from the Lake Superior district and most of the remainder from Alabama, New York, and Pennsylvania. In 1917 there were mined in the United States 75,000,000 tons of iron ore, of which 63,000,000 came from the Lake Superior region, 7,000,000 from Alabama, 1,000,000 from New York, and about 500,000 each from Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Tennessee, Virginia, and Wyoming; in 1918 the total production was 69,000,000 tons, of which 60,000,000 came from the Lake Superior district, 6,000,000 from Alabama, 900,000 from New York, 500,000 from Pennsylvania, and 400,000 each from Tennessee, Virginia, New Jersey and Wyoming.

The following table shows the approximate reserves of iron ore in the principal districts of the United States:

TABLE 14.--IRON-ORE RESERVES OF THE UNITED STATES IN GROSS TONS[30]

Millions of tons. Lake Superior District (hematite) 3,500 Birmingham District (fossil hematite) 355 Tennessee and Virginia (fossil hematite) 100 Adirondack District (non-titaniferous magnetite) 40 Adirondack District (titaniferous magnetite) 90 Northern New Jersey and Southeastern New York (magnetite) 15 Southeastern Pennsylvania (magnetite) 40 Appalachian region (magnetite) 50 Northeastern Texas (limonite) 260 Western United States (magnetite and hematite) 100 Other Districts 150 ----- Total 4,700

[30] Kemp, J. F.: “The Iron-Ore Resources of the World,” Stockholm, 1910 (with minor revisions).

The greatest single iron and steel industry in the United States is that of the United States Steel Corporation, which controls the following iron- and steel-producing companies: Carnegie Steel Co., Illinois Steel Co., Indiana Steel Co., American Steel & Wire Co., American Sheet & Tinplate Co., National Tube Co., The National Tube Co. of Ohio, Minnesota Steel Co., The Lorain Steel Co., Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad Co., and the Shelby Steel Tube Co., with a total of 124 blast furnaces, having an annual capacity of about 18,000,000 tons of pig iron. Most of the blast furnaces are in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, and Alabama.

With the United States Steel Corporation is connected the Oliver Iron Mining Co., which produces about 43 per cent. of the iron ore mined annually in the Lake Superior district, this being equivalent to nearly 37 per cent. of all the iron ore mined annually in the United States. The Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad Co. is the chief producer of iron ore in Alabama.

Next in importance to the United States Steel Corporation as a producer of iron and steel is the Bethlehem Steel Corporation, with its subsidiaries, the Bethlehem Steel Co., Pennsylvania Steel Co., Maryland Steel Co., Jurugua Iron Co., Spanish-American Iron Co., and Bethlehem Iron Mines Co.

The works of the Bethlehem Steel Corporation have a total pig iron-producing capacity of 3,060,000 tons annually from 23 blast furnaces. Seven of the furnaces are in South Bethlehem, Pa., seven in Steelton, Pa., four in Lebanon, Pa., three in Cornwall, Pa., and four in Sparrow’s Point, Md. The Bethlehem Steel Corporation owns large iron-ore deposits in Cuba and Chile. Most of the ore consumed in its furnaces at present comes from Cuba, from the Lake Superior district, and from Cornwall, Pa.

Third in importance of the iron- and steel-producing companies of the United States is the recently organized Midvale Steel & Ordnance Co., controlling Worth Brothers, Midvale Steel Co., Remington Arms Co., Cambria Steel Co., and others. The combined pig iron-producing capacity of the 14 blast furnaces controlled by the Midvale Steel & Ordnance Co. is 2,420,000 tons of pig iron. Three of the blast furnaces are at Coatesville, Pa., and eleven are at Johnstown, Pa. This company owns important iron-ore deposits in Cuba and in the Lake Superior district.

Four other large companies produce more than a million tons of pig iron annually, these being the Republic Iron & Steel Co., with an estimated total capacity from its 11 blast furnaces in Ohio and Alabama of 1,430,000 tons of pig iron, and of 2,500,000 tons of ore from its mines in the Lake Superior district and in Alabama; the Lackawanna Steel Co., with an annual capacity in 1918 from its nine blast furnaces at Lackawanna, N. Y., of 1,440,000 tons of pig iron; the Jones & Laughlin Co., of Pittsburgh, with a capacity of 1,920,000 tons from 11 blast furnaces; and the McKinney Steel Co., with eight furnaces in Ohio, New York, and Pennsylvania, and an annual capacity of 1,205,000 tons of pig iron. The last three companies named have extensive iron mines in the Lake Superior district.

Important iron and steel companies producing somewhat less than a million tons of pig iron annually are: the Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co., with an annual capacity of 990,000 tons of pig iron from six blast furnaces, all of which are at Youngstown, Ohio; the recently organized Steel & Tube Co. of America, having six blast furnaces in and near Chicago, with an annual pig-iron capacity of 900,000 tons; the Colorado Fuel & Iron Co., an important western iron and steel producer, which has six blast furnaces near Pueblo, Colo., with an annual capacity of 625,000 tons of pig iron, and has iron-ore mines in New Mexico, Wyoming, and Colorado; and the Schloss-Sheffield Steel & Iron Co. of Alabama, with seven blast furnaces and a pig-iron capacity of 530,000 tons. Many other plants with smaller capacity are scattered through eastern and central United States. So far as is known, practically the entire iron and steel business of the United States is in the hands of American capital.

=Germany.=--The “minette” ore of the German Lorraine district before the war constituted by far the largest iron-ore reserve of Germany and is the chief source of present supply. Next in importance of the German ore reserves are the brown hematites occurring north of the Harz, and third and fourth in importance, respectively, are the deposits of the Lahn and Dill districts in the Rhineland, and those of Siegerland. All of these districts are in western and southwestern Germany and all of them, except Lorraine, are in the region lying east of the Rhine in Hanover, Westphalia, Hesse-Nassau, and Rhenish Prussia.

The Lorraine district is on the French border and forms a part of the large ore field of Luxemburg and northern France. The deposits, of sedimentary origin and Jurassic age, comprise extensive beds of oolitic limonite varying in thickness up to 20 feet, interlayered with marl and limestone. Seven principal beds of ore are found within a thickness of sediments ranging from 75 to 150 feet, the most important being known as the Grey seam. The tonnage[31] of “minette” ore available in the German Lorraine district is estimated at 1,830 million[32] as compared with 300 million in Luxemburg and 2,975 million[33] in northern France. The “minette” ores average 30 to 40 per cent. in metallic iron content and 0.3 to 0.7 per cent. or more in phosphorus.

[31] The ore reserves in this chapter are given in metric tons unless otherwise stated.

[32] EINECKE, G., and KOHLER, W.: “Iron-Ore Resources of the World,” Stockholm, 1910.

[33] NICOU, L., idem.

The deposits of the Salzgitter and Ilsede districts north of the Harz Mountains are beds of brown ironstone conglomerate with an average thickness of 20 to 30 feet, consisting of limonite pebbles in a clayey or calcareous cement. These deposits cover many square miles, the reserves being estimated at 248 million tons. The ores contain 30 to 40 per cent. of iron and average 0.7 to 0.8 per cent. in phosphorus.

The ores of the Lahn and Dill region are mainly red hematites, that lie in an extensive sedimentary bed. They contain about 48 per cent. of iron, 0.2 to 0.3 per cent. phosphorus, and are high in silica. The reserves are estimated at about 135 million tons.

In Siegerland the iron ores are mainly carbonate, carrying 38 to 40 per cent. metallic iron and 6 to 9 per cent. manganese. They form irregular deposits abundantly scattered through the region, the available reserves being estimated at about 100 million tons.

The total iron-ore reserves of Germany (not including those of Luxemburg) actually available have been estimated at 2,540 million tons, and the probable further reserves at 1,067 million tons. Of these amounts, however, Lorraine has by far the largest part, so that the transfer of this province to France reduces Germany’s available reserves to 28 per cent. of the pre-war figure, and her further probable reserves to one-half, altogether reducing her iron-ore resources to one-third of the former amount.

As far as is known, the German iron and steel business is in the hands of German capitalists, who, besides, have important iron-ore holdings in France, Spain, Sweden, and elsewhere. Among the important iron-ore and pig-iron producing firms in Germany are Gutehoffnungshütte, de Wendel & Co., Krupp, Gebrüder Stumm, Aschener Hütten Aktien Verein, Rombacher Hüttenwerke, Thyssen & Cie., and others. All of these firms had large ore reserves in the Lorraine district when the war began.

=France.=--The iron ores of France are divided into three distinct groups: the “minette” ores of the Briey, Longwy, Crusnes, and Nancy districts; the Silurian ores in Normandy; and the vein deposits of the eastern Pyrenees.

The “minette” ores of northern France form part of the great basin of “minette” ores of France, Luxemburg, and Germany already mentioned. In 1913 they furnished about 91 per cent. of the total production of France. The iron ores of Normandy and Brittany are of sedimentary origin and are composed of hematite or carbonate or a mixture of both. The carbonate becomes more abundant with depth. The iron-ore deposits of the eastern Pyrenees consist of both hematite and siderite and are of high grade, constituting the only considerable source of Bessemer ore in France. The iron content of the ores of Normandy and Brittany ranges from 30 per cent. to 50 per cent.; that of the Pyrenees ores from 51 per cent. to 57 per cent. The latter range includes calcined siderite.

The production of iron ore from French Lorraine was about 19,500,000 tons in 1913; that of Normandy and Brittany about 1,500,000 tons, and that of the eastern Pyrenees about 500,000, making a total production of more than 21,000,000 tons for France.

The following table shows the relative output of iron ore from the different iron fields of France and Germany during the last three normal years before the war:

TABLE 15.--PRODUCTION OF IRON ORE IN FRANCE AND GERMANY, 1911 TO 1913

Metric tons

---------------------------------+----------+----------+---------- District | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 ---------------------------------+----------+----------+---------- German Lorraine |17,734,576|20,050,245|21,135,554 Luxemburg | 6,059,797| 6,553,930| 7,331,050 French Lorraine, including Briey,| | | Longwy and Nancy |14,878,000|17,235,125|19,499,166 Germany, outside of Lorraine | 6,968,000| 7,167,000| 7,472,000 France, outside of Lorraine | 1,584,000| 1,925,000| 1,686,000 ---------------------------------+----------+----------+----------

The available reserves in the different districts of the French “minette” ore field are estimated as follows:[34]

TABLE 16.--ORE RESERVES IN FRENCH “MINETTE” FIELD

Million tons Briey 2,000 Crusnes 500 Longwy 275 Nancy 200 ----- Total 2,975

[34] NICOU, L.: “Iron Resources of the World,” Stockholm, 1910.

The list of operating companies in France shows a considerable number of German companies among the predominating French. German or probably German companies produced in 1913 six and a half million tons of iron ore, or one-third of the whole production. In the Normandy and Brittany region two German companies made 11 per cent. of the whole production; and in the eastern Pyrenees one German company produced 20 per cent. Altogether, German capital controlled over one-third of the iron and steel industry of France in 1913. The rest seems to have been in the hands of French capital.

The most important iron-producing firms in the Lorraine field in recent years have been those of de Wendel & Co., Gutehoffnungshütte, Société des Hauts Fourneaux et Fonderies de Pont-a-Moussons, Société des Forges et Acieries de la Marine et d’Homecourt, Société Anonyme des Acieries de Longwy, Société des Acieries de Micheville, and Société des Mines d’Ammermont Dommery. The first two firms are chiefly German and have controlled lands not only in German Lorraine, but also in French Lorraine. Thus, the iron-ore lands of the Lorraine district will, even after the cessation of the territory to France, be owned largely by German-controlled firms. Politically, however, France will have control of the output.

=Great Britain.=--The iron ores mined in Great Britain come chiefly from the Cleveland Hills in Yorkshire and from Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire, Cumberland, Staffordshire, Leicestershire, Scotland, and Lancashire, in order of importance. More than one-third of the total production is derived from the Cleveland Hills. The ore from the Cleveland Hills, Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire, Leicestershire, and Scotland is bedded oolitic siderite of Middle and Lower Jurassic age; that from Cumberland and Lancashire is hematite, exceptionally low in phosphorus, found in pockets in Carboniferous and Silurian limestones; and that in Staffordshire is siderite of the “black band” and “clay band” varieties found in the Coal Measures.

The following table shows the production of iron ore in the United Kingdom in 1915:

TABLE 17.--PRODUCTION OF IRON ORE IN THE UNITED KINGDOM IN 1915

Long tons Cleveland Hills 4,746,293 Lincolnshire 3,149,079 Northamptonshire 2,517,150 Cumberland 1,323,408 Staffordshire 703,231 Leicestershire 685,137 Scotland 375,241 Lancashire 333,086 Other Great Britain and Ireland 402,387 ---------- Total 14,235,012

A large part of the iron ore in Great Britain can not now be worked profitably, and much of the ore that was merchantable a few years ago could not now be worked, on account of increased cost of transportation, labor, and particularly of fuel. The actual reserves of ore of present merchantable grade are estimated at 1,300 million tons; the total reserves have been estimated by H. Louis at 39,500 million tons.[35]

[35] LOUIS, H.: “Iron-Ore Resources of the World,” Stockholm, 1910.

In 1915 the United Kingdom produced 14,000,000 tons of iron ore. In the same year nearly 7,000,000 tons were imported, of which 4,000,000 came from Spain and between one-half and one million from Algeria and Norway each, making a total of over 20,000,000 tons smelted in the United Kingdom. The total production of pig iron was nearly 9,000,000 tons, of which nearly 7,000,000 tons were produced in England, 1,000,000 tons in Scotland, and nearly 1,000,000 tons in Wales. Ireland produces no pig iron. The iron and steel industry of Great Britain, so far as information is available, is in the hands of British subjects.

Eckel[36] reviews the British iron-ore situation as follows:

The position of Great Britain as regards iron-ore resources is peculiar--perhaps more curious than satisfactory. The matter may be summarized by saying that England has still several hundred million tons of high-grade ore which would be salable anywhere; that she has in addition perhaps double that quantity of low-grade ore, workable because of its nearness to coal and markets; and that England, Scotland, and Wales have thousands of millions of tons of ore now unworkable, but which may be serviceable in the future provided that at that future date there is still any other good reason for making steel in Great Britain. This last limitation may not be palatable, but it is really the crux of the whole question, and it seems to have been overlooked by the British geologists who have discussed the subject. People do not make iron out of low-grade ores simply to use up the ores; and with an increasing coke cost and a narrowing export market it is a very serious question whether the bulk of these British carbonates will ever be used. The duration of the British steel industry will be fixed by its coal supply, and not by its supply of local ores; for so long as coke and markets justify it, ore can be imported to good advantage. If other conditions do not justify the importation of ore, they will certainly not justify the use of these hypothetical reserve tonnages.

[36] ECKEL, E. C.: “Iron Ores, Their Occurrence, Valuation and Control,” p. 320, 1914.

=Spain.=--Spain is rich in iron-ore reserves, but the iron and steel manufacturing industry has had little development. The annual production of iron ore in Spain during the last years before the war amounted to about 9,000,000 tons, of which more than 8,000,000 tons were exported. The consumption of iron ore by Spanish blast furnaces has been in the neighborhood of 800,000 tons annually.

The principal iron ores of Spain lie in the northwestern part, in the provinces of Viscaya, Oviedo, Lugo, and Santander; in the northeastern part, in the provinces of Teruel and Guadalajara; and in the southeastern part, in the provinces of Granada, Almeria, Murcia, Sevilla, and Huelva.

The iron ores of the Bilbao district of Viscaya are all of Bessemer grade, and for many years large amounts have been exported to England for use in Bessemer plants to supplement ores from the Cleveland and other districts of England. Because of their excellence, they have been in continuous demand, and the English iron and steel industry has depended to a considerable extent upon these and other high-grade ores of Spain. In more recent years, Germany has also become interested in the Bilbao iron fields, and in the last years before the war Germany took more than one-third of the total Spanish production, including large amounts of ore from southern Spain as well. Spanish interests own important deposits in southeastern Spain and in the Bilbao district.

Most of the ore of southeastern Spain is of high grade, being rich in iron and low in phosphorus. Nearly all of it is of Bessemer quality, and some is very low in phosphorus; the latter is exported extensively for use in the manufacture of low-phosphorus pig iron. The United States has been largely dependent in past years upon Spain for this grade of ore, more than 100,000 tons being imported annually.

Spain has a number of blast furnaces and steel plants, the principal ones being at Bilbao, in the Province of Viscaya. More than 300,000 tons of pig iron are produced annually in Viscaya, this being approximately three-fourths of the total output of pig iron in Spain.

=European Russia.=--In European Russia[37] the principal deposits of iron ore are distributed over four chief districts: Ural Mountains, central Russia, southern Russia and the Caucasus.

[37] BOGDANOWITSCH, K.: “The Iron Resources of the World,” Stockholm, 1910.

In the Ural Mountains for the greater part the ores are associated with igneous rocks. The most important deposits are in the neighborhood of Gora Blagodat, in the northern Ural regions, and near Gora Mongnitnaja, in the southern Urals. The ores are mainly magnetite and limonite and come from an extremely large number of small mines. In central Russia, over widely scattered areas, are deposits of calcareous ores, clay ironstones, and bog ores. Many of the deposits are thin and can not be profitably worked. The only reserves in southern Russia of any importance are divided among three centers: Krivoi-Rog, the Donetz basin, and the Kertsch peninsula. By far the most important deposits are the magnetite-hematite ores in the region of Krivoi-Rog. The ironstones of the Coal Measures in the Donetz basin and the limonite of the Kertsch peninsula are of secondary importance. The mines of Krivoi-Rog are extensively worked, and their reserves are estimated at some 86 million tons of commercial ore. The mines are controlled mainly by the following three companies: the Briansk company; Krivoi-Rog Iron Ore Co.; and the Providence company.

The following table shows the production of iron ore in different parts of Russia in 1912:

TABLE 18.--OUTPUT OF IRON ORE IN RUSSIA

Long tons Southern Russia 5,679,000 Ural 1,817,000 Central Russia 286,000 Other Russia and Siberia 6,000 --------- Total 7,788,000

The ore reserves of Russia may be summarized by districts as follows:

IRON-ORE RESERVES IN RUSSIA

Millions of tons Ural 282 Central Russia 789 Southern Russia 536 Caucasus 14 ----- Total 1,621

Eckel[38] reviews the iron-ore situation in Russia as follows:

On their face the ore reserves noted seem satisfactory enough, and until the data are examined more critically it is difficult to explain why the relatively large furnishing capacity of the Moscow and other central Russian districts is so far out of line with the comparatively small ore production of that area. As a matter of fact, however, the large total ore reserves credited to central Russia are in reality less important than they seem, owing both to grade of ore and thinness of the ore bodies. From an international viewpoint the ore deposits of southern Russia are the ones which require most attention; for these are so located as to be of importance to foreign competitors, while the total reserve tonnage is high, and the grade of much of the ore is excellent.

[38] ECKEL, E. C.: “Iron Ores, Their Occurrence, Valuation and Control,” 1914, p. 326.

Actual available ore reserves of merchantable grade in Russia are estimated at 865 million tons.

