Appendix

Table of the Heights above the Sea of some of the Principal Mountain Chains.

EUROPE.

---------------------------------+------------+-------------+------------- Names of Places, Mountains, &c. | Heights | Countries | Authorities. | in English | in which | | Feet. | situated. | ---------------------------------+------------+-------------+------------- MONT BLANC | 15,739 |Alps, P.[205]| P. S.[206] Monte Rosa | 15,210 | Alps, L. | P. S. Mont Cervin | 14,836 | Alps, P. | P. S. Finsterärhorn | 14,026 | Alps, B. | Eichman. Jungfrau | 13,672 | Alps, B. | Eichman. Le Géant du M. Blanc | 13,786 | Alps, P. | P. S. Mont Combin | 14,124 | Alps, P. | P. S. Mont Iséran | 13,272 | Alps, G. | P. S. Monte Viso | 13,599 | Alps, C. | P. S. Ortler Spitz | 12,851 | Alps, R. | A. S. Le Grand Rioburent | 11,063 | Alps, M. | P. S. Drey Herrn Spitz | 10,122 | Alps, Car. | A. S. Mont Terglou | 9,386 | Alps, J. | A. S. | | | Passes of the Alps:-- | | | | | | Col du Géant | 11,238[207]| Alps, P. | Saussure. Col de St. Theodule | 11,185 | Alps, P. | P. S. Pass of Great St. Bernard | 8,173 | Alps, P. | P. S. Pass of La Furka | 8,714 | Alps, L. | S. S. Pass of Mont Moro | 8,937 | Alps, L. | P. S. Pass of Le Tavernette | 9,827 | Alps, C. | P. S. Pass of Mont Iséran | 9,196 | Alps, G. | P. S. Pass of Col des Fenêtres | 9,581 | Alps, P. | P. S. Pass of the Stelvio | 9,177 | Alps, R. | A. S. Pass of Bernardino | 7,015 | Alps, R. | A. S. Pass of the Splugen | 6,946 | Alps, R. | A. S. Pass of St. Gothard | 6,808 | Alps, R. | S. S. Pass of Mont Cenis | 6,772 | Alps, G. | P. S. Pass of Simplon | 6,578 | Alps, L. | P. S. Pass of Tende | 6,159 | Alps, M. | P. S. Pass of Mont Genèvre | 6,119 | Alps, C. | P. S. Pass of Brenner | 4,659 | Alps, R. | A. S. Pass of Pontebba | 3,625 | Alps, J. | A. S. | | | Malahite Peak | 11,168 | Pyrenees | A. B. L.[208] Mont Perdu Peak | 10,994 | Pyrenees | A. B. L. Maboré, Cylinder of | 10,899 | Pyrenees | A. B. L. Maladetta, Cylinder of | 10,886 | Pyrenees | A. B. L. Vignemale, Cylinder of | 10,820 | Pyrenees | A. B. L. Pic du Midi | 9,540 | Pyrenees | A. B. L. Canigou | 9,137 | Pyrenees | A. B. L. | | | Passes of the Pyrenees:-- | | | | | | Pass or Port d’Oo | 9,843 | France | A. B. L. Pass or Port d’Estaube | 8,402 | France | A. B. L. Pass or Port de Gavarnie | 7,654 | France | A. B. L. Pass or Port de Tourmalet | 7,143 | France | A. B. L. | | | Pic de Sancy | 6,188 | France | A. B. L. Plomb du Cantal | 6,093 | France | A. B. L. Mont Mezen | 5,795 | France | A. B. L. Puy de Dôme | 4,806 | France | A. B. L. Ballon des Vosges | 4,688 | France | A. B. L. Mont Ventoux | 6,263 | France | A. B. L. Mulachaçen | 11,483 | Spain | A. B. L. Sierra de Gredos | 10,552 | Spain | Bory. Estrella | 7,526 | Spain | Franzini. Siete Picos | 7,244 | Spain | Bauza. Peña Laza | 8,222 | Spain | Bauza. El Gador | 6,575 | Spain | Rojas. | | | Monte Corno, or Gran Sasso | 9,521 | Italy, | d’Italia | | Apennines | Monte Vellino | 7,851 | Italy, | M. de Prony. | | Apennines | Termenillo Grande | 7,212 | Italy, | Schow. | | Apennines | Monte Amaro di Majella | 9,113 | Italy, | Schow. | | Apennines | Monte Cimone | 6,975 | Italy, | Schow. | | Apennines | Mont Amiata | 5,794 | Tuscany | Schow. St. Oreste or Soracte | 2,140 | Campagna | Schow. | | of Rome. | | | | Passes of the Appennines:-- | | | | | | Pass of Noviordi Giovi | 1,550 | | Schow. Pass of La Bochetta | 2,550 | | Schow. Pass of Pietramala | 3,294 | | Schow. | | | Islands of the Mediterranean:--| | | | | | Monte Rotondo | 8,767 | Corsica | A. B. L. Monte d’Oro | 8,701 | Corsica | A. B. L. Monte Generargenta | 6,004 | Sardinia | La Marmora. Mount Etna | 10,874 | Sicily | W. H. Smyth. Pizzo di Cane | 6,509 | Sicily | A. B. L. Mount Eryx | 3,894 | Sicily | A. B. L. Stromboli | 2,687 | Lipari Isles| De Borch. | | | Greece and Morea:-- | | | | | | Mount Guiona | 8,538 | | Peytier.[209] Parnassus | 8,068 | | Peytier. Taygetus, Mont St. Elias | 7,904 | | Peytier. Mont Olonas | 7,293 | | Peytier. Mont Kelmos | 7,726 | | Peytier. Mont Athos | 6,778 | | De Borch. Mont Helicon | 5,738 | | Peytier. Delphi | 5,725 | | Peytier. Mont Hymettus | 3,378 | | Peytier. | | | Central Europe:-- | | | | | | Ruska Joyana | 9,912 | E. Carpaths.| Malte Brun. Budosch, Transylvania | 9,593 | E. Carpaths.| A. B. L. Surrul | 9,593 | | Mount Tatra; highest point | 8,524 | W. Carpaths.| Wahlenberg. Mount Tatra; Csabi Peak | 8,314 | W. Carpaths.| Wahlenberg. Mount Tatra; Lomnitz | 8,861 | W. Carpaths.| A. B. L. Riesenhoppe, in the | | | Riesengeberge | 5,394 | Germany | Horen. Feldberg, in the Schwarzwald | 4,675 | Germany | French | | | Engineers. Belchenberg, in the Schwarzwald| 4,642 | Germany | French | | | Engineers. Kandelberg, in the Schwarzwald | 4,160 | Germany | Bohnenberger. Schneeberg, Geisengebirge | 4,784 | Germany | Kammkoppel, Geisengebirge | 4,265 | Germany | Charpentier. Sonnenwerbel, in the Erzgebirge| 4,124 | Germany | Rachelberg, in the Böhmerwald | 4,561 | Germany | Sternberg. Steinberg, Moravia | 3,511 | Germany | David. Brocken, Hartz | 3,658 | Germany | Zach. Schneeberg, in the | | | Fichtelgebirge | 3,461 | Germany | Goldfuss. Blessberg, in the Thuringerwald| 2,748 | Germany | Zach. Glockner, in the Thuringerwald | 2,231 | Germany | Zach. Gross Feldberg, in the Taunus | | | chain | 2,775 | Germany | Schmidt. Lowenberg, in the Siebengebirge| 2,024 | Germany | Nose. | | | Norway and Sweden:-- | | | | | | Skagtöltend Lat. 61° 24ʹ | 8,101 | Scandinavian| Keilhau. | | Mountains | Koldetind | 7,224 | Scandinavian| Keilhau. | | Mountains | Sognefield | 7,182 | Scandinavian| Hagelstam. | | Mountains | Mugnafield Lat. 61° 20ʹ | 7,215 | Scandinavian| Forsell. | | Mountains | Schneehattan Lat. 62 20 | 8,120 | Scandinavian| Eismark. | | Mountains | Pighœttan Lat. 62 2 | 6,788 | Scandinavian| Hagelstam. | | Mountains | Sulitelma Lat. 67 5 | 6,178 | Scandinavian| Wahlenberg. | | Mountains | Langfield Lat. 61 53 | 6,598 | Scandinavian| Hagelstam. | | Mountains | Melderskin Lat. 60 0 | 4,859 | Scandinavian| Von Buch. | | Mountains | Lyngen Mountains Lat. 69 30 | 4,300 | Scandinavian| Von Buch. | | Mountains | | | | Great Britain:-- | | | | | | Ben Nevis | 4,380 | Scotland | Jameson. Cairntoul, Aberdeenshire | 4,223 | Scotland | Playfair. Ben Avon, Aberdeenshire | 3,931 | Scotland | Playfair. Ben More, Grampians | 3,819 | Scotland | Playfair. Schehallien, Grampians | 3,514 | Scotland | Playfair. Snowdon | 3,557 | Wales | Roy. Cader Idris | 3,550 | Wales | Roy. Carn Llewellyn | 3,471 | Wales | Roy. Cross Fell, Cumberland | 3,383 | England | Jameson. Helvyllen, Cumberland | 3,313 | England | Jameson. Skiddaw, Cumberland | 3,038 | England | Dr. Young. Schunner Fell, Yorkshire | 2,388 | England | Smith. Coniston Fell, Lancashire | 2,575 | England | Smith. Cheviot Hills | 2,657 | England | Smith. Pentland Hills | 1,878 | Scotland | Playfair. Curran Tual, Kerry | 3,412 | Ireland | Nimmo. Sleib Donnard | 3,146 | Ireland | Nimmo. Nephin, Mayo | 2,644 | Ireland | Jameson. Mourne Mountains, Down | 2,493 | Ireland | Jameson. Ben More, Isle of Mull | 3,100 | Hebrides | Jameson. Hecla, Isle of S. Uist | 3,002 | Hebrides | Boué. Cuchullin, Isle of Skye | 2,995 | Hebrides | M’Culloch. Mount Rona | 3,593 | Shetland | Laing. | | | Iceland and Feroe:-- | | | | | | Snœfials, Jokull | 5,115 | Iceland | A. B. L. Hecla | 3,324 | Iceland | A. B. L. Skalingefield, Isle Stromoe | 2,172 | Feroe | Stein.