Before the Revolution the greater part of the Russian iron and steel industries was controlled by syndicates.[39] The oldest of these consisted of manufacturers of medium sheets (1902); then followed manufacturers of joists and =~U~=-iron (1903), axles and tires (1904), iron tubes (1906), rails (1907), and bar iron and hoops. These six syndicates were afterwards combined into one, officially styled the Association for the Sale of Products of the Metallurgical Works of Russia, but generally known as “Prodameta,” from its telegraphic address. There were separate syndicates for wire, wire nails, and roofing sheets. The “Prodameta” consisted, at last advices, of nineteen works, of which sixteen are in southern Russia, and one each in Petrograd, Moscow, and the Ural region. The “Prodameta” expired at the end of 1915, but was provisionally prolonged for one year, and again at the end of 1916 it was extended for a similar period. The aggregate capital of the eighteen works was 198,400,000 roubles, and their net profit for 1915-16 was 76,200,000 roubles.

[39] Ironmonger Metal Market Year-Book, London, 1918.

=Sweden.=--The iron-ore fields of Sweden are among the most important in Europe and have for the last ten or fifteen years furnished a large output, which has gone mainly to England and Germany. A relatively small amount of iron ore is used in Swedish iron-smelting works. The iron mines of central Sweden have been actively worked since about the beginning of the twelfth century, whereas those of Swedish Lapland have been developed recently. At present about one-half the output of iron ore in Sweden comes from Swedish Lapland, and the other half from central Sweden.

Swedish Lapland is estimated to have iron-ore reserves amounting to 1,128 million tons. The ores are mostly magnetite associated with igneous rocks and show wide difference in phosphorus content. Certain deposits or parts of deposits are composed of ores that are moderately low in phosphorus, whereas others are high enough to obtain a special bonus from German steel plants that produce high-phosphorus slag for fertilizer purposes. Practically all the ores of Swedish Lapland are exported. In recent years the total production has amounted to about 3,500,000 tons annually. The principal mines are worked by the Trafikaktiebolaget Grängesberg Oxelosund, in which English and German capital is interested with the Swedish government. The Swedish government controls the output of the mines and receives a large sum in royalties on the ore produced. The ore deposits from which ore is being produced at present are Kiruna, Gellivare, and Tuolluvarra, the first two being operated by the firm mentioned above and the last being an independent operation.

The ore reserves of central and southern Sweden are estimated at 140 million tons, included in a great number of relatively small deposits. Most of the mines of central Sweden are controlled by small Swedish operators. Some of the mines, however, such as Blotberg, are to a large extent under German control, and the largest one, Grängesberg, is operated by the same firm that controls the deposits of Swedish Lapland. Some of the ores of central Sweden, such as those of Dannemora, Norberg, Strossa, and Stripa, are very low in phosphorus, and are used in the manufacture of special low-phosphorus iron; others, like those of Grängesberg and Blotberg, contain more than 1 per cent. of phosphorus.

=Austria-Hungary.=--The iron ores of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire are mainly low-grade hydrous iron silicates that require roasting, large deposits of iron carbonate, and some limonite. The total probable ore reserves have been estimated at 940 million tons, of which about 560 million are very low grade.

The principal sources from which the domestic iron ore used in the past in the Austro-Hungarian Empire has been obtained are the chamosite-hematite deposits at Nucitz and elsewhere in Bohemia; the siderite beds at Erzberg, in Styria, estimated to contain more than 200 million tons of ore; the siderite-limonite deposits on the slopes of the Carpathians; and deposits of various ores in northern and central Bosnia.

By far the largest of the deposits is that at Erzberg, owned and operated by the Oesterreichische Alpinen Montan Gesellschaft, presumably Austrian. The Bohemian deposits, also important, are largely under the control of the Prager Eisen Industrie Gesellschaft. The Carpathian deposits are largely controlled by local individuals and firms, among them Duke Philipp of Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha-Kohar. Thus the principal deposits have been largely under Austro-Hungarian control.

As a result of the war and the disruption of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Bohemian deposits, estimated to contain 35,100,000 tons of high-grade ore and 221,800,000 tons of low-grade ore, will come under the control of Czechoslovakia, whereas the Bosnian ores, with an estimated reserve of 21,500,000 tons, will go to Jugoslavia. Austria will retain control of the large Erzberg deposit in Styria, and the ores of the Carpathian region will continue under Hungarian control.

=Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco.=--The iron ores of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, in northern Africa, are mainly high-grade hematite. The reserve tonnage of Algeria and Tunisia is estimated by Nicou at 100 million to 150 million tons, and about 30 million or 40 million tons is reported in the Spanish territory of Riff, Morocco.

The deposits of Morocco and Algeria are nearly all near the north coast, and the ores are shipped from various small ports, such as Melilla, Benisaf, Arzeu, Algiers, Bougie, and Bona. The deposits of Tunisia are 180 to 200 kilometers southwest of Tunis, the shipping port, with which they are connected by rail.

The principal mines of El Riff, Morocco, are owned by the Sociedad Española de Minas de Riff. German interests, the “Netta Company,” held a large concession, but since the war these interests are controlled by the Company of Bilbao.

The North African deposits are important as a source of high-grade low-phosphorus ore for European blast furnaces. All of the ore produced is exported, the annual shipments amounting to about 1,500,000 tons.

=Cuba.=--There are two principal groups of iron-ore deposits in Cuba--the magnetite and hematite ore on the south coast, and the brown ore, or limonite, on the north coast. All are near the eastern end of the island. The ores of Firmeza and Daiquiri, on the south coast, are mixed magnetite and hematite, averaging about 58 per cent. iron and 0.03 per cent. phosphorus. They are associated with igneous rocks. A determination of tonnage is difficult because of the irregularity of the ore bodies, and estimates of reserves range from 5 million to 9 million tons. The brown ore of the north shore is hydrated brown hematite, a laterization product of serpentine. The dried ore averages about 46 per cent. iron, 0.01 per cent. phosphorus, and 1.7 per cent. chromium. The reserve tonnage, estimated as high as 3,000 million tons, is mainly contained in the three large deposits of Camaguey, Mayari, and Moa.

The principal deposits of Cuba are owned and operated by the Bethlehem Steel Co. Important undeveloped deposits are owned by the Buena Vista Iron Co. (Midvale Steel & Ordnance Co.), United States Steel Corporation, Guantanamo Exploration Co., and Eastern Steel Co.

=Newfoundland.=--The principal iron ores of Newfoundland are bedded oolitic hematites, which average 50 per cent. to 52 per cent. in metallic iron. The ore reserves of Newfoundland have been estimated as between 3,250 million and 3,500 million tons, making them among the largest and by far the most compact iron-ore reserves in the world. The output of ore has been 1,000,000 to 1,500,000 tons annually, except during the war, when the production decreased. These deposits are important on account of both their size and their situation. Ore can be placed readily in American or European ports at a cost far lower per unit of iron than any competitive ore, so that the market is practically unlimited.

The ores have been mainly exported to Sydney, Nova Scotia, and to Philadelphia, while about 10 per cent. has gone to Holland (Germany). The phosphorus content is too high for normal economic basic open-hearth practice if the ores are used alone, but not too high for foundry use or for the basic Bessemer process developed in Europe.

The Wabana iron-ore deposits are owned and mined by the Dominion Iron & Steel Co., and the Nova Scotia Steel & Coal Co., two Canadian firms. Both companies operate steel plants near Sydney, Cape Breton.

=Norway.=--The principal iron ores of Norway are low-grade magnetite and specular hematite, much of which can profitably be concentrated. They occur in the northern part, north of the Arctic Circle. Small deposits of high-grade ores, consisting mainly of magnetite lenses, occur in southern Norway.

The Sydvaranger deposits, in the extreme north near the border of Finland, are estimated to contain 100 million tons of low-grade magnetite. The ore is treated in a large concentrating plant erected by a Norwegian company but controlled by Swedish and German capital. The concentrates analyze 70 per cent. iron and 0.02 per cent. phosphorus. The Dunderland deposits on Rannenfjord, near the Arctic Circle, are estimated to contain 80 million tons of mixed low-grade specular hematite and magnetite.

In 1914 Norway produced 652,273 tons of iron ore, of which seven-eighths came from the Sydvaranger deposit.

=Italy.=--The most important iron mines in Italy are the hematite mines of the island of Elba, which have furnished between 500,000 and 1,000,000 tons of ore annually in recent years. Ten or twelve large ore bodies are found in the eastern part of the island, all under control of the Elba Company, which has obtained a concession giving it exclusive iron-mining rights on the island. Important but as yet little developed magnetite deposits are found in the Aosta Valley, Piedmont, and limonite deposits are found on the island of Sardinia. These have furnished a very small output. Minor deposits of iron ore occur in Lombardy, in the Apennines of central Italy, and elsewhere. The total reserves of iron ore in Italy are estimated at about 25 million tons.

Italy has several important iron-smelting works, among them being the Elba Company furnaces on the island of Elba, the Piombino furnaces at Piombino, on the mainland opposite Elba, and the Ilva furnaces at Bagnoli, near Naples. In addition there are some small plants in northern Italy.

Italy’s iron-ore deposits and iron manufactures are controlled by commercial organizations, mainly Italian, but in part English. The Italian government exercises control over the ore deposits by granting concessions for comparatively short terms.

Agreements made among the Italian manufacturers for the rational division of work have led to the formation of a syndicate of the following firms: Ilva, Elba, Siderurgica di Savona, Metallurgica di Lestre, Ferriere Italiane, and the Piombino Steel Works. These firms undertook to maintain the syndicate for eleven years, dating from July, 1911. The affairs of the organization were directed by the Ilva Company. “In 1916 the constituent companies renewed their agreement up to the year 1930, but the Ilva Company ceased to direct the affairs of the Syndicate, and the relations between the Syndicate and the German Stahlwerks Verband were abrogated and replaced by Anglo-Italian relationships.”[40]

[40] Ironmonger Metal Market Year Book, 1918.

A further organization was made called the “Societa Ferro ed Acciaio,” a combination of steel works.

Italy is important as a producer of iron ore and as a manufacturer of iron products. She has been able to supply her own needs in iron ore for many years and at the present rate can continue to do so for probably twenty years longer. There appears to be no tendency toward expansion into other fields to control foreign ore deposits.

Italy produced 593,000 tons of iron ore in 1913; 669,000 tons in 1915; and 927,000 tons in 1916. In 1915, 408,000 tons of pig iron were produced, and 87,000 tons were imported.

=Greece.=--Chromiferous iron ores are found in eastern Greece and adjacent islands. They contain 46 to 52 per cent. iron, 2 to 3 per cent. chromium, and about 0.10 to 1.00 per cent. nickel and cobalt. The normal annual production of iron ore in Greece has been in the neighborhood of 400,000 tons.

=Canada.=--Small iron-ore deposits occur in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. In Ontario there are two principal iron-ore districts--the Atikokan and the Michipicotan ranges. The ore in the former is magnetite, and in the latter hematite and siderite with some limonite. The ores of western British Columbia are largely magnetite. The principal deposits are on Texada and Vancouver islands, where the ore is of excellent grade, averaging 63 per cent. iron, 0.02 per cent. phosphorus and 4 to 10 per cent. silica. Low-grade magnetite ore is found at the Moose Mountain mine, Ontario, and is being concentrated.

There are a number of blast furnaces in Canada, among them being those of the Dominion Iron & Steel Co., Sydney; the Nova Scotia Steel & Coal Co., Sydney Mines, and the Londonderry Iron & Mining Co., Londonderry, all of which use ores from Newfoundland and Nova Scotia; the Algoma Steel Corporation, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario; the Steel Company of Canada, Hamilton, Ontario; the Canadian Furnace Co., Port Colborne, Ontario; the Canada Iron Foundries, Midland, Ontario; the Standard Iron Co., Deseronto and Parry Sound, Ontario; and the Atikokan Iron Co., Port Arthur, Ontario, which use largely Lake ores of the United States and Canada. The Moose Mountain Co., of Sellwood, Ontario, has a magnetic concentrating and briquetting plant using ore from the Moose Mountain mine. In May, 1920, the British Empire Steel Corporation, the second largest in the world, was formed by the merger of nine steel, coal, ship-building and transportation companies.

In 1912 Canada produced 156,000 tons of iron ore, and made 906,000 tons of pig iron.[41] In 1918 she made 1,066,071 tons of pig iron. The iron mines of Canada are largely of Canadian and partly of American ownership.

[41] Board of Trade, “Reports on Iron and Steel,” London, 1905-1918.

=China and Manchuria.=--Little information is available on the extent of the iron-ore deposits of the Chinese Empire. The principal producing area is that of Tayeh, south of Yangtse River in the Province of Hupeh, where a series of ore bodies, consisting of mixed hematite and magnetite, occurs along the contact of limestone and intrusive syenite. The deposits are estimated to contain about 40 million tons of ore.[42] The Han-Yeh-Ping Iron & Steel Co., largely controlled in Japan, owns these deposits and the Han Yang steel plant near Hankow. Iron ore similar to that of Tayeh is reported to occur farther down the Yangtse at Tungling, in the Province of Ngan-whei, and also along the coast near Amoy, Province of Fukien. The deposits near Amoy are said to contain about 25 million tons.

[42] BAIN, H. F.: “Notes on Iron-Ore Resources of China,” Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 1918.

Of considerable importance are the mixed hematite and magnetite ores of Chin-ling-chen, near Kiaochow, Shantung Province. A series of ore bodies, some of them 100 feet in width, are said to occur along a contact zone two kilometers in length.[43] The deposits were exploited by Germans and are being developed by Japanese.

[43] KOERT, W.: “Iron-Ore Resources of the World,” Stockholm, 1910.

Sedimentary beds of oolitic ore of some extent are reported in the provinces of Chih-li and Kiang-si, but they are of low grade.

Bedded siderite ores similar to the Coal Measures ores of England have been mined for many years in Shan-si Province and smelted in native furnaces. In Hunan Province, also, this type of ore is mined.

The principal iron ores of Manchuria are magnetites that occur as a series of deposits in a northwest-southeast belt south and southeast of Mukden, in southern Manchuria. They are interbedded with schist, gneiss, and porphyry. In this belt are the An-shan-chang deposits that are now being developed by Japanese interests affiliated with the South Manchurian Railway, and the Miaor-kow deposits operated by a Sino-Japanese company, the Pen-hsi-hu Coal & Iron Co., Ltd. The southern Manchuria magnetite belt is reported to contain reserves amounting to about 500 million tons.[44] Much of the ore is of low grade.

[44] WANG, C. F.: “Coal and Iron Deposits of the Pen-hsi-hu District, Manchuria,” Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 1918.

=India.=--Iron ores of four types are found in India[45]: (1) lenses of specular hematite with some magnetite, occurring in quartz-hematite and quartz-magnetite schist of the Dharwar series and other older rocks; (2) granules of magnetite and hematite scattered through granite and schist; (3) clay ironstones in the Coal Measures of Bengal; and (4) lateritic ores.

[45] DE LA TOUCHE, F. E.: “Iron-Ore Resources of the World,” Stockholm, 1910.

The hematite-magnetite lenses interlayered with iron-bearing schists are the most important of the Indian ores, although it is only recently that they have been exploited. The Tata Iron & Steel Co. owns the principal deposits of this type, including Mayurbhanj, in Bengal, where mining is being conducted at present, and the large undeveloped deposits of the Raipur district, Central Provinces. Important deposits of this type are also found in southern India.

Magnetite and hematite derived from the disintegration of schist and granite are now being used by the Bengal Iron & Steel Co., of Barakar. They consist of surface accumulations of iron sands and are found in various parts of India. Clay ironstones scattered through shales were formerly used by the Bengal Iron & Steel Co., but its supply of these is exhausted. Lateritic iron ores lying at the surface are widespread but undeveloped.

The principal iron and steel company of India is that of Tata & Sons, an Indian firm. Its plant, which has been mining since 1912, is at Sakchi, in Bengal, and comprises three blast furnaces with a total monthly capacity of 24,000 tons of pig iron. There are also extensive coke ovens, open-hearth furnaces, and steel mills. Many additions are being planned. The Bengal Iron & Steel Co., which has been in operation for thirty years, has three small blast furnaces at Barakar, with a monthly capacity of 12,000 tons. A steel mill and rolling mill built by this company have been abandoned.

Several new developments are being planned in the Indian steel industry, among them being the Indian Iron & Steel Co., an English firm, which is building a plant near Asanol on the East Indian Railway.

The production of iron ores for 1915 was 390,270 tons, the production of iron and steel for 1914 was 504,564 tons and for 1915 to 1916 it was 584,775 tons. Total imports of iron and steel, 1914 to 1915, amounted to 698,635 tons, and 1915 to 1916, to 424,597 tons.

=Japan and Korea.=--The iron ore used in Japanese furnaces is obtained in part from domestic mines and in part from Korean, Manchurian, and Chinese mines. The iron ore produced in Japan comes mainly from the Kamaishi group of deposits in the northern part of the island of Honshu. These mines yield more than one-half of the total annual production of iron ore in Japan, the remainder coming mainly from the Sennin and Kuriki mines, also in the northern part of Honshu; the Abuta and other bog ore deposits in Hokkaido, and the black sand deposits of Chugoku, in southern Honshu. The Kamaishi, Sennin, and Kuriki deposits consist of magnetite and hematite associated with sedimentary rocks near igneous intrusions. The iron-ore reserves of Japan are estimated by Inouye[46] at about 60 million tons.

[46] INOUYE, K.: “Iron-Ore Resources of the World,” Stockholm, 1910.

The Korean iron ores used in Japan have come mainly from the surficial limonite deposits of Hoang-hai-do, about 100 miles northwest of Seoul, which have been actively mined for 10 years or more. Recently Japanese-controlled blast furnaces have been established at Ken-ji-pho, Korea, which use ore from the Ken-ji-pho iron mine, situated in the same region as the Hoang-hai-do mines. The pig iron produced by this plant is sent to Japan for use in Japanese steel plants.

Chinese iron ore used in Japan has been obtained from the Tayeh mines of Hupeh Province. A part of the ore from these mines goes directly to Japan, and a part goes to the Han-Yang furnaces, near Hankow, to be manufactured into pig-iron and steel products which also go to Japan. The Han-Yeh-Ping Iron & Steel Co., which owns both the Tayeh mines and the Han-Yang furnaces, is a Chinese concern, the capital of which is at present controlled largely by Japanese banking firms.

Of considerable interest at the present time is the development by Japanese of the Chin-ling-chen iron-ore deposits on the peninsula of Kiaochow, Shantung Province. These deposits were being exploited by the Germans just before the war and have recently been taken over by the Japanese, who are continuing development.

Two important Japanese-controlled iron and steel manufacturing projects are at present being developed in Manchuria. The older of these is the plant of the Pen-hsi-hu Colliery & Mining Co. at Pen-hsi-hu, southeast of Mukden, where pig iron is being manufactured from ore obtained from the neighboring Miaor-kou magnetite mines. The pig iron is being sent to Japan. The other Manchurian enterprise is the An-shan-chang iron and steel works at Sha-ho-kou, south of Mukden. The ore is derived from the An-shan-chang iron mines and the pig iron and steel products which it is later planned to manufacture are to be sent to Japan. It is also planned to send Manchurian ore to Japan.

On page 77 are shown the production and importation of iron ore into Japan in recent years:

TABLE 19.--PRODUCTION AND IMPORTATION OF IRON ORE INTO JAPAN, 1914 TO 1916

(Metric tons)

----+----------+---------------+--------------- | | Importation | | | from |Total including | +-------+-------+ other Year|Production| Korea | China | countries ----+----------+-------+-------+--------------- 1914| 136,385 |163,747|300,305| 465,754 1915| 136,121 |204,101|311,310| 516,132 1916| 158,815 |192,225|282,149| 474,955 ----+----------+-------+-------+---------------

A considerable quantity of pig iron is imported into Japan from British India, Great Britain, and other countries.

The principal iron-smelting works in Japan are as follows: Imperial Steel Works, Yawata; Kamaishi Iron Works, Kamaishi; Wanishi Iron Works, Tanburi; Sennin Iron Works, Waka; Kuriki Iron Works, Kisen. All are controlled by Japanese, the first being the Japanese government works.

=Poland.=--In Poland the chief deposits of iron ore are the limonite deposits in the Vistula district, carrying 22 to 50 per cent. iron. The production in 1912 was 289,000 long tons. The resources are estimated at 300 million to 800 million tons.

=Belgium.=--Belgium’s production of iron ore in recent years has amounted to about 150,000 tons annually, of which more than half was derived from the “minette” ore beds in the southeastern part along the French border, and the remainder came in part from beds of oolitic hematite of Devonian age in the Namur and Liege basins and in part from bog-ore deposits in the northern part. In the past the largest production has come from the Namur basin, and there are still large reserves of these oolitic hematite ores. The total iron-ore reserves of Belgium are estimated to be about 62,500,000 tons.

The iron ore produced in Belgium supplies only a very small part of the requirements for the Belgian iron and steel industry, most of the ore being imported from France.

=Portugal.=--The largest deposits of iron ore in Portugal are those of Moncorvo, in the northeastern part. The ore is a bedded sedimentary deposit of low grade and the estimated reserve is 45 million tons. Small deposits of magnetite and brown hematite are found in the southern part in the Province of Alemtejo. Portugal produced 48,342 tons of iron ore in 1913.

=Turkey and Bulgaria.=--Minor deposits of magnetite and hematite occur in Bulgaria and former European Turkey, and in western Asia Minor several important ore bodies are known.[47] The largest of these deposits occurs in the Berut Hills, 90 miles northwest of the Gulf of Alexandretta. It is reported to be capable of producing 300,000 tons annually.

[47] EDWARDS, G. M.: “Notes on Mines in the Ottoman Empire,” Trans. Inst. Min. Met., vol. 23, 1913-14.

Other important deposits are found near Ayazmat, on the mainland opposite the island of Mitylene, and near Tireboli and Trebizond, on the Black Sea. The only producing mine is near Ayazmat.

=Chile.=--Scattered iron-ore deposits occur in Chile in the coastal mountain region; the principal deposits extend a distance of about 150 miles parallel to the coast, some of them being north and some south of Coquimbo. The ore bodies are within 10 to 40 miles of the coast. Most of them are enclosed as lenses in granitic rocks; a few are in sedimentary rocks near the contact of igneous rocks.

Furnaces and a steel plant were erected by a French syndicate 10 to 15 years ago in southern Chile. The plant ran only a few months, there being apparently no market for the product. The iron ore was obtained from the Tofo deposit, and green wood was used for fuel.

Of the Chilean deposits, the largest, Algarrobo, is owned by a joint Dutch-German syndicate controlled by Wm. H. Müller & Co., and Gutehoffnungshütte. Tofo, next in size to Algarrobo, is under lease to the Bethlehem Steel Co. Most of the other deposits are owned by Chileans. The tonnage of Chilean ore controlled by different nationalities is approximately as follows:

Millions of tons (long tons) German 50 American 40 Chilean (in part English) 50 --- Total 140

Iron ore was mined at Tofo during 1914, 1915, and 1916, and exported to the United States. In 1915 about 153,000 tons were shipped. During the war the mining practically ceased.

=Brazil.=--The iron-ore deposits of Minas Geraes, Brazil, are among the most important in the world. The ore bodies, which as yet are practically undeveloped, lie in an area roughly 100 miles square, the center of which is 225 miles in a direct line north of Rio de Janeiro. The principal ores are hematite and are associated as beds and lenses with a laminated ferruginous quartzite known as “itabirite” that covers many square miles. The interlayered beds and lenses of ore are high grade, carrying up to 69 or 70 per cent. of metallic iron and averaging between 0.003 and 0.025 per cent. phosphorus. Nearly all ores of this type are of Bessemer or low-phosphorus grade. There are also large areas of recently formed surface ores consisting of mixed hematite and limonite moderately high in phosphorus; these average 55 to 65 per cent. in metallic iron.

On account of the distance from the coast and high cost of transportation, only the high-grade bedded ores are considered at present as available. The Central Railroad of Brazil runs through the iron-ore district to the port of Rio, 310 miles from the southern edge of the district, but unfortunately, on account of heavy grades, it can not be used for extensive transportation of iron ores. As workable bodies of coal suitable for iron manufacture are not known to exist in Brazil, the Minas Geraes deposits have up to the present produced little ore.

The principal iron-ore deposits of Minas Geraes are owned by the Itabria Iron Ore Co., the St. John del Rey Gold Mining Co., Ltd., the Brazilian Iron & Steel Co., and the Compania Metallurgica, the first two being English, the third American, and the fourth Brazilian. The Deutsch-Luxemburgisches Bergwerks und Hütten Aktiengesellschaft (German), the Société Anonyme Franco-Bresiliene (French), Jules Bernard, Mathiew Goudchaux et Cie (French), the Minas Geraes Iron Syndicate (American), and others, own local deposits. The following table shows approximately the tonnage of ore controlled by each nationality:

TABLE 20.--BRAZILIAN IRON ORE CONTROLLED BY DIFFERENT NATIONALITIES

----------+--------------------- | Millions of tons | (long tons) +--------+------------ |Bessemer|Non-Bessemer ----------+--------+------------ English | 145 | 300 American | 160 | 420 French | 21 | 15 German | 40 | 10 Brazilian | 44 | 400 +--------+------------ Total | 410 | 1,145 ----------+--------+------------

Iron ores similar to those of Minas Geraes, and magnetite deposits of minor importance are reported in other parts of Brazil.

=Mexico.=--Mexico has important deposits of iron ore in the States of Lower California, Coahuila, Durango, Guerrero, Michoacan, and Oaxaca. The largest iron and steel making plant in Mexico is that of the Compañia de Aciero y Fierro de Monterey, State of Nuevo Leon, operated by Spanish capital. This plant produces between 50,000 and 100,000 tons of pig iron yearly. Ore is obtained from Coahuila, and coke from nearby coal fields. At Durango is a charcoal furnace, which has been idle for many years. It is owned by the Durango Iron & Steel Co. (American). Small iron-making operations exist in Hidalgo, Puebla, Vera Cruz and Oaxaca. The best known of the Mexican iron-ore deposits is that of Iron Mountain (Cerro de Mercado), near Durango City, a large body of magnetite. In Lower California there are important deposits of iron ore at several localities. They are owned by the International Development Co., an American firm with headquarters at Los Angeles, California. The deposits in Guerrero, Michoacan and Oaxaca are reported to be extensive.

=South Africa.=--Various deposits of low-grade iron ore are found in South Africa. In Transvaal there is siliceous sedimentary hematite and magnetite in ferruginous schists of different ages, titaniferous magnetite associated with basic igneous rocks, and local clay-band ore; and in both Cape Colony and Transvaal there are lateritic surface ores. A 15-ton blast furnace has been built within the last year or two near Pretoria by the Pretoria Iron Mines Co., Ltd., for the purpose of manufacturing pig iron from local ores. This is the first attempt to establish an iron industry in South Africa.

=Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand.=--In Australia and New Zealand are some important iron-ore deposits, but only a few are developed. Most of the iron ore mined in Australia has been used for flux in copper, lead, zinc, and other smelting plants; a small amount has been used in the two local iron and steel works--that of the Broken Hill Proprietary Co., at Newcastle, New South Wales, and that of the Eskbank Iron Works at Lithgow, about 75 miles west of Sydney, New South Wales. The former is the more important, having in operation at the present time two blast furnaces as well as steel furnaces, rail mill, and plate mill.

Among the important Australian iron-ore deposits are the hematite ores of Coombing Park, near Carcoar, and of Cadia, near Millthorpe, both in New South Wales, estimated to contain reserves of 42 million tons of ore; the hematite deposits of the Murchison district, about 400 miles northeast of Perth, western Australia, where one single deposit--that of Wilgi Mia--has been estimated to contain more than 25 million tons; the Iron Monarch manganiferous iron-ore deposit, estimated to contain 20 million tons of ore, and the neighboring Iron Knob hematite deposit of one million tons, both about 40 miles from Port Augusta, at the head of Spencer Bay, South Australia; and the hematite deposits of Mt. Leviathan, estimated at 10 million tons, located about 250 miles from Normanton, on the Gulf of Carpentaria, Queensland. Numerous smaller and less important ore bodies are found in all the provinces.

The Coombing Park ores have been used at the Eskbank Iron Works, 90,200 tons being produced in 1916. The ore averages about 55 per cent. iron. The Iron Monarch deposit is being developed by the Broken Hills Proprietary Co., and the ore is to be used in the furnaces at Newcastle.

An important iron-ore deposit, estimated to contain 23 million tons of minable ore, is reported to occur on Blythe River, in the northwestern part of Tasmania, about 6¹⁄₂ miles from the coast. There have been rumors recently of a possible exploitation of this deposit.

In New Zealand large deposits of limonite occur in the Nelson district, in the northern part of South Island. The principal group of deposits, known as Parapara, is estimated to contain about 64 million tons. Titaniferous magnetite sands, measurable in millions of tons, are reported to occur in the southwestern part of North Island near New Plymouth.

POSITION OF LEADING COMMERCIAL NATIONS

=General Statement.=--The world’s chief iron- and steel-producing countries are, in the order of their importance: United States, Germany, Great Britain, France, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Belgium. The annual pig-iron production of these countries ranged in 1913 from 2,300,000 tons in Belgium to 30,900,000 tons in the United States. The normal consumption of iron ore by these countries in the last years preceding the war and their recent maximum annual production are given below:

TABLE 21.--MAXIMUM ANNUAL OUTPUT AND NORMAL CONSUMPTION OF IRON ORE BY CHIEF IRON- AND STEEL-MAKING COUNTRIES

---------------+-----------+-------------- |Consumption| Production Countries |(long tons)| (long tons) ---------------+-----------+-------------- United States | 62,000,000| 75,288,851 Germany | 40,600,000|[48]33,987,112 Great Britain | 19,000,000| 15,997,328 France | 12,300,000| 21,572,835 Russia | 8,900,000| 9,362,746 Belgium | 6,800,000| 164,734 Austria-Hungary| 5,200,000| 5,233,055 ---------------+-----------+--------------

[48] Includes production of Luxemburg.

The consumption figures represent metallic iron consumed in terms of iron ore and are obtained on the basis of production and imports of iron ore, and imports of pig iron and crude iron and steel products. Exports of iron ore, pig iron, and crude iron and steel products are not considered as forming part of the countries’ consumption.

A comparison of the consumption and production indicates that the United States, France, Russia and Austria-Hungary were self-supporting as far as raw materials for their iron and steel industry were concerned. Great Britain and Germany are dependent for a small percentage of their requirements upon foreign countries. Belgium produces a very small percentage of her consumption of iron ore, being almost entirely dependent upon foreign sources, mainly France and Germany, for her iron-ore requirements.

In several countries that produce much iron ore the iron and steel industry is still in its infancy. The iron ore from these countries is nearly all exported to the large iron and steel making countries. The following table shows the recent maximum annual production and normal annual consumption in some of these:

TABLE 22.--MAXIMUM ANNUAL OUTPUT AND NORMAL CONSUMPTION OF IRON ORE IN SEVERAL COUNTRIES

------------+-----------+----------- |Consumption|Production Countries |(long tons)|(long tons) ------------+-----------+----------- Spain | 1,000,000 |9,705,963 Sweden | 700,000 |6,878,318 Cuba | ... |1,585,431 Newfoundland| ... |1,433,858 North Africa| ... |1,349,000 ------------+-----------+-----------

Thus, considerable quantities of iron ore are available from these countries for consumption in countries that have to import iron ore and iron products.

There is shown below the pig-iron and steel production in 1913 of the world’s principal iron and steel manufacturing countries.

TABLE 23.--PIG-IRON AND STEEL OUTPUT OF THE CHIEF PRODUCING COUNTRIES, 1913

---------------+-----------+----------- | Pig iron | Steel Countries |(long tons)|(long tons) ---------------+-----------+----------- United States | 30,966,152| 31,300,874 Germany | 19,004,022| 18,659,000 Great Britain | 10,481,917| 7,664,000 France | 5,227,378| 4,349,000 Russia | 4,474,757| 4,750,000 Austria-Hungary| 2,335,170| 2,641,000 Belgium | 2,318,767| 2,475,000 Canada | 1,015,118| 1,044,000 Sweden | 728,103| 574,000 Spain | 418,061| 359,000 Italy | 420,011| 897,000 Japan | 236,491| 251,000 ---------------+-----------+-----------

=United States.=--The United States has for many years had in the Lake Superior district the chief iron-ore producing fields in the world. In recent years the Lake Superior district has furnished more than two-fifths of the world’s output of iron ore. In 1917, 75,288,851 gross tons of iron ore, 38,647,397 gross tons of pig iron, and 45,060,607 gross tons of steel were produced in the United States, as compared with 61,980,437 tons of iron ore, 30,966,152 tons of pig iron, and 31,300,874 tons of steel in 1913. The imports of iron ore in 1917 amounted to 971,663 tons and of crude forms of iron and steel to 306,189 tons, as compared with 2,594,770 tons of iron ore and 250,592 tons of crude iron and steel products imported in 1913. The exports of iron ore from the United States in 1917 amounted to 1,132,313 tons and of crude forms of iron and steel to 4,744,527 tons, as compared with 1,042,151 tons of iron ore and 1,278,131 tons of crude forms of iron and steel exported in 1913.

These figures indicate that in normal times the United States consumes about 85 per cent. of the domestic output of iron ore, in the manufacture of finished iron and steel products. Fifteen per cent. is exported either as iron ore, or as crude iron and steel products which are manufactured into finished products in other countries. Of the finished iron and steel products made in this country the United States itself consumes the larger part. However, large quantities of iron and steel articles and machinery are exported to other countries as well.

The iron ore exported from this country is mainly Lake ore, which goes to Canadian furnaces. The iron ore imported is largely Cuban ore, which is used at the Sparrow’s Point plant of the Bethlehem Steel Corporation. This plant has facilities for using only ore arriving by boat and has been running almost entirely on foreign ores. The Cuban iron mines are largely under the control of this company, and an increased production is expected from them in the future.

The Bethlehem Steel Corporation has also developed an extensive iron-ore deposit in Chile, from which some shipments were made during the first years of the World War. It has been allowed to remain idle recently on account of lack of shipping facilities. Large shipments are expected from Chile in the future.

A considerable amount of Swedish ore has been imported in recent years by the Bethlehem Steel Corporation, to supplement its shipments of Cuban ore. During the war, however, the Trafikaktiebolaget Grängesberg Oxelosund decreased its ore shipments and finally refused altogether to export ore to the United States. These shipments recommenced soon after the cessation of hostilities in Europe.

Certain high-grade low-phosphorus iron ores which are not present in the United States in sufficient quantity to supply domestic needs have been imported in past years from Spain, North Africa, and to a small extent from Sweden. During the war, when the shortage of shipping facilities necessitated combing this country for supplies of high-grade low-phosphorus ores, it was shown that the United States is more or less dependent upon foreign sources for such ores.

There are a number of mines in the United States, such as the Lyon Mountain mine in New York, and the Cranberry mine in North Carolina, which produce limited amounts of high-grade low-phosphorus ore. Several mines on the Menominee Range, Michigan, produce a very siliceous low-phosphorus ore that can be used to supplement in part the high-grade ores. A considerable quantity of low-phosphorus pyrite residue from sulphuric acid and fertilizer plants is also used for making low-phosphorus iron. Much of the pyrite yielding this residue is imported from Spain, some of it is of domestic origin, and some of it comes from Canada. Altogether, the United States supplies about 60 per cent. of the material required for the manufacture of its normal output of low-phosphorus pig iron.

Certain developments in progress make it probable that a greater percentage of ore used for this purpose can be supplied from domestic mines. The principal enterprise is one that plans to concentrate the siliceous magnetite ore of the eastern Mesabi Range. Experiments have yielded a high-grade product and work on a commercial scale is planned.

The reserves of the ordinary grades of iron ore in the United States are large, and no shortage of such ore is anticipated for many years. They are easily capable of taking care of a considerably increased consumption. The largest reserves are in the Lake Superior district and in the southeastern states, but large untouched reserves occur in the western states as well. The iron ores in the Pacific Coast region have remained undeveloped from the lack of sufficient demand for pig iron and crude forms of iron and steel on the Pacific Coast. Undoubtedly this demand will increase in the future, and iron and steel industries will be established there.

The reserves of ore in the Lake Superior district are large. The grade of ore mined, however, has been gradually getting lower, and it is possible that before many years Lake iron ores averaging considerably below 50 per cent. will have to be utilized. At present the average grade of the ores mined in the Lake Superior district is about 51 per cent.

It is clear that there is not likely to be a shortage of the ordinary grades of iron ore in the United States. Reserves of high-grade ores, however, are being gradually depleted, and high-grade ores from foreign countries will find an increasingly ready market. American capital controls a large reserve of high-grade iron ore in Brazil. Much of the Brazilian ore averages about 68 per cent. in metallic iron and is very low in phosphorus, making it an exceedingly desirable raw material for the manufacture of special iron and for mixing with lower-grade domestic ores. Doubtless much of the Brazilian ore will go to Europe, as British and other foreign holdings of this ore are extensive. However, it is highly desirable that a certain proportion of the ore should be diverted to American furnaces.

=Germany.=--The annual consumption of iron ore in Germany just before the war was about 40 million tons, and the maximum annual output at this time, including more than 7 million tons from Luxemburg, was only about 34 million long tons. In order to supply German furnaces it was necessary, therefore, to import more than 6 million tons of iron ore from foreign countries. More than 58 per cent. of the iron ore mined in Germany has come from the Lorraine district. The production from German iron mines outside of the Lorraine district amounted to 6,906,809 tons in 1913. The production of pig iron during that year was 19,004,022 tons.

The pre-war imports of iron ore into Germany were large, amounting to nearly 14 million tons in 1913; against these the exports were somewhat more than 2 million tons.