ASIA.

AFRICA, AND ISLANDS IN THE ATLANTIC.

AMERICA.

ISLANDS IN THE PACIFIC, POLYNESIA, AUSTRALASIA, &c.

LAKES AND INLAND SEAS.

HEIGHTS OF SOME REMARKABLE INHABITED PLACES.

GLOSSARY.

A´BIES. Lat. A fir-tree. Specific name of a tree.

ABYSSI´NICA. Lat. Abyssinian; belonging or relating to Abyssinia.

ACA´CIA. Gr. ake, a point, and akios, not subject to worms: a thorny tree. A genus of the family Leguminósæ and order Mimósæ. About 300 species are enumerated; many of them yield gum.

ACA´CIA ARA´BICA. Arabian acacia.

ACA´CIAS. Trees belonging to the genus acacia.

A´CID. A term given by chemists to those compound bodies which unite with salifiable bases to form salts: for example, a compound of sulphur and oxygen, called sulphuric acid, unites with magnesia and forms a salt named sulphate of magnesia, or Epsom salts.

ACI´DULOUS. Sourish; possessing acid properties.

ACROCHO´RDI. Lat.: plural of acrochordus.

ACROCHO´RDUS. From the Greek akrochordon, a wart. A genus of non-venemous ophidians, whose bodies are entirely covered by scales resembling warts: these scales, or rather squamous tubercles, are small, numerous, rhomboidal, and surmounted by a small horn or point, more or less sharp.

ADANSO´NIA. A genus of plants named in honor of Michel Adanson, a famous French botanist, born in 1727. Adanso´nia digita´ta. Sour gourd. Monkeys’ bread or Baobab tree of Senegal, which is considered the largest or rather the broadest tree in the world. “Several measured by Adanson, were from sixty-eight to seventy-eight feet in circumference, but not extraordinarily high. The trunks were from twelve to fifteen feet high, before they divided into many horizontal branches, which touched the ground at their extremities; these were from forty-five to fifty-five feet long, and were so large that each branch was equal to a monstrous tree; and where the water of a neighboring river had washed away the earth, so as to leave the roots of one of these trees bare and open to the sight, they measured 110 feet long, without including those parts of the roots which remained covered. It yields a fruit which resembles a gourd, and which serves for vessels of various uses; the bark furnishes a coarse thread, which they form into ropes, and into cloth with which the natives cover their middle from the girdle to the knees; the small leaves supply them with food in time of scarcity, while the large ones are used for covering their houses, or, by burning, for the manufacture of good soap. At Sierra Leone this tree does not grow larger than an orchard apple tree.” Loudon.