The iron ore imported from Sweden is mainly high-phosphorus ore from the mines of Swedish Lapland and central Sweden. This is especially adapted to the manufacture of pig iron for the Thomas process, much used in Germany. Most of the ores from the Lorraine district are slightly too low in phosphorus to be suitable for the Thomas process; and Swedish high-phosphorus ores, phosphate rock, and phosphatic slags are in places mixed with Lorraine ore to raise the phosphorus content.

A considerable amount of low-phosphorus iron ore used in the manufacture of low-phosphorus pig iron is also imported from Sweden, and a larger amount of this ore is imported from Spain. This material is used in Germany for the manufacture of pig iron to be used in making acid open-hearth steel.

Since Germany has lost the Lorraine iron fields, the remaining domestic iron mines will be able to supply less than 20 per cent. of the requirements of iron ore for the German furnaces. However, it is likely that Germany will continue to receive most of her supplies from the Lorraine fields, in which German holdings at present predominate over French holdings and will probably continue to predominate.

=Great Britain.=--The United Kingdom has produced from 10 to 14 per cent. of the iron and steel of the world annually for the past 10 years or more, and apparently has consumed in normal times about 50 per cent. of the product and exported 50 per cent., mainly to British possessions. During the war about 75 per cent. of the British production was consumed at home and 25 per cent. was exported, largely to France. Fifty per cent. of the iron and steel products manufactured has been obtained from ores mined in Great Britain, and 50 per cent. from imported ores. Thus, normally, the domestic yield of iron ore just about equals the domestic demand for iron, whereas during the war the domestic demand for iron was greater than the domestic supply of ore. Great Britain depends upon outside sources for one-third of her iron-ore supply and this constitutes the source of about one-half of the iron products.

The iron industry in Great Britain before the war was loosely controlled by merchants who acted as intermediaries between producer and consumer, an arrangement that did not work to the advantage of the consumer.[49] British manufacturers had little interest abroad and were themselves insufficiently organized to operate successfully. If the sources of foreign iron ore were cut off, the situation might become critical and exceedingly embarrassing until the domestic mining industry could be expanded. To meet this condition the British Board of Trade Committee advised a consolidation of iron interests by the formation of a syndicate for the purchase and distribution of iron ores and particularly for the acquiring of interests abroad. This syndicate would establish sales agencies and arrange for transportation and trade, similar to the organization of W. H. Müller & Co., of The Hague. The committee recommended that these operations be backed by the government and that all the resources of the British Empire be under the control of the government, especially in regard to the granting of concessions to aliens and the imposing of restrictions to favor home producers. It has recently been reported that the iron interests have organized along the lines indicated.

[49] British Board of Trade, “Reports on Iron and Steel,” London.

=France.=--The annual consumption of iron ore in France for the manufacture of pig iron and crude iron and steel products amounts to about 12 million tons under normal conditions. The productive capacity of the iron mines of France is more than 21 million, leaving a surplus of 9 million tons of ore annually available for export. More than 90 per cent. of the iron ore produced in France is obtained from the Lorraine iron mines.

Most of the ore exported from France in the past has gone to German blast furnaces. Much has gone to Belgium. Imports of iron ore are small, being mostly high-grade ore from Sweden, in which class of ore France is deficient. French possessions in North Africa have large reserves of high-grade ore, but the bulk of the ore mined there has gone to England and Germany.

As a result of the war, that part of the Lorraine iron fields within the boundaries of the disputed provinces of Alsace and Lorraine has been given to France, who thus has control of the entire output of the great Lorraine iron fields with the exception of the part included in Luxemburg. The production of the Lorraine iron fields, including the part that formerly belonged to Germany, has been nearly 48 million tons annually, of which about 7 million tons is mined in Luxemburg. Outside of the Lorraine district France produces about 1,500,000 tons of ore. Thus, unless iron and steel making expand greatly in France, much iron ore will be mined for export.

=Russia.=--In 1913 Russia ranked sixth in the output of iron ore and fifth in the output of pig iron, producing about 4¹⁄₂ per cent. of the world’s production of iron ore and 6 per cent. of the pig iron.

Russia’s iron-ore reserves are estimated at about 1,600 million tons, a part of which, especially in central Russia, is not economically minable. The district of southern Russia is important on account of its large reserves, large output, and its location. This is particularly true at this time on account of Germany’s need of iron ore for future use.

The Russian output of iron ore grew from about 2 million tons annually in 1891-93 to 7 or 8 million tons annually in 1913-1917. Southern Russia (almost exclusively the Krivoi-Rog district) produced nearly 7 million tons in 1913, but by 1916 the production from this region had been cut down to half, its difference being made up from other regions.[50] Between 1913 and 1917, Russia produced about 4 million tons of pig iron annually, of which 3 million tons came from South Russia, and most of the remainder from the Ural region.

[50] Advisory Council, Dept. of Sci. and Indust. Research, “Report on the Sources and Production of Iron and Other Metalliferous Ores Used in the Iron and Steel Industry,” 1918. Also British Board of Trade, “Reports on Iron and Steel,” London; and Ironmonger Metal Market Year Book, 1918.

In 1916 the Central War Industry Committee estimated the monthly requirements of the whole country at 300,000 tons of pig iron for war purposes, and at 80,000 tons for the requirements of the civil population, making a total annual consumption of about 4,500,000 tons, or only about one-half of the normal consumption. In 1917, the total production in the country was estimated to amount to only 30 per cent. of these minimum requirements.

The situation in Russia is so unsettled that a statement of present conditions in the steel industry is valueless. It is reasonable to assume, however, that the iron and steel situation will not materially change as to operations and control. Moreover, it will be safe to predict that Poland will develop more rapidly as an iron-ore producer in the future, as she was handicapped in the past by restrictions on exportation of ore.

=Belgium.=--Belgium has been negligible as a producer of iron ore but has been a comparatively large importer of iron ore and manufacturer of pig iron. The country ranked sixth as a producer of pig iron in 1913, in which year it produced 147,048 tons of ore and imported 4,400,000 tons.[51]

[51] Board of Trade, “Reports on Iron and Steel,” London.

Belgian iron works were greatly damaged by the Germans during the war, and probably some time will elapse before the industry again reaches the position it occupied before the war. The country offers a good market, however, for the iron ores of France and should in future years be a larger producer of iron and steel wares.

Belgium is practically dependent upon outside sources for ore supply, but is conveniently situated as a market for ores from many countries. The total iron-ore reserves of the country have been estimated at 62,500,000 tons, not enough to last 10 years at the present rate of consumption.

=Austria-Hungary.=--The former Austro-Hungarian Empire yielded in recent years 2 to 3 per cent. of the annual iron-ore production of the world, and about 2 per cent. of the pig-iron production; therefore it has been of minor importance in the iron industry. The ore reserves have been estimated at 284 million tons of available ore, and 807 million tons additional of probable ore.

The present unsettled conditions will probably result in considerable change in the operation and control of the iron mines and works. Eventually the upheaval may stimulate the iron industry, but the result should not materially alter the international position.

=Japan.=--The iron and steel industry of Japan is of small magnitude as compared with that of the United States, Germany, Great Britain, and other leading iron and steel manufacturing countries. The total reserves of iron ore are probably not much more than 60 million tons, or less than has been mined annually in the Lake Superior district in recent years. The steel-making industry is expanding rapidly, however, and at present blast furnaces, steel-making furnaces, and steel mills are being erected in Japan, Korea, Manchuria, and China by Japanese interests.

The output of iron ore in Japan is utterly inadequate to supply this expanding industry. The production of iron ore in Japan has averaged about 150,000 tons annually in recent years, whereas the consumption of crude, semi-crude and manufactured articles of iron and steel is approximately 1,500,000 tons. In order to supply her needs, therefore, from her own manufacturing plants, Japan would require in the neighborhood of 3 million tons of iron ore annually. As compared with this, Japan’s entire consumption of iron ore, both imported and domestic, is less than 700,000 tons. The remainder of the iron and steel required in Japan is being imported in the form of pig iron and crude and manufactured products.

Japan is making a strong effort to develop iron-ore deposits in neighboring countries, especially in China, Manchuria, and Korea; and the production from these sources which goes to Japanese-controlled furnaces is rapidly increasing. Among the more recent Japanese iron and steel enterprises in these countries are the blast furnaces and steel plant now being built at An-schan-chang, south of Mukden, in Manchuria; the blast furnaces at Pen-hsi-hu, southeast of Mukden, in Manchuria; and the blast furnaces at Ken-ji-pho, in Korea. The last two of these plants are now producing pig iron, which is being sent to Japan. In the future all three plants will probably build steel works. Iron-ore deposits are being mined in connection with all of them. Besides being used in the local blast furnaces, iron ore is being sent to Japan from these mines. In China, the most important iron and steel enterprise is that at Han-yang, in the Province of Hu-peh. This operation was started by the Han-Yeh-Ping Iron & Steel Co., as a Chinese enterprise in connection with the Tayeh mines in the same province. This company, however, became involved in financial difficulties, and Japanese capital was called upon in order that work might continue. Considerable expansion of the plant is at present taking place under Japanese supervision. Iron ore from the Tayeh mines and pig iron from the Han-yang plant are sent to Japan for use in Japanese iron and steel works.

It is doubtful whether, with the rapid expansion of the Japanese iron and steel industry, mines in China, Manchuria and Korea can be developed fast enough to supply the raw materials necessary. There are rumors that several deposits of iron ore in eastern China are now being developed, including that of Chin-ling-chen, and these may afford some additional supply. The iron mines of India also may be called upon to furnish more iron ore to Japan than they have done in the past. The only other important iron-ore deposits known elsewhere in the Orient are in the Philippine Islands. These deposits are reported to be fairly important and they are favorably situated for supplying Japanese plants. They are controlled by Americans.

The present expansion of the Japanese iron and steel industry is such that it is a question whether the consumption of iron products in Japan will be sufficient to take care of the entire output. It seems very probable that Japan is looking for a large export trade in iron and steel products. The Japanese may be ambitious not only to displace European and American goods in the Orient, but may even attempt to secure a market on the Pacific Coast of the United States and Canada. It is quite probable that Japanese manufactured articles will be able to compete in the western United States with articles manufactured in the eastern states and subject to heavy transportation rates. On the other hand, there is an active movement to start an iron industry on the Pacific Coast, and it is hoped that plants established there will be able to manufacture iron and steel products at a low enough cost to enable them to compete with Japanese products in the Orient.

Spotted a typo or a problem in this chapter? Tell us

IV. MANGANESE

BY D. F. HEWETT

USES OF MANGANESE

Alloys of manganese are essential in the manufacture of steel by the open-hearth and the Bessemer processes, which produce 99 per cent. of the total output of the United States. In this country, about 14 pounds of metallic manganese as alloys, equivalent to about 40 pounds of high-grade ore, is used in making a ton of average steel. Two alloys are in common use: ferromanganese and spiegeleisen. Ferromanganese, with 70 to 80 per cent. manganese, is largely used in making open-hearth steel carrying less than 0.30 per cent. carbon, whereas spiegeleisen, with 20 to 32 per cent. manganese, is used in making Bessemer steel carrying more than 0.30 per cent. carbon. The first group of low-carbon steels is used in making structural shapes, sheets, bars, wire, etc., and the second group of high-carbon steels is used in making rails, forgings, etc.

In making 70 to 80 per cent. ferromanganese, so-called “high-grade” ore with more than 35 per cent. manganese and less than 5 per cent. iron and 15 per cent. silica is needed. In making 20 to 32 per cent. spiegeleisen, so-called “low-grade” or ferruginous manganese ore with 10 to 35 per cent. manganese, 20 to 35 per cent. iron, and less than 20 per cent. silica is needed, although here and there spiegeleisen is made by mixing high-grade manganese ore with iron ore.

Several other alloys such as silico-manganese, ferro-silicon, and ferro-carbon-titanium may be used as partial substitutes for ferromanganese, but although they may be capable of wider use under stress, they are electric-furnace products and under normal conditions their cost is prohibitive.

Very pure manganese oxide is used in making the common dry battery, the production of which has greatly increased with the wide use of the internal-combustion engine. About 25,000 tons is used annually in the United States for this purpose. The manganese oxide thus used is not consumed, but becomes exhausted through the loss of oxygen. Under stress of high prices, the oxide may be regenerated by treatment or by mixture with new refined material.

Small quantities of manganese ore are used in making many chemical products and pigments.

CHANGES IN PRACTICE

Any consideration of the need for manganese ore and ferromanganese and of dependence upon foreign sources of supply should take account of the degree to which low-grade ore and spiegeleisen may be used as substitutes for high-grade ore and ferromanganese. Thus, although both Germany and the United States have only insignificant resources of high-grade ore, both possess unusually large reserves of low-grade ore. Under recent conditions in the United States the percentage of total manganese used as spiegeleisen increased in three years from 10 to about 18 per cent. Competent authorities have estimated that this substitution may be further increased to nearly 70 per cent. with slight modifications in practice and modest addition of equipment. Some competent engineers further contend that by other modifications of practice a large part of the manganese now needed as alloys may be eliminated by the addition of low-grade manganese ore during early stages of the smelting and refining process.

GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION

Although concentrated masses such as are useful in the arts are rather uncommon, manganese is widespread throughout the earth; it forms a part of about 100 minerals and most of the common rocks, igneous as well as sedimentary, contain 0.1 to 2 per cent.

Present requirements as to grade are such that manganese ores are largely oxides. The carbonate, rhodochrosite, contains enough manganese to permit its use in making 80 per cent. ferromanganese, but only in a few places are the masses large enough to be the basis of extensive mining. The common silicate contains 43 per cent. manganese, but the silica content is so high (23 per cent.) that it can not be used alone in making the ordinary alloys.

The common oxides of manganese are deposited under many conditions which are found near the surface of the earth. Large masses of oxides were deposited in shallow marine waters, in shallow fresh-water basins and under many other conditions in the relatively thin mantle of weathered rock that is found over the entire world. Although most of these large masses were formed in the surface zone where the underlying unweathered rocks are unusually rich in manganese, some large masses of oxides accumulate under peculiarly favorable conditions by the concentration of small quantities of manganese disseminated through the common rocks.

For purposes of geologic study, deposits of manganese oxides may be considered in two groups, as follows: (1) those derived from more or less localized masses of carbonate or silicate materials, generally with more than 5 per cent. manganese, that seem to have no relation to the surface of the earth; and (2) those originally deposited near the surface as localized bodies of oxides.

Under the first group are zones of carbonate or silicate rocks in contact with intrusive igneous rocks, such as are found in Brazil and India. These zones contain manganiferous carbonates (mixed with iron, lime, and magnesia); and silicates (spessartite or manganese garnet and piedmontite or manganese epidote and possibly rhodonite, or manganese pyroxene). By the weathering of such rocks, large bodies of high-grade oxides have been formed.

Manganese also occurs in fissure veins or the adjacent wall rocks in regions that have been intruded by igneous rocks. The veins commonly contain rhodochrosite, manganiferous siderite, or rhodonite, associated with quartz and metallic sulphide minerals, including alabandite, the sulphide of manganese. Such veins are known in Philipsburg and Butte, Mont.; Silverton, Colo., and elsewhere. In such regions if the wall rocks adjacent to fissures are limestone or dolomite, they may be extensively replaced by manganiferous siderite or other carbonates which on weathering yield large bodies of manganese oxides, locally mixed with iron oxides. Such bodies are known at Leadville, Colo.

The manganese existing in sediments, notably clayey, but in part carbonate, may migrate locally after the sediments are slightly buried and form zones of manganiferous carbonate and silicate concretions parallel to the bedding. Where, as in the Batesville district, Arkansas, these zones are exposed by erosion, the manganese is further concentrated as masses of oxides in residual clay.

Metamorphic rocks, such as slates and schists, here and there, as in Spain, Newfoundland, California, and Washington, contain extensive lenses of rhodonite or other silicate with or without rhodochrosite, roughly parallel to the bedding. The origin of these lenses, which are generally rather remote from igneous intrusions, is obscure. Some are considered to be materials laid down during sedimentation, others are thought to represent concentrations effected during metamorphism when the sediments were deeply buried.

In the second group mentioned above (manganese deposits first concentrated near the surface as oxides) are included extensive deposits of oxides interbedded with marine sediments, as in the Caucasus region, Russia. Others interbedded with volcanic material, tuffs and flows, are known in the Mediterranean region and in Chile. In India important beds of oxides are interbedded with quartzite and slate.

Many deposits of oxides have recently formed and are probably now forming in bogs in many regions, notably New Brunswick, Canada. They are not important as sources of production.

Although no simple relation seems to govern the distribution of manganese in unweathered rock, there is reason for believing that the accumulation of manganese oxides in the weathered mantle is favored by climates that cause unusually complete or deep rock decay. Although a few manganese oxide deposits are found within the belts of recent glaciation, and some have no relation to weathering, most of the important deposits occur in areas now or recently favored with warm, humid climates, and there is reason for suspecting that such areas will yield other important deposits.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

=North America.=--In the United States, the occurrence of manganese ore can be most clearly described by grouping the districts according to grade or ore: (1) high grade, containing 35 per cent. or more of manganese, which is used ordinarily for making the high-grade alloy, ferromanganese, and (2) low-grade, ferruginous manganese ore, used ordinarily for the low-grade ferro-alloy, spiegeleisen. The country is deficient in natural supplies of the former, but has abundant resources of the latter, which under the stress of necessity could be largely substituted for the high-grade ore, which is now mainly imported.

The following districts in the United States yield high-grade ore:

At Philipsburg, Mont., are bodies of manganese carbonate that replace Cambrian limestone near veins and igneous contacts. These are weathered to oxides to a depth of about 200 feet below the surface. At Butte, Mont., veins in granite contain manganese carbonate and silicate, locally weathered to oxides.

In the Shenandoah Valley in Virginia, and in similar valleys in Tennessee and Georgia, the residual clays from certain Cambrian limestones and Silurian shale and sandstone yield bodies of manganese oxides to depths that range from 200 to 250 feet below the surface. Many small deposits also occur in Arkansas, Arizona, California, Nevada, and Utah.

The total production of the United States from 1838 to 1918 was 893,734 tons, and the maximum was 305,869 tons in 1918.

Among the chief districts yielding the lower grade of ore (10 to 35 per cent. manganese) the most conspicuous is the Cuyuna district in Minnesota, where beds of iron-manganese carbonate of pre-Cambrian age are weathered to oxides to depths of 250 to 500 feet below the surface and contain ore bodies carrying 7 to 20 per cent. manganese, and 25 to 50 per cent. iron. The single deposits range from 50,000 to 7,500,000 tons each. Since the first shipments in 1913, the production through 1918 has been 1,666,677 tons of ore carrying more than 5 per cent. manganese.

Large deposits of low-grade manganese ore also occur in the Leadville district in Colorado, where irregular bodies of iron-manganese carbonate have replaced magnesian limestone of Carboniferous age and are weathered to oxides to depths as great as 850 feet. From 1885 to 1918, the total production was 3,202,678 tons of material, most of which contained from 15 to 30 per cent. manganese.

Other deposits of ferruginous manganese ore have been exploited in Eagle County, Colorado; the Pioche district, Nevada; Silver City district, New Mexico; and in Arkansas, Georgia, and Virginia.