A´DIT. Lat. adeo, I approach. A horizontal shaft or passage in a mine, either for access, or for carrying off water.

AFRICA´NUS. Lat. African; belonging or relating to Africa.

AGALLO´CHUM. From the Gr. aggalomai, to become splendid. A resinous, aromatic wood, burned by the Chinese and Japanese for the sake of its agreeable odour, from the Excæca´ria aggallo´cha. Aloes wood.

A´GAMOUS. From the Gr. a, privative, and gamos, marriage. Having no sex.

A´GATE. A name given to all varieties of quartz which have not a vitreous aspect; are compact, semi-transparent, and whose fracture resembles that of wax. Agates are of various colors and admit of a fine polish. According to Theophrastes and Pliny, the name comes from the river Achates in Sicily, now the Drillo, on the banks of which the first agates were found.

AGLA´IA. From the Gr. Aglaia, beauty, elegance. A genus of plants, trees or shrubs, of which there are five or six species in the Island of Java. The odora´ta is one.

A´GUA. Spanish. Water.

AIRA. From the Gr. aira, a tare, cockle weed. A genus of the family of Gramíneæ, or grasses, of the tribe of Avenáceæ. Hair-grass. A. antarctica. Antarctic hair-grass.

AIR-PLANTS. A name given to certain parasitic plants which were supposed to be nourished by the air alone, without contact with the soil. There are some species which will live many months suspended by a string in a warm apartment.

ALBA, } ALBUS,} Lat. White. ALBUM,}

ALBI´NO. Spanish. From the Lat. albus, white. Applied to individuals of the human race, (and extended also to some other animals), who have white hair; the iris, pinkish or very pale; and the eyes unable to bear much light. Albinos are most frequent in the negro race; but it does not seem to be true that there are tribes of Albinos in any part of the world.

AL´BUMEN. From the Lat. albus, white. A chemical term, applied to an immediate organic principle, which constitutes the chief part of the white of egg. Animal and vegetable albumen are nearly the same in composition.

AL´CALINE. Having properties of an alkali.

ALCHEMI´LLAS or ALCHEMI´LLA. Arabic. A genus of plants of the family Rosáceæ. The A. vulgaris, common ladies’ mantle.

A´LGA. Lat. Sea-weed.

A´LGÆ. Plural of alga. Name of a sub-class of crytógamous plants, which is subdivided into three families: the Phy´ceæ, or submerged sea-weeds; the Lichens, or emerged sea-weed, and the Byssa´ceæ, or amphibious sea-weeds. The algæ or sea-weeds are ágamous plants which live in the air, on the surface or at the bottom of fresh or salt water; they are remarkable for their cellular or filamentous structure into which no vessels enter.

ALHA´GI. Arabic. Genus of plants of the family of Leguminósæ. The alhagi maurorum grows in the deserts of Egypt; a sweet, gummy substance exudes from the bark in form of small yellowish grains, which, it appears, was the manna the Hebrews ate while in the deserts of Arabia Petria.

AL´KALI or AL´CALI. A chemical term formerly applied to potash and soda: it now embraces the oxides of potassium, sodium, lithium, barium, strontium and calcium, metals which decompose water at ordinary temperatures and absorb, that is, combine with its oxygen, giving out heat and flame.

A´LOE. Name of a genus of plants which includes very many species. The inspissated juice of several of these species constitutes the varieties of the medicine called Soccotrine, Barbadoes aloes, &c.

ALLU´VIAL. Of the nature of alluvium.

ALLU´VION,} From the Lat. alluo, I wash upon. Gravel, ALLUVIUM, } sand, mud and other transported matter, washed down by rivers and floods upon lands not permanently submerged beneath water. A deposit formed of transported matter.

ALPI´NUM,} Lat. Alpine; belonging or relating to the Alps. ALPI´NUS,}

ALU´MINUM or ALUMI´NIUM. From alu´men, alum. The mettaloid which forms the basis of alum; of alumina or pure argil.

AMARY´LLIS. From the Gr. amarusso, to be resplendent. A nymph in ancient mythology. Name of a genus of plants, forming the type of the family of Amaryllídeæ, composed of about sixty species. Generally they are bulbous plants, remarkable for the size and beauty of their flowers.

AMBLYRHI´NCHUS. From the Gr. amblus, obtuse, and rugchos, snout. Name of a genus of iguanian reptiles.

A´METHYST. From the Gr. amithustos, not drunk. The ancients gave this name to a stone in which the wine red colour was tempered with violet. A violet variety of hyaline quartz.

AMMO´NIA. A colourlous gas of a peculiar, pungent odour. It causes death when respired; and its strong alcaline reaction distinguishes it from all other elastic fluids. It is liberated from all its chemical combinations by the alkalis. Spirits of hartshorn is a solution of this gas.

AMMONI´ACAL. Of the nature of ammonia.

AM´MONITE. From the Lat. Ammon, a name of Jupiter. A fossil so called from a supposed resemblance to the horns engraven on the heads of Jupiter Ammon. In certain parts of England called snake-stones. Ammonites are fossil shells, rolled upon the same plane, consisting of a series of separate chambers, like the nautilus.

AMOR´PHOUS. From the Gr. a, privative, and morphe, form. Without definite or regular shape.

AMPE´LIDÆ. Lat. (ampelis), name of a family of birds in the tribe of dentiróstres.

AMPELI´DEÆ. From the Gr. ampelos, a vine. Name of the family of Phanerógamous plants, which includes the vine.

AMPHI´BIOUS. From the Gr. amphibios, two-lived. Having the faculty of living in two elements.

AMPHIU´MA. From the Gr. amphi, both, on all sides, and uma, that which has been moistened. A genus of Batrachians in which lungs but no bronchiæ exist through life. Amphiu´ma menop´oma. A kind of Batrachian which resembles the Salamander. It is found in Louisiana.

A´MPLITUDE. In astronomy denotes the angular distance of a celestial body, at the time it rises or sets, from the east or west points of the horizon. It is sometimes used to designate the horizontal distance a projectile reaches when thrown from a gun.

AMY´RIS. From the Gr. amuros, not perfumed. A genus of phanerógamous plants, which is the type of the family of Amyri´deæ which is allied to the family of turpentines. Amy´ris gileade´nsis. The Balm of Gilead. Amy´ris kataf. The myrrh tree. Amy´ris opoba´lsamum. The opobalsam, or balsam of Mecca.

ANA´NAS. Portuguese. Pine-apple. Genus of the family Bromeliáceæ, and type of the tribe Ananáceæ.

ANDRO´MEDA. Mythological name of a constellation. Genus of the family Ericáceæ, and type of the tribe Andromédeæ or Andromedas.

ANGE´LICA ARCHENGE´LICA. Garden Angelica. Root and seeds used in medicine as an aromatic stimulant.

ANGUI´NUS. Lat. Of the nature of a snake; belonging or relating to a snake.

ANE´ROID BARO´METER. Consists of a cylinder of copper with a very thin and corrugated end, partially exhausted of air and hermetically sealed. The effect of the varying pressure of the atmosphere on the thin end is magnified by a system of levers, so as to affect the index of a dial like that of a watch or clock. This is a French invention, but was patented in England, in the year 1844. See Barómeter.

ANIMA´LCULA. Lat. Animalcule.

ANIMA´LCULÆ. Lat. plural of Animálcula.

ANIMA´LCULE. A diminutive animal. A term used to designate animals so small that they cannot be seen by the unassisted eye.

ANISA´TUM. LAT. Belonging or relating to aniseed. Specific name of the tree which produces star-aniseed.

ANO´LIS. A kind of Saurian, called anoli in the Antilles. Also called, long-toed lizard, or dactyloa.

AN´NUAL. From the Lat. annus, a year. Yearly. A plant which rises from the seed, reaches perfection, and perishes within a year, is termed an annual.

ANTA´RCTICA. Lat. Antarctic.

ANTELOPE MONTA´NA. Mountain Antelope. A. rupicapra. Chamois. A. cervicapra. Common antelope. A. dorcas. Gazelle. A. gazella. Algazel. A. mhorr. Mhorr.