In Canada, large deposits of siliceous manganese ores occur in Newfoundland, and several small deposits in New Brunswick, Alberta, and British Columbia.

In Costa Rica, manganese occurs in four districts near Playa Real, Nicoya Peninsula, in the form of oxides that seem to be interlayered with sedimentary rocks. The most productive deposits are owned by citizens of United States and of Cuba; others are owned entirely by Cubans. They were first exploited in 1916, and to the end of 1918 had exported 18,000 tons to United States.

In Cuba, manganese is mined near Santiago and Bueycito, in the province of Oriente. Near Santiago, manganese oxides occur as lenticular or irregular bodies in tuff, clay, and limestone. Other deposits are reported in Santa Clara and Pinal del Rio provinces. The mines that have been the source of more than 90 per cent. of the exports are owned jointly by citizens of Cuba and of the United States, and the remaining mines by Cubans.

From 1888 to 1910, 266,621 tons were exported. In 1915, after four years of idleness, the mines were reopened, and imports into the United States from 1915 to 1918, inclusive, were 163,189 tons.[52]

[52] Production data, long tons, unless otherwise specified.

In Mexico, manganese ores are found four miles north of Chihuahua City and south of Palomas, in the State of Chihuahua. It is assumed that the deposits are owned by native Mexicans. Manganese also occurs near Conception Bay, Lower California, where the mines are owned by native Mexicans but are under lease to Americans. From both of these districts, 1,500 tons were produced and exported to the United States in 1917.

In the Republic of Panama, near Nombre de Dios and Madinga, there are irregular lenses of manganese oxides in decomposed sedimentary beds. Seven groups of deposits were exploited near Nombre de Dios. Five of them were exploited by Americans, one by native owners, and one by French. The Nombre de Dios deposits yielded 50,000 tons of ore from 1871 to 1902, largely during the last six years. The Madinga deposits were opened in 1916 and during 1916 and 1917 exported 11,000 tons to the United States.

=South America.=--The largest deposits of manganese ore in South America are in Brazil, and especially in the important mining state of Minas Geraes.

In the Lafayette district in this state, manganese oxides occur in wide lenticular bodies, that seem to have no definite arrangement or association, except that most of them are bounded by schist or gneiss. The deposits lie in a complex of granite, gneiss, and crystalline schists; and the manganese oxides are probably derived from manganese-bearing carbonate and silicate minerals. The most productive area, known as the Morro da Mina, 2,500 feet long by 1,000 feet wide, contains four distinct bodies that range from 320 to 1,300 feet long and from 48 to 320 feet wide. Here manganese oxides persist 410 feet below the surface.

The area has yielded about 1,000,000 tons of ore and the reserves are probably between 7,000,000 and 10,000,000 tons.

In the same State of Minas Geraes, in the Miguel Burnier and Ouro Prieto districts, manganese oxides are interlayered with ferruginous sedimentary rocks of pre-Cambrian age.

In the State of Bahia, the Nazareth district contains bodies of manganese oxide in a thick surface zone of highly weathered schistose rocks. The oxides are probably derived from lenses of manganese garnet in schist. The largest deposit yielded 70,000 tons of ore. Manganese deposits are also reported near Bom Fim, in the same state.

Other deposits of manganese ore in Brazil are reported in the states of Maranhao and Matto Grosso.

The known manganese deposits of Minas Geraes lie within an area about 30 miles square, the center of which is about 300 miles north of Rio Janeiro. The ore is readily mined from open cuts, but existing transportation and loading facilities practically limit the annual exports to 550,000 tons.

Most of the important deposits in the Lafayette-Miguel Burnier and Ouro Prieto districts are owned by resident Brazilians. In 1915 a German company had worked a part of the Morro da Mina deposit for six or seven years and produced a total of 200,000 tons of ore. During 1915 a Belgian company was operating the Cocuruto mine near Ouro Prieto and was shipping 2,000 tons monthly. The largest deposit of the Nazareth district is owned by an American and the undeveloped deposits near Turyassu are owned by Norwegians.

From the beginning of the industry in 1894 to 1918, 4,660,000 tons of manganese ore were exported from Brazil. From 1900 to 1913, the annual exports ranged from 99,000 to 250,000 tons, but with the elimination of Russian sources in 1914, exports rose to 503,130 tons in 1916, 532,855 tons in 1917, and 393,388 tons in 1918. In October, 1917, the export tax on manganese ore was advanced from $0.85 to $3.00 per metric ton. Even before the war a large part of the Brazilian exports went to the United States. The destination of the 1913 exports was as follows: United States, 60 per cent.; Germany, 18 per cent.; Great Britain, 16 per cent.; France, 6 per cent.

In Chile, manganese ores occur at Corral Quemada, and nearby districts in the State of Coquimbo. In these districts, beds of manganese oxides are interlayered with sandstone, shale, and volcanic flows. Manganese is also found in the Carrizal district in the State of Atacama, where beds of manganese oxides are interbanded with shale and limestone. From 1885, when explorations were begun, to 1905, the exports of manganese ores from Chilean ports amounted to 549,716 tons, the maximum exports for one year being 50,871 tons, in 1892.

In Uruguay, deposits of ferruginous manganese ore, reported to contain 80,500,000 tons, occur at Zapucay, in the Department of Rivera.

=Europe.=--In the former empire of Austria-Hungary, the principal manganese district is near Dorna Vatra, in Bukowina. Here there are lenses of manganese carbonate and silicate in schists that have weathered to oxides near the surface. The deposits are owned by the Bukowina Greek Church. The average annual production from 1906 to 1912 was 13,600 tons. Other deposits are reported in Bohemia, Istria, Styria, Hungary and Bosnia. Since 1901, the production of Austria-Hungary has ranged from 18,000 to 25,000 tons annually.

In Belgium, near Chevron, in the Province of Liège, ferruginous manganese oxides have formed by the weathering of manganese and iron carbonates. Since 1901, the annual production in peace times has ranged from 2,000 to 15,000 tons.

In France, manganese occurs chiefly near Romaneche, in the Department of Saone and Loire, where several bodies of manganese oxides lie in a fault between sedimentary rocks and granite. The deposit has been known since 1823, and the production in 1901 was 9,500 tons. Other French deposits have been explored in the Departments of Hautes-Pyrenees, L’Ariege, L’Allier, L’Ande, and La Nievre. The annual production rather steadily declined from 22,000 tons in 1901 to 6,000 tons in 1913. The ownership of the French manganese deposits seems to be largely French, possibly aided by some English capital.

In Germany, manganese ore of the better type, containing over 30 per cent. of the metal, occurs in Sachsen-Gotha, Central Germany, in small veins of manganese and iron carbonates weathered near the surface to oxides. A similar grade of manganese ore occurs in small quantities at Hessen and Waldeck, in Rhenish Prussia.

Manganiferous iron ore, containing from 12 to 30 per cent. of manganese, occurs in Hessen-Nassau, Rhenish Prussia, where manganese and iron oxides form irregular flat lenses imbedded in clays derived from the weathering of underlying Devonian limestone. During the period 1907 to 1911, nine deposits yielded 262,000 to 283,000 tons annually.

Manganiferous iron ore (containing less than 12 per cent. manganese) is found at Siegerland and at Nassau, Rhenish Prussia. The veins are large and contain manganiferous siderite; they cut Devonian sediments. These deposits are largely owned by the principal iron works of Rhenish Prussia. During the period 1907 to 1911, the annual production ranged from 2,200,000 to 2,600,000 tons.

In Great Britain, the principal deposits are in North Wales. Veins of manganese carbonate and silicate, as well as interlayered lenses, are found. The material contains 20 to 36 per cent. manganese. Other deposits are recorded in Devonshire, Cornwall, and Shropshire. The maximum production of Great Britain of about 23,000 tons was attained in 1906, when two mines in North Wales yielded 19,300 tons.

Manganese occurs in Greece, in the western end of the island of Melos, where nodules and masses of manganese oxides are disseminated through beds of tuffs of Pliocene age. The maximum production of 15,000 tons was recorded in 1902. The output has since steadily declined to 550 tons in 1913. Manganese also occurs on the peninsula of Kassandra, which was formerly in European Turkey. A vein explored mainly for argentiferous galena yields manganese oxides from the surface zone. The maximum production of 52,000 tons was attained in 1902, steadily declining thereafter to 12,000 tons in 1910.

In Italy there is manganese in Tuscany, where irregular bodies of manganese and iron oxides occur in Triassic limestones. Other deposits in Liguria and Sardinia have recently yielded a little ore. Of the maximum Italian production of 18,147 metric tons (18 to 45 per cent. manganese) in 1916, 14,072 metric tons was derived from the Tuscany deposits in Tuscany. Normally the annual production has ranged from 1,600 to 4,700 tons.

In Portugal there is manganese in Alemtejo. The deposits, reported to be lenses and veins in Silurian quartzites, are owned by a Portuguese company.

Russia contains the most important manganese deposits in Europe, if not in the world. The principal mining district is near Chiaturi, in the Kutais Government, on the south side of the Caucasus Mountains, in southern Russia. Layers of oolitic grains of manganese oxides are interbedded with horizontal sandstone and shale of Lower Eocene age. Within a zone that ranges in thickness from 4.5 to 7.5 feet and averages about 6.5 feet, seven distinct layers of very pure manganese oxide aggregate about 40 inches in thickness, and the remainder is low-grade material and sand. It is estimated that an area of 120 to 143 square kilometers was originally underlain by the bed of oxides, but that about half has been removed by erosion. Estimates of reserves range from 23,000,000 tons to several hundred million tons.

The mines are operated in a crude, inefficient manner and scarcely two-thirds of the ore is recovered. The number of actual producers ranged from 183 in 1902, to 376 in 1906, but declined to 96 during the political troubles in 1908. The ore is sorted by hand and the low-grade material is washed in crude plants. From 20 to 25 per cent. of the exported material has been concentrated by washing.

In 1902 there were 5,000 concessions, of which 3,750 were owned by 14 persons, each with 25 to 500 concessions; the remainder belonged to 300 peasants and small merchants. By 1912 a producers’ association had been formed to permit the owners to deal collectively with the exporters. Large investments had also been made by German capitalists in mines as well as in undeveloped territory. The Gelsenkirchen Gesellschaft, a German firm, had been formed partly for the purpose of mining but largely to purchase and export ore to Germany. In 1912, this firm, although it produced only a little ore, exported nearly one-third of the total. German groups also established necessary financial agencies to facilitate export of ore as well as to make loans to mine operators. In 1913, of 16 exporting firms, only 3 were Russian.

The output of the mines of the Chiaturi district is hauled to Chiaturi (1.3 to 3.3 miles), loaded on narrow-gauge cars for transport to Sharopan (25 miles), and then reloaded on cars for shipment to Poti or Batum (107 miles), the ports of export. Large stocks ranging from 1,030,000 tons in 1912, to 1,525,000 tons in 1908, are kept at Chiaturi, Poti and Batum. From 1910 to 1912, the distribution of exports ranged as follows: Holland (for Germany), 30 to 43 per cent.; England, 22 to 23 per cent.; Belgium (largely for Germany), 15 to 21 per cent.; Germany (direct), 5 per cent.; France, 4 to 6 per cent.; United States, 4 to 10 per cent.; Austria, 4 to 10 per cent. About 1913, an export tax equal to 40 cents per long ton was levied by the Russian government.

It is estimated that from 1848 to 1914, inclusive, this deposit yielded about 11,000,000 tons of washed ore of marketable grade. The maximum production of 1,300,000 tons was attained in 1913.

Another important manganese mining region is the Nicopol district, in the Province of Ekaterinoslav, north of the Black Sea. In this district a bed of manganese oxides lies between clays and sandstone of Oligocene age. This bed is 1 to 5 feet thick, averaging nearly 3 feet. It is estimated to extend over an area of 20 square kilometers (7.5 square miles) and to contain 7,400,000 tons of manganese ore. The ore is mined and washed in a crude way to free it from the attached clay.

The deposits in this district are probably owned largely by Russians, although French capital is interested in one company and German capital in another. During the period 1901 to 1910, between 80 and 90 per cent. of the production was consumed in southern Russia and the remainder was exported. From 1886, when the deposits were first exploited, the output rose rather steadily to the maximum of 271,000 tons in 1907, then declined to 173,000 tons in 1910. The total production of the district is about 1,800,000 tons.

Manganese deposits are also known in the Province of Podolien and Terek, and in the governments of Tiflis, Erwin, Elisabetpol, and Perm.

The principal manganese deposits of Spain are on the south slope of Sierra Morena, in the Province of Huelva. Vertical lenticular bodies of manganese carbonate and silicate with a little pyrite, garnet, and mica occur interlayered with slate of Paleozoic age. About one hundred bodies are known, many being 500 feet long and 100 feet wide, whereas the largest is 3,300 feet long and 330 feet wide. The manganese minerals are weathered to oxides to an average depth of 65 feet and a maximum depth of 250 feet. From 1881 to 1905, when the oxide ores were nearly exhausted, nearly 700,000 tons had been shipped. From 1906 to 1910 about 125,000 tons of mixed carbonate and silicate was produced.

Manganese is also found in the Covadonga district, Province of Oviedo, where large boulders of manganese oxide are found in clay resulting from the weathering of underlying limestone. These deposits yielded 3,800 tons in 1915. Other productive deposits occur in the provinces of Seville and Teruel. Deposits are also known in the provinces of Ciudad Real, Murcia, and Almeria.

In Sweden, there are manganese ores north of Philipstad, in Wermland, where tabular bodies of manganese oxides are interlayered with dolomite and magnetite. These deposits contributed 7,607 tons out of a total of 7,733 tons in 1915, which was the maximum recorded production of Sweden.

=Asia.=--In India, on the east coast in the Vizagapatam and Ganjam districts, Madras, is a unique group of rocks known as the Kodurite series, containing manganese garnet, manganese pyroxene, potash feldspar, apatite, and quartz. These rocks, supposed to be of igneous origin, have been deeply weathered and the manganese concentrated as oxides in the surface zone. The manganese ore bodies have been explored only to 100 feet in depth, but it is expected that they will extend to 500 feet. The largest ore body explored at the Garbham mine is 1,600 feet long and 100 feet wide, and, from 1896 to 1913, yielded 736,192 tons of ore. The Kodur deposit yielded 370,382 tons of ore from 1892 to 1913. Production began in 1892, reached a maximum of 111,501 tons in 1906, and slowly declined to 44,127 tons in 1913.

Manganese also occurs in the Balaghat, Bhandara, Chindwara, and Nagpur districts in the central provinces; Narukot and Panch Mahals districts, Bombay; Jhabua district, central India; and the Gangpur district in Bihar and Orissa. These districts form a belt that extends from Baroda, on the west coast, across northern India nearly to Calcutta on the east, a distance of 700 miles. In these districts, beds of manganese oxides with manganese garnet and rhodonite form a rock type known as gondite, which is interlayered with quartzite and mica schist. These rocks are considered to be sediments of the Dharwar group (Archean). The manganese oxides may have been laid down as sediments, or may represent the weathering of the silicates. The ore bodies are lenses and layers. The largest single deposit, Balaghat, has the form of a shallow trough, is 1³⁄₄ miles long and 45 to 50 feet thick, and yielded from 1901 to 1913, 725,248 tons of ore. In 1913, thirteen distinct deposits had yielded more than 100,000 tons each, the range being from 101,721 to 725,248 tons.

From 1901, when the deposits of this type were first exploited, the rate of production rose steadily to the maximum of 697,035 tons in 1913. During 1907, fifty-two separate deposits contributed 598,437 tons.

Where rocks of Dharwar age (Archean), such as mica schists, that do not seem to contain the manganese-bearing Gondite series, are deeply weathered, manganese and manganiferous iron oxides form irregular but locally extensive deposits on the crests of hills. These deposits are underlain by barren clays that represent the residue of the underlying rocks. The largest deposit yielded 160,000 tons of ore in three years, 1906 to 1908, but is probably almost exhausted. The principal deposits of this class are in the Sandur Hills district, Madras; the Shimoga district, Mysore; and the Belgaum district, in Bombay; which lie within an area less than 100 miles in diameter in southwest India. From 1905, when deposits of this group were first explored, the production increased to a maximum of 11,353 tons in 1909,then declined to 62,770 tons in 1913. The total yield of this group to the end of 1913 was only 765,401 tons.

As regards the commercial control of the manganese deposits, a law recently passed forbids aliens to own more than a minor interest in mineral deposits in India. Previous to this, during 1907, the latest year for which complete data are available and in which 899,055 tons was produced, the entire output was from mines owned by resident English or natives, except for 21,500 tons produced by the Carnegie Steel Co., of Pittsburgh, U. S. A.

The annual production of manganese ore in India rose steadily from 1892, when the first shipments were made, to 1907, when 899,055 tons was shipped; and since then has ranged from 450,000 to 815,000 tons. The total production, up to and including 1916, was 8,748,000 tons.

Indian ores are transported to the shipping ports by rail for distances ranging from 56 miles for the Vizagapatam district to 783 miles for the Chindwara district, with the result that freight charges are heavy. The ports of export in order of tonnage handled are, Bombay, Mormugas, Calcutta, and Vizagapatam. The destination of exports in 1913 was as follows: United Kingdom, 36 per cent.; Belgium (largely to Germany), 26 per cent.; United States, 15 per cent.; France, 14 per cent.; Germany, 2 per cent.; others, 7 per cent.

In the Japanese Empire, in the islands of Mutsu, Echigo, Ugo, and Nato, are irregular lenticular bodies of rather pure manganese oxides that occur more or less parallel to the bedding of metamorphosed Paleozoic sediments. Below water level, the oxides grade into rhodonite and are probably derived from this mineral. The ore bodies are not large, but many are known and they are the source of a small but regular production. In the islands of Mutsu, Nogo, Hokkaido and Ugo many irregular but locally large deposits of manganese oxides are associated with highly altered volcanic tuffs and flows of Tertiary age. Most of the deposits in Japan seem to be owned by natives in small holdings. The maximum production of 18,076 tons is reported for 1913, but since 1900 the range has usually been from 5,000 to 15,000 tons.

In the Philippine Islands, manganese occurs on the islands of Ilocos Norte, Masbate, Bulacan, Pangasinan and Tarloc, largely as veinlets and boulders of oxides in weathered igneous rock. On Ilocos Norte a maximum production of 3,000 tons was attained in 1916.

=Africa.=--On the Gold Coast of West Africa (a British colony), near Dagwin, are several deposits of manganese, the largest being 400 feet long and 70 feet wide. The concession is owned by a British exploration company. The deposit was discovered in 1914; and from the beginning of exploration in 1916 up to November 7, 1917, 28,465 tons had been shipped to England.