A´NTHER. From the Gr. anthera, a flowery herb. In botany: the essential part of the stamen. The small yellowish body, compared to a diminutive leaf folded on itself, which crowns the stamen, and in which the pollen is formed.

ANTIQUO´RUM. Lat. Of the ancients.

A´PHIS. Gr. A plant-louse; a vine-fretter.

A´PHIDES. Plural of aphis.

APOCY´NEÆ. From the Gr. apo, far from, and knon, dog. Having the virtue of driving away dogs, the plant which kills dogs. Botanical name of a family of plants of which the genus apo´cynum is the type.

A´PTENODY´TES. From the Gr. apten, without wings, and dutes, diver. A genus of birds. A´ptenody´tes patagonica. A species of Penguin.

A´PTERYX. From the Gr. apteros, without wings. Name of a genus of birds.

AQUEOUS ROCKS. Are those formed by deposits from water.

AQUILA. Lat. An eagle. Aquila albicilla. The fishing eagle.

ARAUCA´RIA. From Arauco. Name of a department or district of Chile where the first species was seen. Name of a genus of the family of conifers. Arauca´ria excelsa. The Norfolk Island pine.

ARBU´TUS. Lat. A shrub. A genus of plants.

ARCTOCE´PHALUS. From the Gr. arktos, a bear, kephale, head. Name of a genus of mammals.

ARDE´A. Lat. A Heron. Name of a genus of birds. Arde´a helias. The Sun Bird.

A´REA OF SUBSIDENCE. A geological expression used to designate a space which has settled.

ARE´CA. Cabbage-tree. A genus of plants of the family of Palmæ. Are´ca catechu. The medicinal or betel-nut palm.

ARENA´CEOUS. From the Lat. arena, sand. Sandy; of the nature of sand.

ARGEN´TEUM. Lat. Silvery; relating to silver.

ARGENTI´FEROUS. From the Lat. argentum, silver, and fero, I bear. Containing silver.

ARGILLA´CEOUS. From the Lat. argilla, clay or argil. Of the nature of clay.

ARGONAU´TA. Lat. From the Gr. argo, name of a vessel, and nautes, a navigator. Name of a genus of cephalopódous mollusks.

ARMADI´LLO. Spanish. Diminutive of armado, armed. Name of a mammal of the family of edentáta or edentates.

AROMA´TICUS. Lat. Aromatic; spicy.

AR´SENIC. A metal of a shining, steel gray colour. Heated in contact with atmospheric air, it rapidly absorbs oxygen, and forms arsenious acid, which is the poison commonly called arsenic, or rat’s bane. Arsenic is found in its metallic state, in the form oxide or arsenious acid, or white arsenic; and combined with sulphur, forming orpiment, and realgar.

ARTEME´SIÆ. } A tribe of plants, of which the genus Artemésia ARTEMESIAS. } is the type. Many of them are used in medicine.

ARTE´SIAN. From Artois, name of a province of France where especial attention has been given to a means of obtaining water, which consists in boring vertical perforations of small diameter in the exterior crust of the earth, frequently of great depth. These are termed Artesian wells.

ARTICULA´TA. Lat. From articulus, a joint or articulation. Having joints or articulations.

ASCLE´PIAS. A name of Esculapius. A genus of phanerógamous plants. Ascle´pias giga´ntea. Mudar of the Hindoos. The milky juice is very caustic; the bark of the root as well as the juice are used in medicine by the Asiatics.

ASPHALT. } From the Gr. a, privative, and sphalto, ASPHALTUM. } I slip, or asphaltos, bitumen. Used anciently as a cement. A black brittle bitumen, found on the surface and banks of the Dead Sea, hence called the Asphaltic lake.

ASPHODE´LEÆ. Name of a family of phanerógamous plants.

ASSI´MILATE. From the Lat. ad, and similare, to render similar. Assimilation is the act by which living bodies appropriate and transform into their own substance, matters with which they may be placed in contact. In man, assimilation is a function of nutrition.

ASPLE´NIIFO´LIA. Compound of asplenium, a genus of ferns, and folia, leaves. Having leaves resembling those of the asplénium.

A´STER. From the Gr. aster, a star. A name given to the plant by the Greeks in allusion to the radiate form of the flowers. Name of a genus of plants which forms the type of the asteroides or asters— literally, star-flowers.