In the Belgian Congo, there is manganese ore in the valley of the Upper Fungwe River, and in southern Katanga. The deposits are too remote from the ocean to justify exploration, but are reported to be large. In the Union of South Africa (British) several manganese deposits are found along the sea coast, within 30 miles east and west of Capetown. Of the seven known deposits the largest is estimated to contain 15,000 tons. In Egypt, in the Sinai peninsula, are large manganiferous iron deposits as well as small manganese deposits, but none has been exploited. In Tunis, there are deposits reported to contain 4,000,000 to 5,000,000 tons of manganiferous iron ore, and also several manganese deposits which yielded 5,800 metric tons of manganese ore in 1917.

Although the known deposits of manganese in Africa are few and relatively unimportant, the continent offers an unusual prospect for the discovery of deposits that will contribute largely to the world’s supply. Inasmuch as the moist tropical climate of large areas favors extraordinary rock decay and surface concentration of manganese oxides, exploration will probably show the presence of many deposits, and where bedrock geological conditions are favorable, large bodies may be found.

=Australasia.=--In Australia, there are deposits of manganese ore in New South Wales, in Queensland, in South Australia, and in Victoria.

In New Zealand, deposits of manganese ore occur in the Thames district, Auckland.

Deposits of manganese ore are known in Borneo, at Maruda Bay.

It is reported that large deposits of high-grade ore have recently been discovered in Java.

Some statistics of the production of manganese are shown graphically in figures 5 and 6.

DEVELOPMENTS AND CHANGES IN GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION IN THE NEAR FUTURE

The known manganese resources of Russia, India, and Brazil are so large and readily available for exploitation and marketing that there is little prospect of their being displaced as the chief sources of the world’s supply for many years. Since the war began, in 1914, several important new districts have been discovered and brought to the producing stage, notably the Gold Coast of West Africa, western Costa Rica, and Java. Although the Javan deposits are reported to be large and may become an important factor in the world’s trade, all that is known concerning the other deposits does not hold out much hope that they can compete with the established sources.

There appears to be a fair chance that the equatorial belt as well as several other parts of the earth may yield additional important manganese deposits.

The distribution of the manganese deposits of the world is shown in Plate III.

POLITICAL AND COMMERCIAL CONTROL

The table of production for 1913 on page 105 shows the part of the total that each country contributed and the known extent of commercial control.

In contrast with deposits of several other important minerals, most of the manganese deposits throughout the world are owned by natives or residents of the respective countries in which they are found.

German companies have acquired tracts in the Chiaturi and Nicopol districts, Russia, and Queluz (Lafayette) district, Brazil. It appears that although one of these companies produces a little ore, the main purpose was to stabilize an unorganized industry by financial assistance.

In India it is difficult to distinguish between those companies composed of resident English and native Indians which were formed to exploit mines for profit and those composed of absentee English who desire to secure a supply of ore for English or other consumption. There seems to be no English capital in Brazil or Russia.

One French company owned two shipping mines in India in 1907, but there is no record of operations in 1913. French capital is interested in several companies busy in the Nicopol district, Russia. A Belgian company operates one mine in the Queluz district, Brazil.

TABLE 24.--PRODUCTION AND COMMERCIAL CONTROL OF MANGANESE

-----------------+---------+-------+--------+----------------------- | | Man- | Per | | | ganese| cent. | | |content|of total| | | (per | pro- | Commercial control Country |Long tons|cent.) |duction |(estimated per cent.) -----------------+---------+-------+--------+----------------------- North America | | | | United States | 4,048| 40+ | 0.16 |United States, 100 | | | | South America | | | |{Brazil, 80 Brazil | 120,368| 38-48 | 5.10 |{Belgium, 5 | | | |{Germany, 15 | | | | Europe | | | | Austria-Hungary| 34,986| ? | 1.5 |Austria-Hungary, 100 Bosnia- | | | | Herzegovina | 5,709| ? | 0.2 |? France | 7,610| 30+ | 0.3 |France, 100 Germany | 748| 30+ | 0.03 |Germany, 100 Italy | 1,596| 18-45 | 0.07 |Italy, 100 | | | |{Russia, 65 Russia |1,289,370| 41-48 | 55.4 |{Germany, 30 | | | |{France, 5 Spain | 21,254| 29+ | 0.9 |? Sweden | 3,938| ? | 0.15 |? United Kingdom | 5,393| 30+ | 0.21 |England, 100 | | | | Asia | | | | India | 815,047| 42-54 | 35.0 |{English and native, 90 | | | |{United States, 10 Japan | 18,516| ? | 0.8 |Japan, 100 | | | | Oceania | | | | Australia | 27| | |? +---------+ | | Total |2,328,110| | | -----------------+---------+-------+--------+-----------------------

The Carnegie Steel Co., of Pittsburgh, Pa., U. S. A., owns and works several deposits in India. Although Americans own deposits in the Nazareth district, Brazil, in Panama, and Costa Rica, and some of those of Cuba, there is no record of American ownership of any of the most important deposits of Brazil, nor of any in Russia.

From 1902 to 1914, about half the ferromanganese used in the United States was made in this country from foreign ore and half was imported from England, where it was made from imported ore. This tendency arises out of the limitations of blast-furnace smelting of the alloy and the difference between the cost of labor in the United States and in England, but does not represent definite control, for ferromanganese may be made in any modern blast furnace used to make pig iron. In order to smelt with maximum efficiency in making ferromanganese, however, a blast furnace should run continuously for long periods, and therefore make 20,000 to 35,000 tons of alloy annually. Although it is possible to pass without interruption from making ferromanganese to spiegeleisen and then to pig iron, the change causes losses. Small steel works in the United States therefore find it more advantageous to purchase imported ferromanganese than to make what they need.

POSITION OF THE IMPORTANT NATIONS WITH REGARD TO MANGANESE SUPPLIES

=United States.=--Although from 1885 to 1890, deposits in the United States supplied half or more of the needed high-grade manganese ore, from 1890 to 1916 the domestic production rather steadily declined to a negligible minimum, while imports of foreign ore and ferromanganese steadily rose in accord with the rate of total steel production. On the other hand, during the period ending about 1908, when the rate of manufacture of steel by the Bessemer process (in which spiegeleisen is largely used) exceeded that by the open-hearth process, the annual domestic contribution of spiegeleisen largely made from domestic ores greatly exceeded the imports. In advance, therefore, of the exploitation of the large deposits of low-grade ores of Minnesota, which have been the source of most of the production since 1916, the United States demonstrated independence of foreign supplies of low-grade ore and alloys.

The experience and information gained during the war, largely during 1918, show conclusively, first, with respect to metallurgy, that 20 to 30 per cent. spiegeleisen, as well as 60 to 70 per cent. ferromanganese, instead of 80 per cent., may be used to make satisfactory grades of open-hearth steel without appreciably sacrificing rate of production or quality of product; and second, with respect to ore production, that known domestic deposits can supply for at least five and probably ten or more years, much more low-grade ore than is needed to make spiegeleisen, and for at least five years and possibly ten years, about one-third the high-grade ore needed for the manufacture of alloy with 60 to 80 per cent. manganese. The reader should note, however, that capacity of mines to meet demand is in large measure determined by the prices offered for the product, which during 1918 were about five times those prevailing before the war. Beyond doubt, at pre-war prices, the United States can not supply more than several per cent. of the high-grade ore needed to make ferromanganese.

Citizens of the United States have not shown great interest in purchasing foreign deposits of manganese ore. With Cubans, they have controlled the mines yielding a large part of the Cuban output, and about 1907 one company, the Carnegie Steel Co., purchased several deposits in India. That company, however, seems to purchase ore, in addition to the output of its mines. Not until 1917 did Americans enter the Brazilian fields; then the largest deposits of the relatively unimportant Bahia district were purchased by a Philadelphia group.

=England.=--Before the war, England received about 50 per cent. of her manganese ore from India, 40 per cent. from Russia, 3 per cent. from Brazil, and small quantities from Spain and Portuguese India. Some low-grade ore also came from Spain, Algeria, and Greece. Domestic production was scarcely 1 per cent. of imports. Exports of ferromanganese, largely to the United States, however, have been equivalent to 35 to 45 per cent. of the total imports of ore. Two effects of the war were to eliminate Russia as a source of ore, the deficit being made up from India, and greatly to curtail exports of ferromanganese. In contrast with the United States and Germany, Great Britain does not seem to contain deposits of low-grade ores capable of supplementing the needs of high-grade ore.

England controls fully 90 per cent. of the Indian output, probably through ownership by resident English and native Indians. On the other hand, England seems to have no control, direct or indirect, of the output of Brazil, Russia, or of other important contributions to supplies.

=France.=--Of the needed manganese ore, France imports from 35 to 45 per cent. from India, 40 to 55 per cent. from Russia, about 10 per cent. from Spain, and several per cent. from Brazil, and produces about 2 per cent. The domestic material, however, contains 30 per cent. or less manganese. In addition, France imports, as well as exports, a little ferromanganese from time to time.

So far as available data indicate, the French have made practically no foreign investments in manganese deposits, except in the Nicopol district, Russia. A company with a French name mined about 1,300 tons in India in 1907, out of a total of 899,055 long tons.

=Germany.=--Germany’s position with respect to manganese is very similar to that of the United States. For four years prior to 1914, Germany imported 48 to 68 per cent. of the total receipts from Russia, 25 to 35 from India, 3 to 7 from Brazil, and small quantities from Spain, Greece, and Sweden. Domestic production of ore with more than 30 per cent. manganese is negligible. Germany probably exports small quantities of ferromanganese to Sweden and other European countries, and from time to time has exported alloy to the United States.

Like the United States, however, Germany possesses extensive deposits of ferruginous manganese ore with 12 to 30 per cent. manganese; and from 1908 to 1913, produced 260,000 to 330,000 metric tons of such material, as well as 2,300,000 to 3,000,000 tons with 5 to 7 per cent. manganese. There can be little doubt that although Germany, through accumulated stocks of manganese ore and seizures in Belgium, possessed in 1914 at least two years’ supply, she was able to maintain a fairly constant rate of steel production for four years by adapting processes to economize high-grade ore and use low-grade.

Germans appear to have purchased manganese deposits in Russia and Brazil only, and these have yielded only a small part of the annual imports. In the Chiaturi district of Russia, however, where most of the deposits are owned by natives, a German company, Gelsenkirchen Gesellschaft, reported to be a subsidiary of the Krupp company, was established about 1910, to purchase property as well as trade with and offer financial assistance to the producers. It is reported that this company alone exported about one-third of the output of the district. Germans are reported to own a part of one of several companies operating in the Nicopol district, Russia.

SUMMARY

A review of the manganese ore industry, including features of the deposits, their geographic distribution and ownership, indicates several definite conclusions:

1. The surface outcrops of most manganese deposits give reliable information concerning the size and grade of the deposits, and the most desirable ore occurs in a surface zone scarcely 100 feet deep.

2. Except in Russia and Spain, the most productive mines are open-cuts, and mining is quickly and easily accomplished at minimum expense. Extensive operations in advance of production are rarely necessary.

3. The countries that possess the largest and richest deposits have an abundant and cheap labor supply.

4. The productive capacity of the known deposits so much exceeds the world’s demand for ore for steel making, that if any single source is temporarily eliminated, the demand can be wholly met by the remaining sources at prices that are only slightly higher than those previously prevailing.

5. The value of the material at the sources of production is relatively low among raw minerals, and ranges from one-third to one-eighth of the selling price at the points of consumption. It is evident that the cost of transportation represents a large part of the final price.

6. The working of most deposits yields so little profit, and therefore is so hazardous, that only a few foreigners own deposits in the chief producing countries.

7. The only case of commercial control, that of the Chiaturi district, Russia, by Germans, who offer the natural market, seems to have been established to counteract local political disorders rather than to eliminate competitive consumers.

8. No nation that contributes largely to the world’s steel production, except Russia, possesses domestic deposits of manganese ore sufficient to meet its needs, and all must import ore from rather remote sources. The United States and Germany, however, possess domestic deposits of ferruginous manganese ore that under great stress would probably permit independence of foreign sources.

Spotted a typo or a problem in this chapter? Tell us

V. CHROMIUM

BY E. C. HARDER

USES OF CHROMIUM

Chromite is the principal ore from which metallic chromium and chromium products are obtained. The theoretical composition of chromite is represented by the formula FeO Cr₂O₃, which represents 32 per cent. ferrous oxide and 68 per cent. chromic oxide. In many ores, however, the ferrous oxide is partly replaced by magnesia, up to 30 per cent., and the chromic oxide by alumina and ferric oxide, up to 20 per cent. Thus the composition of chromite varies considerably. The percentage of chromic oxide may be as low as 10 per cent.; that of ferrous oxide may range from 10 to 50 per cent. Other common minerals of chromium are picotite (chrome spinel), uvarovite (chrome garnet), chrome diopside and crocoite (lead chromate).

Chrome ore is consumed mainly in the manufacture of special steels and in tanning leather. The special steels comprise chrome steel, chrome-nickel steel, chrome-tungsten steel, and chrome-vanadium steel. Metallic chromium is added to such steel in the form of ferrochrome, an alloy of chromium and iron containing 60 to 70 per cent. metallic chromium. Chrome steel is tough and hard to break. It hardens rapidly and has a fine grain and a fibrous fracture; it does not break readily upon concussion and because of its hardness is difficult or impossible to cut with ordinary machine tools. Metallic chromium is present in percentages varying from 1 to 5 per cent. Special steels containing chromium are used for guns, armor plate, armor-piercing projectiles, automobile parts, machine tools, bars for prisons, burglar-proof safes, shoes, cutlery, crusher jaws, stampmills, springs and for other articles in which hardness and toughness are necessary. During the war, when a considerable shortage of chromite threatened, less chromium was used in chrome steels, and certain other hardening materials were used in its place. The results are said to have been unsatisfactory, however.

Ferrochrome used in the manufacture of chrome steels is produced in the electric furnace by smelting a mixture, in proper proportions, of chromite, coal or coke, lime, and fluorspar or silica.

Much chrome ore is used in the steel industry for refractory materials in lining open-hearth furnaces. Some of the ore thus used is first manufactured into chrome brick and some is utilized in the crude form. Chrome brick is used in open-hearth furnaces as a lining along the slag line between the magnesite bottom of the furnace and the silica-brick sides and roof. Chrome brick is used also to cover the ports of gas-fired furnaces. It is desirable for these purposes on account of its neutral reaction, which reduces the wear due to corrosion. Lump or crushed chromite is used for patching the bottoms of open-hearth furnaces, particularly the toe or apex of the bottom, the ore being either hammered in place as lump or crushed and mixed with a little water or tar and clay and then tamped into place. The use of lump chrome in repairing such furnaces is desirable on account of the rapidity with which the furnaces can be repaired and on account of the greater wear that chromite will stand. The amount of chromite used for this purpose ranges from 2 pounds to 10 pounds per ton of steel manufactured. Magnesite has been used to replace chromite for repairing furnaces, but has been found to be more expensive and to stand less wear.

Chrome brick is used in a minor way in electric furnaces for manufacturing steel, in a belt along the slag line and in the area around the pouring lips. It is also being used in furnaces manufacturing steel by the duplex process.

Chrome brick, besides being used in steel-making furnaces, is used in lining furnaces for making copper, nickel, and other metals. In these furnaces it is used in the bottoms and around the tap holes. Magnesite brick, as well as bauxite brick, have been used to replace chromite brick for this purpose.

Chromium chemicals used for tanning are mainly sodium or potassium bichromates. About half of the bichromates produced in the United States is commonly used for tanning, the remainder being used for paints, pigments, dry colors, and dyes in the paint, printing and engraving, and textile industries. Chrome yellow, chrome orange, and chrome black are used in calico printing and dyeing. Chromic oxide, or chrome green, is an indelible pigment employed in printing banknotes. Various other chrome colors are used for paints and pigments as well as in the ceramic arts. The minor uses of chrome chemicals are many.

GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION

Chromite throughout the world is associated with basic igneous rocks, such as peridotite or pyroxenite, or with the alteration products of these rocks, such as serpentine, talc schist, and related rocks. Chromite deposits are generally in the form of lenses, pods, or irregular masses that may occur singly or may be associated in groups. Besides being found as large bodies, chromite occurs as a minor constituent of these rocks, being widely disseminated through them as small specks and particles. Chromite that forms workable deposits is believed to have been separated out of the molten mass of basic igneous rock by segregation and to have formed separate bodies within the rock mass during the cooling. Most chromite deposits are found along the borders of intrusive masses not far from the contact of older rocks into which they are intruded. This is probably due to the formation of peripheral fractures during the cooling of the igneous mass, chromite being forced up into these openings. The action of convection-currents in the molten magma may also have resulted in localizing chromite bodies near the borders of the mass. However, bodies of chromite are quite abundant in other parts of the igneous masses as well, often being found at long distances from bordering rocks.

By weathering of chromite-bearing igneous rock, chromite bodies are freed and occur as loose masses in resultant residual clays. Such bodies in clay are of commercial importance in many places. The breaking down of chromite-bearing rocks results in setting free disseminated specks and particles of chromite, and these may be transported and later deposited along streams flowing out of chromite-bearing areas. In this manner accumulations of chromite sands are formed. Besides chromite, these sands usually contain considerable quantities of other heavy minerals such as magnetite, ilmenite, garnet, and rutile, and the chromite in them is generally not available commercially.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND COMMERCIAL CONTROL

The world’s chromite supply has been obtained mainly from the following sources, named roughly in order of their importance:

New Caledonia; southern Rhodesia; western and southern Asia Minor; Ural Mountains, Russia; eastern Greece, adjacent islands, Macedonia, and Serbia; Baluchistan and Mysore, India; Quebec, Canada; Atlantic and Pacific coast states, United States; State of Bahia, Brazil; Oriente, Cuba; Japan; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Austria-Hungary; and Guatemala.

The geographic distribution of the more important deposits of chromite is shown in Plate IV.

Other countries in which deposits of chromite are known but in which little or no ore has been produced are: Shetland Islands, Scotland; Norway; Sweden; Silesia; Portugal; New South Wales, Australia; New Zealand; Transvaal; Togoland; and Newfoundland.

Table 25 shows the output of chromite in the chief producing countries from 1905 to 1917.

=Australasia.=--Important quantities of chromite occur on the island of New Caledonia, in the South Pacific, and in smaller amounts in Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania.

TABLE 25.--WORLD’S CHROMITE PRODUCTION 1905-1917 IN LONG TONS[53]

-----------------------+--------+------+----------+----------+------+ |1905[54]| 1906 | 1907 | 1908 | 1909 | -----------------------+--------+------+----------+----------+------+ United States | 22 | 107| 290 | 359 | 598| Canada[55] | 7,657 | 8,068| 6,425 | 6,451 | 2,205| Cuba[57] | ... | ...| ... | ... | ...| Guatemala[57] | ... | ...| ... | ... | ...| Brazil[57] | | | | | | Great Britain (Shetland| | | | | | Islands) | ... | ...| ... | ... | ...| Norway | ... | ...| 105[56]| ... | ...| Sweden | ... | ...| ... | ... | ...| Austria-Hungary (Bosnia| | | | | | and Herzegovina) | 183 | 315| 305 | 492 | 327| Greece[60] | 8,759 |11,348|11,545 | 4,281 | 9,448| Serbia[61] | ... | ...| ... | ... | ...| Russia | 26,620 |16,708|25,940 |10,777 |21,857| Turkey[62] (mainly Asia| | | | | | Minor) | ... |23,404|21,111 |28,394 |11,364| Rhodesia | ... | 3,256| 8,017 |11,927 |22,875| India | 2,708 | 4,375| 7,274 | 4,745 | 9,250| Japan | ... | ...| ... | ... | ...| New South Wales | 52 | 15| 30 | ... | ...| New Caledonia | 75,717 |82,910|56,461[56]|24,970[56]|39,368| -----------------------+--------+------+----------+----------+------+

-----------------------+------+----------+----------+----------+ | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | -----------------------+------+----------+----------+----------+ United States | 205| 120 | 201 | 255 | Canada[55] | 267| 140 | ... | ... | Cuba[57] | ...| ... | ... | ... | Guatemala[57] | ...| ... | ... | ... | Brazil[57] | | | | | Great Britain (Shetland| | | | | Islands) | ...| ... | ... | ... | Norway | ...| ... | 113[56]| ... | Sweden | 31| | | | Austria-Hungary (Bosnia| | | | | and Herzegovina) | 315| 246 | 197 | 300[56]| Greece[60] | 9,311| 4,542 | 6,209 | 6,242[56]| Serbia[61] | ...| ... | ... | ... | Russia |14,157| 1,218[56]|20,934 |21,401 | Turkey[62] (mainly Asia| | | | | Minor) | [59]|11,993 |16,823[63]| [59]| Rhodesia |39,287|46,753 |61,840 |62,365 | India | 1,737| 3,804 | 2,890 | 5,580[56]| Japan | 2,091| 1,500 | 1,591 | [59]| New South Wales | ...| 148 | 23 | | New Caledonia |39,368|34,447 |41,325 |62,352 | -----------------------+------+----------+----------+----------+

-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+---------- | 1914 | 1915 | 1916 | 1917 -----------------------+----------+----------+----------+---------- United States | 591 | 3,281 |47,035 |43,725 Canada[55] | 121 |11,008 |24,545 |32,457[56] Cuba[57] | ... | ... | 34 | 17[58] Guatemala[57] | ... | ... | ... | 179[58] Brazil[57] | | | | Great Britain (Shetland| | | | Islands) | 100 | | | Norway | 80[56]| 344[56]| | Sweden | | | | Austria-Hungary (Bosnia| | | | and Herzegovina) | 474[56]| [59]| [59]| Greece[60] | 6,947[56]|10,255[56]| 9,724[56]| [59] Serbia[61] | ... | [59]| [59]| [59] Russia | [59]| [59]| [59]| [59] Turkey[62] (mainly Asia| | | | Minor) | [59]| [59]| [59]| [59] Rhodesia |48,235 |60,617[56]|79,350[56]| [59] India | 5,887[56]| 3,768[56]|20,160[56]| [59] Japan | 2,075[56]| 2,932[56]| 8,149[56]| [59] New South Wales | | | | New Caledonia |41,336[56]|65,941[56]|74,115[64]|41,230[56] -----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------

[53] Figures not otherwise credited were obtained from “Mineral Resources of United States, 1914” and subsequent years, U. S. Geological Survey (figures originally obtained mainly from the British statistical publication, Mines and Quarries: General report with statistics, pt. 4, London).

[54] Figures for 1905 taken direct from Mines and Quarries, 1905 and 1906.

[55] Mineral production of Canada, 1916, Canada Department of Mines, Mines Branch.

[56] Mineral Industry, 1917.

[57] Exports from Cuba, Guatemala, and Brazil in 1918 were respectively 8,820 tons, 1,193 tons, and 17,854 tons.

[58] Exports.

[59] Not available.

[60] Production from the Saloniki district included under Turkey previous to 1914.

[61] Present Serbian deposits in Turkish domain before the war.

[62] Exports from Turkey for fiscal years beginning with March.

[63] Mines and Quarries reports production of Turkey in 1912 as 145 tons.

[64] Stateman’s Year Book, 1918, London.

Serpentine, in masses intruding metamorphic rocks and sediments ranging in age from Archean to Mesozoic, is abundant throughout the island of New Caledonia, and chromite invariably is associated with it as a minor constituent. Locally, large masses of fairly pure chromite are found, generally as lenticular bodies in the serpentine, but locally as irregular masses in residual clay derived from the decomposition of the serpentine.

Chromite deposits of three types are known in New Caledonia, as follows: Rock chrome, consisting of solid ore bodies in serpentine; residual chromite, as irregular bodies or scattered masses, frequently disintegrated, in red residual clay derived from the weathering of the serpentine; and chrome sand and gravel in surface wash and stream deposits. Ores of the first two classes are both important commercially in New Caledonia and are both present in most mines. Ores of the last named class are not worked.

Of these New Caledonian deposits, that of Mt. d’Or, in the southern part of the island, was the first to be discovered and worked, being found by Garnier in 1866. Later the deposits of Ngo Bay and others further south were exploited. Production and exportation of New Caledonian chromite began in the early 80’s and continued in a minor way until 1902, the production coming mainly from Mt. d’Or and the Ngo Bay deposits.

In 1902, L. Bernheim formed the Société le Chrome, in which French capital was largely interested. This company operated mines in the northern and southern parts of the island. It developed the Tiebaghi deposits near the port of Pagoumene, now among the most important in New Caledonia. The exportation of chromite soon increased, and gradually New Caledonian ore replaced Turkish ore in the market. In 1911 the Chrome Co., Ltd., of London, was formed and acquired from the Société le Chrome the Tiebaghi and other mines. At the same time it acquired the right from the Rhodesia Chrome Mines Co., Limited, to market the Rhodesian ore, thus securing practically a monopoly of the world’s chromite trade. The Chrome Co., Ltd., is controlled by French and English interests. Chalas & Sons, Finsbury Pavement House, London, E. C, are the largest stockholders. There were formerly German stockholders. L. Bernheim does not seem to be associated with the Chrome Co., Ltd., but it is said that he still owns chromite deposits in New Caledonia. Besides the operations of the Chrome Co., Ltd., there are a number of independent operations in different parts of the island. These are mainly under the control of inhabitants of the island.

=Africa.=--The important chromite deposits of southern Rhodesia are near the town of Selukwe, which is connected by railroad with the shipping port of Beira. They occur scattered through an area of schist and serpentine. One hundred and twenty chromite bodies have been mapped out, but the only ones that have been developed are ten closely grouped large bodies at Chrome Mine northwest of Selukwe. One of the largest bodies is 180 feet wide and 240 feet long. The ores are high grade, averaging between 48 and 51 per cent. chromic oxide.

Recently considerable publicity has been given to the discovery of what are reported to be among the largest deposits of high-grade chromite in the world in the Umvukwe Hills in the Lomagundi district 30 miles from Banket Junction, southern Rhodesia. The ore is said to occur over a large area in bodies in serpentine. More than two million tons is reported to have been uncovered. The deposits were discovered by Albert Peake, of Umvukwe Ranch, and are owned by Peake Brothers, who are said to have offered them to the Imperial government on special terms.

Chromite was mined in Rhodesia for the first time in 1905, the ore coming from claims near Selukwe held by the Bechuanaland Exploration Company, Ltd. Production steadily increased, slowly at first but more rapidly after 1910, when the Selukwe mines were taken over by the Rhodesia Chrome Mines, Ltd. In 1910 the staking of chromite claims in the Hartley district was reported and in 1911 chromite was discovered at Victoria. Shipments from Selukwe stopped in August, 1914, after the declaration of war, but began in December and increased during 1915 and 1916. In 1917 the discovery of the large and valuable deposits of chromite in the Lomagundi district (already mentioned) was reported. Previous to 1916 the entire production of Rhodesian chromite came from the Selukwe mines of the Rhodesia Chrome Mines, Ltd. In 1917, however, another company, the Rhodesia Metals Syndicate, Ltd., entered the field and is producing important amounts of ore.

=Asia.=--Before Turkey lost most of her European possessions after the Balkan wars, the chromite deposits of the Kossowo, Uskub, and Monastir district of Serbia and the Saloniki district of Greece were within her borders. Now, however, only the deposits of Asia Minor remain to her.

Chromite deposits are widely scattered through many parts of Asia Minor and are said to be numbered by the hundreds. The most important deposits are grouped into three districts: In the regions of Brussa and Kutahia south of the Sea of Marmora, where the important Daghardi deposits are found; near Macri, Denislu and around the Gulf of Adalia in the southwestern part of the peninsula, as well as on the neighboring Island of Rhodes; and near Mersina, Adana, Aleppo, and elsewhere in the region around the Gulf of Alexandretta northeast of the Island of Cyprus. Smaller deposits are reported in the vilayets of Angora and Kastamuni in the north central part of Asia Minor and near Beirut and Damascus in Syria. All the ore bodies are found in more or less schistose and decomposed serpentine in groups of lenslike or irregular bodies.

The chromite mines of Asia Minor have produced important quantities of ore. From about 1870, when Turkey began to supplant the United States as the world’s principal producer of chromite, to near 1900, Asia Minor furnished the bulk of the chromite for the world’s consumption. Most of the ore mined has come from the mines in the Brussa region on the south and southwest slopes of the Mysian Olympus and from the mines of the Macri region. The Brussa and Kutahia deposits are said to have produced an average of about 20,000 tons annually for many years, of which the Daghardi mine is said to have furnished nearly three-fourths. This deposit consists of high-grade ore averaging 51 to 55 per cent. chromic oxide and has been estimated to contain about 10,000,000 tons of ore. Probably this is somewhat an exaggeration, although doubtless the deposit is large and important.

The chromite mines in the Macri region have furnished a considerable part of the output of Asia Minor, but much of the ore mined in recent years has been of low grade, running as low as 40 per cent. chromic oxide. The chromite near Denislu and that near the Gulf of Adalia, on the other hand, is said to be very rich, some deposits containing ore averaging as high as 56 per cent. chromic oxide.

Most of the chromite mines of Asia Minor are probably now under the control of the Turkish government, having reverted back ten or fifteen years ago when increasing competition of New Caledonia chromite in foreign markets resulted in the shutting down of many of the mines. The taxes on both worked and undeveloped mineral properties are so heavy in Turkey that unless mines are bringing in continuous and substantial revenues, they cannot be held by private individuals.

It has been the policy of Turkey not to allow her mineral properties to fall into the hands of foreigners. Even while the exploitation of the chromite deposits was most vigorous, therefore, the mines, although in many places worked by foreign firms, were largely owned by the Turkish government or by Turkish subjects who leased them. Thus in 1904 the principal deposits near Brussa were owned by an officer of the Porte and were operated by J. W. Whittal & Co., an English firm in Constantinople, while other deposits in the same district were worked by Patterson & Canghellari, an English company located in Smyrna. The famous Daghardi deposit, in the Kutahia region, at that time was owned by the Turkish minister of marine and was operated by a Turk named Raghit Bey.

In the Macri district, a number of low-grade deposits were in 1904 under the control of Patterson & Co., of Smyrna, and the mines near the Gulf of Adalia were controlled by a French syndicate. Some large deposits near Denislu, in the interior, north of Macri, are said to be lying undeveloped owing to the refusal of the Turkish government to permit mining.

The chromite deposits in the region surrounding the Gulf of Alexandretta have been worked in a small way both by Turks and foreigners. Among operators in the region are mentioned Durian Effendi, a Turk, representing the Ottoman Bank; Husni Herikizadeh Effendi, a Turk of Adana; Nader Brothers, of Mersina; Alfred Keun & Co. of Smyrna; Protopazzi Brothers, of Smyrna, and Mavrommati & Sons, of Mersina, both probably Greek firms; Loizides, of Mersina; and Hadji Kemal Bey, of Constantinople. Durian Effendi is mentioned also as having operated chromite mines near Beirut.

The most important chromite deposits of India are in the northern part of Baluchistan, but the mines of the Madras and Mysore districts in southern India have also furnished important amounts of ore. A small production has come from Bengal. The deposits of Baluchistan are large and the ore is rich, much of it averaging nearly 55 per cent. chromic oxide. One deposit is reported to be 440 feet long by 5 feet wide. The ore bodies are segregations in serpentine. The problem of transportation is difficult, as the ores are far from the coast and land transportation facilities are poor. Nevertheless, those mines have made a steady output since they were opened in 1903. The largest production was in 1907, when the yield exceeded 7,000 tons. Since then there has been a decrease owing to competition from New Caledonia and Rhodesia.

Chromite ore bodies were exploited in Madras as early as 1861 and small amounts of ore were mined intermittently. The ores are associated with magnesite veins in serpentine. Since 1907 a steady production is recorded from Madras, which has increased recently. Important deposits of chromite are found in Mysore. These deposits have produced more than 2,000 tons of ore annually in recent years, which is reported to have been sent to the United States. The chromite deposits of Bengal are said to be small and unimportant. In Bombay a large body of low-grade chromite is said to measure 1,000 by 300 feet and to average 34 per cent. chromic oxide.

Before 1910 chromite mining in Japan was sporadic and unimportant, but since 1910 the output has been steady and increasing. The principal occurrences of chrome ore are in the southwestern part, the mines of Wakamatsu, in Hoki, being the most important. The ore is said to average about 40 per cent. chromic oxide. Chromite is also reported to occur in the northern part of Japan. The Japanese chromite deposits are small and soon exhausted.

The principal chromite deposits of Russia are in the southern part of the Ural Mountains and are associated with serpentine and soapstone. The deposits are classed under three heads: Large granular masses in serpentine, finely disseminated chromite in serpentine, and chromite sand in platinum- and gold-bearing placers. The characteristic occurrence of chromite bodies in the Urals is as segregations within areas of dunite largely altered to serpentine. Platinum in scattered grains is associated with chromite in the dunite in several places. Recently chromite deposits have been reported in the northern part of the Caucasus Mountains.

=Europe.=--The chromite deposits of the Balkan Peninsula may be grouped into four main districts: central Serbia; southern Serbia; Saloniki, in eastern Macedonia; and Magnesia, southern Thessaly, and the neighboring islands. The chromite deposits are found in serpentine derived from the alteration of peridotite.

The chromite mines of Serbia and Macedonia for many years furnished a small production, credited to European Turkey, which before the last Balkan War embraced all the chromite-bearing areas. Many of the deposits of central Serbia are poorly situated with reference to transportation, the ore being hauled on carts to the railroad stations and thence by rail to the coast. In eastern Macedonia some of the mines are relatively near the coast and the ore is carried on carts to Saloniki. The mines of Serbia and Macedonia were worked in part by individuals and in part by the same firms which mined the chrome ores of Asia Minor, such as Patterson & Co., Whittal & Co., and others.

The chromite mines of Magnesia, Thessaly, and adjacent islands in eastern Greece have furnished a more or less continuous output for the last 30 or 40 years. The ore mined, however, has been mainly of low grade, most of it averaging between 30 and 40 per cent. chromic oxide. It is said to be used largely for refractory purposes. Before 1908 most of the Grecian production of chromite came from the mines of Magnesia, but more recently the mines of southern Thessaly have furnished most of the ore. Mines in the Grecian Archipelago have also furnished some ore. The annual output of Greece has varied from a few hundred tons to more than 15,000 tons. During the past 20 years it has rarely fallen below 5,000 tons.

Chromiferous iron ore in considerable quantity is mined in Greece, most of it being exported. In 1913 ten or more mines were worked. The production has averaged more than 100,000 tons annually. The mines are operated in part by Greek and in part by French and British firms.

The chromic iron ores produced in the former Austrian Empire have come mainly from the central part of Bosnia, but the chromite mines in Upper Styria and those on the Roumanian border have also furnished an appreciable output, the ore being low-grade. The deposits of Bosnia are in serpentine. The ore is of good quality and has been mined for use as a furnace lining. On and near the left bank of the Danube River in the Banat, Hungary, there is an extensive area of serpentine containing chromite in bunches. The deposits have been worked to a slight extent.

=North America.=--In Canada chromite-bearing areas of considerable extent are found in the southern part of the Province of Quebec, where nearly all the productive chromite mines of Canada are situated. The ore occurs in serpentine in irregular masses and pockets without definite form, that range in size up to 75 feet along the longer axis, rarely reaching 100 feet. The amount of high-grade ore in the Quebec chromite deposits is not large, but low-grade ore bodies which under normal market conditions can not be mined at a profit are numerous and of large size. The low-grade ores range in content of chromic oxide from less than 20 per cent. to 35 or 40 per cent. Nearly all the Canadian ore mined has been exported to the United States. From 1910 to 1914 the output of chrome ore from the Quebec mines was insignificant, owing to the cost of mining low-grade ores and the lack of a market for them. When the price of chromite rose late in 1914, American firms began active developments in the field, and subsequently two concentrators were built by the Mutual Chemical Co. The output of Canadian chromite, both of crude ore and concentrates, during the war period was noteworthy, the production rising from 121 long tons in 1914, to 47,035 long tons in 1916 and 43,725 long tons in 1917.

The principal American firms interested in the development of the Canadian chromite deposits during the past few years have been the Mutual Chemical Co., the Harbison-Walker Refractories Co., the Electrometallurgical Co., and the Quebec Asbestos & Chrome Co. The last-named company purchased one of the concentrators built by the Mutual Chemical Co., and has furnished a considerable output both of crude ore and concentrates. Canadian firms have also produced considerable ore.

With the close of the war and the drop in the price of chromite, the Canadian mines have been largely abandoned. It is possible, however, that some American firms that mine ore for use in their own plants may continue work on a small scale.

When the United States was the world’s principal chromite-producing country, the output came from the eastern United States and principally from Maryland. The Wood chrome mine and neighboring deposits in Baltimore and Harford counties furnished most of the production. Smaller amounts were mined in North Carolina and Pennsylvania.

The principal chromite deposits of the United States, and those that have furnished nearly all the ore produced in recent years, are in California and Oregon. Recently deposits of some extent have been found in Montana, but these have not reached the producing stage. The chromite deposits of California are for the most part grouped into four principal districts, the Klamath Mountains region of northwestern California and southwestern Oregon; the Coast Range of west central California; the Sierra Nevada range throughout a considerable part of its length; and the San Luis Obispo district of southwestern California.

The chrome ores of California and Oregon form lenses or irregular bodies in serpentine and related rocks. Many of the ore bodies are found in comparatively fresh peridotite and dunite, and the intimate relation between the chromite and the associated pyroxene or olivine is well shown. In places, also, chromite masses are found in the mantle of residual material derived from the alteration of serpentine and other rocks. Most of the chrome ores of the Pacific Coast are of low-grade, few running more than 45 per cent. chromic oxide. Concentrating plants have been built to beneficiate the ore from bodies large enough to warrant such expenditure. At some plants the grade of ore was thus raised to more than 52 per cent. Locally small bodies of high-grade ore have been found.

The chromite mines of the eastern United States were first worked about 1827 and continued to be operated for about forty years. The California deposits began to be developed about 1870, but never furnished a large output until the war raised the price of chromite to unprecedented figures and ore could be produced at a profit in spite of high costs and high freight rates to consuming centers. The chromite mines of the United States have always been worked and controlled by American capital. In California the ore has been mined mainly by private individuals working small scattered deposits. A few large firms, such as the California Chrome Co., the Adams & Maltby Co., L. H. Butcher Co., and the Union Chrome Co., worked on a larger scale during the war period.

Deposits of chromite have been known in Alaska for a number of years, but not until the war brought high prices was it possible to mine them at a profit. The deposits of present importance are near the southwestern end of the Kenai Peninsula. About 1,000 tons of ore containing 46 to 49 per cent. chromic oxide was mined in 1917.

=South America, Central America and Cuba.=--As far as is known, only one chromite-bearing district of importance occurs in South America, this being in the State of Bahia, in Brazil. One deposit has been worked at this locality by E. J. Lavino & Co., of Philadelphia, and the discovery of several neighboring deposits is reported. The first shipments of ore were made in February, 1918, and by July 1, 1918, 12,620 tons had been sent to the United States. The deposits are said to be owned by Newman & Co., a firm of American exporters in Bahia. They are leased to E. J. Lavino & Co., of Philadelphia.

South America, outside of Brazil, has no known chromite deposits of importance. In Colombia, chrome ore is reported to exist near Antioquia and chromiferous pig iron is said to have been produced by the blast furnace near Medellin. In Venezuela, chrome ore is said to occur on Coro Peninsula.

Important chromite deposits lie along the north coast of Cuba in the provinces of Camaguey and Oriente. A small deposit is found in the northwestern part of the Province of Matanzas. The most important deposits in Cuba are those at the Caledonia mine, south of the Bay of Nipe and northeast of the Bethlehem Steel Co.’s Mayari iron mines. These deposits are estimated to contain about 40,000 tons of ore in sight. They are owned and worked by the Bethlehem Steel Co., which began exploitation in the spring of 1918. Shipments during 1918 amounted to 8,820 tons. Next in importance to the deposits at the Caledonia mine are those along the coast, northeast of Baracoa, known as the Cayoguan and Potosi deposits, where about 35,000 tons of ore is estimated to be in sight. The deposits are on the north edge of a rugged mountain range forming the eastern end of Cuba. The Cayoguan claims are owned by Brady interests, American, and the Potosi claims by the Harbison-Walker Refractories Co., of Philadelphia.

In the Province of Camaguey the deposits are found northeast of the town of Camaguey. They consist chiefly of masses of ore in residual clay and float on the surface. The underlying rock is serpentine. The Camaguey deposits are owned in part by Lehigh University and in part by Cubans. The estimated reserves are 20,000 tons.

Exploitation of the chromite deposits of Cuba began in the fall of 1917 and continued during the spring and summer of 1918. Only the Caledonia mine has produced ore. The chromite deposits are all associated with areas of serpentine.

Chromiferous iron ores that are destined to play an important part in the American iron and steel industry are found at Mayari, Camaguey, and Moa, along the northeastern coast of Cuba. The reserves are measured in hundreds of millions of tons. Only the Mayari deposits are mined at present.

Chromite deposits were developed in the interior of Guatemala in 1917 and shipments started in the autumn. The deposits were owned and operated by the International Railways of Central America, an American company, and are situated in the hills 100 miles inland from Puerto Barrios. The ore is in serpentine. It is very pure and is especially desirable for chemical purposes. The average chromic oxide content of the shipments during 1918 was 58 per cent., thus making this the highest grade ore that came to the American market. The ore was used by the Grasselli Chemical Co. Because of the distance from the railroad, these ores are very expensive to mine, and it was only on account of the high prices paid for chromite during the war that they were developed.

POSITION OF LEADING COMMERCIAL NATIONS

The country that leads in the manufacture of chromium products, such as ferrochrome and chrome chemicals, is the United States. In normal times the United States consumes more than one-third of the annual consumption of chromite by the world. In 1913 the chromite used by manufacturers of ferrochrome and chrome chemicals in the United States amounted to 65,000 tons. Owing to the war, the consumption increased markedly until 1917, when it was nearly 130,000 tons. The normal consumption of chromite in England is about 25,000 tons and in France approximately 35,000 tons. These amounts have not greatly increased in recent years. Germany is an important producer of chromium products, normally consuming 30,000 tons of chromite annually. Russia and the former Austrian Empire used perhaps 5,000 tons each annually. Norway and Sweden use small amounts. Russia’s consumption has been mainly in the manufacture of chromium chemicals, and that of the former Austrian Empire was principally for refractory purposes. In Norway and Sweden small amounts of ferrochrome are produced.

=United States.=--The United States, although the world’s largest consumer of chromite, is not an important producer of this mineral in normal times. During the 30 years preceding the war, the annual production never exceeded 4,000 long tons of crude ore, and during the last 15 years preceding the war the largest annual production was 598 long tons, in 1909. The production in 1913 was less than 1 per cent. of the domestic requirements.

The chromite supply of the United States has, therefore, come largely from foreign sources, and these sources have been mainly Asia Minor, Rhodesia, and New Caledonia. Before 1905 Turkey in Asia was the principal source of supply. Since then, however, Rhodesia and New Caledonia have largely replaced Turkey in the American chrome market.

Although numerous deposits of chromite occur in the western United States and locally in the eastern states, these deposits are usually small and scattered or of low grade. On account of their physical character, small size, scattered occurrence, or distance from consuming centers, domestic chromite could not be furnished to consumers in the required grade or for the price that chromite from rich foreign deposits could be furnished. For this reason the American chromite deposits remained undeveloped and no ore was mined except small quantities which were consumed for refractory purposes in neighboring metallurgical works.

When in 1914, at the beginning of the war, the price of chromite increased, production was immediately stimulated, this being shown by the rapid increase in output from 591 long tons of crude ore in 1914 to about 82,350 long tons of crude ore in 1918, equivalent to about 66,554 tons of ore on the basis of 50 per cent. chromic oxide. Even this largely increased domestic output, however, filled only little more than one-half of the American requirements, the total amount of chrome ore consumed in 1918 being about 104,000 long tons on the basis of 50 per cent. chromic oxide. Had the market for chromite kept up, however, the domestic mines would have supplied a much larger proportion of the requirements in 1919. The consumption of chromite in the United States in 1913 amounted to 65,000 tons of ore containing 50 per cent. chromic oxide. From this it rose to about 127,000 tons in 1917, which represents the maximum annual consumption thus far.

The following table shows the production and imports of chromite on the basis of 50 per cent. chromic oxide, from 1913 to 1918, as well as the total quantity available for consumption for these years. No chromite is exported from the United States.

TABLE 26.--PRODUCTION AND IMPORTS OF CHROMITE, UNITED STATES, 1913-1918

----+-----------+-----------+--------------- | | |Total available |Production | Imports |for consumption |(long tons)|(long tons)| (long tons) ----+-----------+-----------+--------------- 1913| 230 | 65,180 | 65,410 1914| 530 | 74,578 | 75,108 1915| 2,756 | 73,762 | 76,318 1916| 39,509 | 110,849 | 150,358 1917| 36,729 | 64,978 | 101,707 1918| 66,554 | 92,678 | 159,232 ----+-----------+-----------+---------------

The prices paid for domestic chromite in the United States in recent years ranged from an average of $11.19 per ton in 1913 to an average of about $24.00 per ton in 1917.

When the need of increased shipping was felt in the latter part of 1917, steps were taken to reduce the imports of chromite from distant countries, such as Turkey, New Caledonia, and Rhodesia, to increase the imports from nearby sources such as Brazil, Cuba, and Canada, and to urge the maximum production from domestic mines. As a result, the imports of chromite from Brazil were 17,854 long tons of crude ore and from Cuba 8,821 long tons of crude ore in 1918. The only previous production in Cuba was 34 long tons in 1916 and 17 long tons in 1917. Brazil had no production before 1918. The imports from Canada amounted to 20,949 long tons of crude ore in 1918, as compared to 19,021 long tons of crude ore in 1917, and 12,220 long tons of crude ore in 1916. In order to reduce the importation of chromite from countries far overseas, various restrictions were put into effect by the War Trade Board in the early part of 1918.

The development of domestic chromite supplies means the depletion of limited resources, high cost of production, use of lower-grade ores, and lowered efficiency in consumption. With the free access of high-grade foreign ores, the market for domestic ores, therefore, disappears; and the domestic chromite-mining industry can not survive to any large extent. If world conservation of raw materials or the best use of the world’s resources is of chief importance, the domestic chromite-mining industry should be allowed to decline, and cheaper and higher-grade foreign ores should be allowed to replace domestic chromite. Experience during the past few years has shown that the chromite deposits of the United States, supplemented by imports from Canada, Brazil, and Cuba, can largely supply the domestic requirements for a limited period.

The United States controls only a small part of the chromite reserves of the world. American firms own the principal Cuban deposits and control the Brazilian deposits through leases. The United States is, therefore, dependent to a large extent upon the good will of France and England for a continuous supply of chrome ore, these two countries jointly being largely in control of the chromite reserves of Rhodesia and New Caledonia. Turkey controls most, if not all, of the chromite deposits of Asia Minor, but because of their enclosed situation on the Mediterranean, these deposits could not be relied upon as a source of supply in time of need. The same is true of the deposits of the Ural region in Russia.

The chief chromite-consuming firms in the United States are the Electrometallurgical Co., probably the largest producer of ferrochrome in the world; the Mutual Chemical Co., and the National Electrolytic Co., large producers of chromium chemicals, and the Harbison-Walker Refractories Co., American Refractories Co., and various steel-making plants, users of chromite for refractory purposes.

=Great Britain.=--Before the war Great Britain consumed annually about 25,000 tons of chromite, most of it being used by Blackwell & Sons, Ltd., for the manufacture of ferrochrome. The ferrochrome made in England, however, is not sufficient to supply the needs of the British steel industry, and much is imported from France.

Except for unimportant occurrences in the Shetland Islands there are no chromite deposits in the British Isles, and Great Britain is therefore dependent entirely upon overseas sources of supply. British colonies, on the other hand, are rich in chromite deposits, and as long as British ships have freedom of movement on the ocean, they will have access to the more important chromite deposits of the world.

Owing to their richness and large size, the most important of all the British-controlled deposits are those of Rhodesia. Only one of many deposits in this area is being operated, and the reserves in untouched ore bodies are undoubtedly large, comparable perhaps with those of New Caledonia.

The production of the Rhodesian chrome mines has in recent years averaged in the neighborhood of 60,000 tons annually or about 35 per cent. of the world’s production, and doubtless the output could be very greatly increased if other known deposits were developed. However, even the present production is more than twice the actual chromite requirements of Great Britain. These requirements, however, do not represent the needs for metallic chromium or chromium compounds, and if France should cease to supply Great Britain with ferrochrome, a much larger amount of the raw material, chromite, would be necessary for the English steel industry.

Besides the chromite deposits of South Africa, chromite deposits of importance are found in other British colonies, notably in British India and Canada. Amounts of chromite varying from 2,000 tons to 10,000 tons have been produced annually in British India for many years, coming mainly from Baluchistan, in the northwestern part, but a small production has come also from Mysore, in the southern part. In early years, India furnished a more important part of the world’s supply of chromite than at present. Transportation is a serious difficulty in the mining of these deposits and when New Caledonian and Rhodesian ores became developed, the Indian ores dropped in importance.

The Canadian deposits, while of considerable extent, and having ready accessibility to eastern American markets, have not been extensively or continuously mined, on account of their low-grade character. By concentration, a medium high-grade product can be obtained, but concentration methods are expensive and bring the cost of the material up to such an extent that it can not compete with other ores now on the market. Thus, the cost of producing both Indian and Canadian ores is such that under normal conditions it is difficult to find a market for them, but in case of necessity, a considerable tonnage can be supplied from these sources.

Other British colonies in which deposits of chromite exist are New South Wales, Tasmania, and New Zealand. As far as known, the deposits in these countries are small and only those of the first have furnished a small production.

Besides controlling chromite deposits in many parts of the world through her colonial possessions, Great Britain controls deposits through British firms with foreign possessions. Thus, the Chrome Co., Ltd., of mixed British and French interests, controls not only the Rhodesian chromite output but also owns and controls most of the important New Caledonian mines.

Great Britain has in the past received most of her supplies of chromite from Rhodesia, New Caledonia, and Turkey. Although more than enough chromite is produced in Rhodesia to supply the British needs, England has allowed most of the Rhodesian ore to be exported to other countries and has imported foreign ore for part of her own needs. Probably the largest part of the Rhodesian output before the war went to the United States. Much of the ore consumed in England has come from Turkey, where English firms have been interested in chromite mining for many years. Most of the Indian output probably has been used in Great Britain, but a part has gone to France.

=France.=--A few deposits of chromite are known in France, but they are of no importance commercially. France, therefore, like England, is entirely dependent upon overseas sources for her chromite supply. Unlike England, however, France has only one colony, New Caledonia, containing important chromite deposits; but luckily this colony contains enough to make it one of the world’s principal sources of chromite.

Although the Chrome Co., Ltd., which controls the principal New Caledonian chromite deposits and is the largest shipper, represents both English and French capital, France through political means can control the output of chromite from the island. While in the past probably the major part of the chromite used in France has come from this source, France has also used Rhodesian and Turkish ores and probably Russian ores to a considerable extent, and much New Caledonian ore has gone to Germany, the United States and Great Britain.

The principal French firms manufacturing ferrochrome are the Société Electrometallurgique Française, at La Praz; Société La New Metallurgie, at Giffre; Société Anonyme Electrometallurgique, at Albertville; Keller, Leleux et Cie, at Livet; Société Electrometallurgique de Saint Beron, at Saint Beron; Ch. Betrolus, at Bellegarde; and Rochette Frères, at Epierre.

=Germany.=--Except for unimportant low-grade deposits in Silesia, Germany has no chromite supplies within her borders. As a user of chromite Germany ranks in importance with France, most of the ore consumed being used in the manufacture of ferrochrome, the principal manufacturers of which have been the Krupp works. Chrome chemicals are also made in abundance, however. None of Germany’s former colonies is known to have chromite deposits except Togoland, and the Togoland deposits are undeveloped and are believed to be unimportant.

In the past, Germany has received chromite from New Caledonia, Rhodesia, Turkey, Greece, and probably Russia. Because of the long rail haul from Russia and the poor state of development of the industry in Turkey, the ores from these two countries were, in the years immediately preceding the war, being largely replaced by ores from overseas. The four large chromite-consuming countries have, therefore, all been looking mainly to New Caledonia and Rhodesia for their sources of supply.

During the war, when overseas chromite was not available, Germany was enabled by her relations with Turkey to obtain chromite from Asia Minor, and probably from chromite mines in Serbia, Hungary, Bosnia, and Herzegovina. Thus in time of need, when the usual overseas sources of supply were cut off, Germany, through her relations with neighboring countries, was able to obtain by land sufficient chromite to supply her ordnance requirements. Had the war continued Germany would doubtless have developed the chromite resources of the Urals, and those, together with the deposits of Asia Minor, even in their present state of development, could have kept Germany supplied indefinitely.

It is probable that German control became important in the mines of Asia Minor during the war. By relatively small improvements in transportation facilities, such as building branch railroad lines to the principal deposits, the chromite mines of Asia Minor might be rejuvenated to such an extent as to enable the ores to compete with Rhodesian and New Caledonian ore and to place them again among the world’s large producers. The deposits are large and the reserves rank in importance with those of Rhodesia and New Caledonia.

=Russia.=--Russia is independent as far as her requirements of chromite are concerned. Out of her production of about 20,000 tons annually, the domestic industry consumes less than one-fourth and the rest is available for export to nations less favored with chromite resources.

Most of the chromite used in Russia goes into the manufacture of chrome chemicals. The Russian bichromate works at Elabouga, east of Kazan, established in 1892, have consumed about 2,000 tons of ore annually.

SUMMARY

The political and commercial control of the principal chromite deposits of the world is summarized in the following table:

TABLE 27.--POLITICAL AND COMMERCIAL CONTROL OF CHROMITE DEPOSITS

Political Predominant Country control commercial control

New Caledonia French French-British Rhodesia British British Asia Minor Turkish Turkish Ural Mountains, Russia Russian Russian-British Greece Grecian Uncertain Serbia Serbian Uncertain India British Probably British Canada British United States-Canadian United States United States United States Brazil Brazilian United States Cuba Cuban United States Japan Japanese Japanese Austria-Hungary Austrian Uncertain Guatemala Guatemalan United States

Great Britain and France produce in their colonial possessions chromite enough for their own needs and for export, but the United States, the world’s largest consumer, must depend, except in time of extreme emergency, upon imports, mainly from New Caledonia and Rhodesia.

Various countries have from time to time played important rôles in supplying the world’s demand for chromite. One country after another has been displaced, as cheaper or better grades of chromite came into the market. At times these changes were caused by the finding of larger bodies of higher-grade ores than had previously been mined, and at other times they were caused by cheaply transported ores replacing ores inconveniently situated with reference to centers of consumption.

Thus, at the beginning of the nineteenth century and up to about 1830, the Ural Mountain region of Russia supplied the major part of the world’s requirements for chromite, which were small. About 1830, important discoveries of chromite were made in the eastern United States, particularly in Maryland, and the United States soon displaced Russia as the leading producer of chromite. After this, for many years, the United States continued to lead in chromite production until about 1870, when the domestic deposits gradually approached exhaustion and important deposits discovered in European Turkey and Asia Minor began to be extensively developed.

Asia Minor was the principal chromite-producing country from about 1870 until about the beginning of the twentieth century. The deposits continued to be worked fairly steadily on account of their richness and large size, although they were inconveniently situated with reference to transportation. Only certain deposits, such as those in the Macri and Alexandretta regions, were so near to the coast that the ore could be carried on muleback or by camel to the shipping ports. From the larger deposits, such as Daghardi, the ore had to be transported by animals to railroad stations, often a distance of many miles, and then by rail to the coast. Because of these difficulties, Turkish ore was largely replaced by ore from the important New Caledonian and Rhodesian deposits as soon as those were developed.

In New Caledonia labor is cheap and the deposits are all near the coast. By means of sailing vessels and tramp steamers which charge low rates and often require such heavy materials as chromite for ballast, this ore can be delivered to points of consumption at a relatively small cost. The Rhodesian chromite deposits are not as accessible from the coast, but they are large and rich and the rail freight rates to the shipping port are exceptionally low. For this reason, Rhodesian ore has been able to successfully compete in the market with New Caledonian ore, and these two sources have, therefore, in recent years, jointly supplied most of the requirements of the principal nations for chromite.

During the war, because of abnormal conditions arising from the shortage of shipping facilities, there was considerable uncertainty as to whether it would be possible to supply American consumers of chromite with imported ores. Under the stimulus of much higher prices, the production of chromite in the United States increased from 255 long tons of crude chromite in 1913, to about 82,350 tons in 1918, mainly from California, Washington and Oregon. This production was larger than the annual production of crude ore from any single source (except 82,910 tons from New Caledonia in 1906) since the chromite-mining industry began. This production, of course, could not be continued without a rapid depletion of American chromite reserves, and does not represent a normal development.

Spotted a typo or a problem in this chapter? Tell us