ASTRA´GALI. Lat. plural of Astragalus.

ASTRA´GALUS. Lat. Name of a genus of phanerógamous plants of the family of leguminósæ.

ATOLL. A chaplet or ring of coral, enclosing a lagoon or portion of the ocean in its centre.

AUCU´BA. } A genus of plants of the family of Rhamnoides. There AUKU´BA. } is but one species, which grows in Japan. _Aucuba Japonica._

AUCHE´NIA. From the Gr. auchenios, belonging to the head or neck. Lat. name of a genus of mammals, the Llama. Also, a genus of coleópterous insects.

AURI´CULA. Lat. Little ear. A genus of phanerógamous plants of the family of Primuláceæ.

AURI´FEROUS. From the Lat. aurum, gold, and fero, I bear. Gold-bearing containing gold.

AUROCHS. An alteration of the German Auerochs, wild-bull. Their race is now almost extinct; a few individuals are found in the forests of Lithuania, &c.

AUSTRA´LE. } Lat. Belonging or relating to the south. AUSTRA´LIS. }

AZA´LÆA. From the Gr. azalea, burned. A genus of phanerógamous plants of the family of Ericáceæ.

AZE´DARACH. From the Arab. Azadaracht, a name given by Avicenna to a plant.

AZOTE. } From the Gr. a, privative and zo´on, AZOTIC GAS. } life. The name given by chemists to a gas, now also called nitrogen, which will support neither respiration nor combustion. It constitutes seventy-nine per cent. of the atmosphere, and enters into the composition of all animal matter, except fatty substances, and into a certain number of proximate vegetable principles.

BACCIFE´RUM. Lat. Compound of bacca, a berry, and fero, I bear. Berry-bearing. Specific name of a plant.

BALANCE OF TORSION, or TORSION BALANCE. A machine invented by Coulomb for measuring the intensities of electric or magnetic forces, by establishing an equilibrium between them and the force of torsion.

BALÆ´NA. Lat. A whale. Name of a genus of mammals, belonging to the order Cetácea. Balæ´na mystece´tus. The common whale. Balæ´nu gibbosa. A kind of whale which has five or six protuberances on its back.

BAN´KSIA. A genus of phanerógamous plants of the family of Proteáceæ.

BAO´BAB. See Adansonia.

BA´RIUM. From the Gr. barus, heavy. A metal obtained from barytes by Sir H. Davy.

BAROMETER. From the Gr. baros, weight, and metron, a measure. An instrument for measuring the weight of atmospheric air.

BAROMETRIC. } Belonging, or relating to the barometer. BAROMETRICAL. }

BARRINGTO´NIA. A genus of phanerógamous plants of the family of Myrtáceæ, and the type of the tribe of Barringtóniæ.

BA´SALT. An Ethiopian word. A black or bluish gray rock, harder than glass, very tenacious, and consequently difficult to break: it is homogenous in appearance although essentially composed of pyroxene and feldspar, with a large proportion of oxide of iron or titanium. Basalt is considered by all geologists to be a product of igneous formation.

BASA´LTIC. Belonging or relating to basalt.

BATRA´HCIAN. From the Gr. batrachos, a frog. The name given by naturalists to those reptiles which resemble frogs in their organization. Batrahcians form the fourth order in the class of Reptiles.

BEAUFO´RTIA. Name of a genus of the family of Myrtáceæ, named in honor of Mary, the Duchess of Beaufort, who encouraged the study of Botany.

BELEM´NITES. From the Gr. belemnon, a dart. A genus of fossil dibranchiate cephalopods, the shells of which are chambered and perforated by a siphon, but internal. They are long, straight and conical; and commonly called “thunder stones.”

BENJAMI´NA. Lat. Benjamin. A genus of plants; also the specific name of a plant.

BERNI´CLA. Generic name of a kind of goose, having a short beak. Berni´cla cyana´ptera. The goose of Shoa.

BER´YL. A mineral allied to the emerald. It is transparent, of a pale green colour, and in Brazil it is sometimes sold under the name of emerald.

BETE´L. The leaf of the betel or Siriboa pepper.

BE´TULA. Lat. Birch. Name of a genus of plants. Be´tula nana. Dwarf birch.

BETULÖIDES. From betula, a birch-tree, the Gr. eidos, resemblance. Specific name of a plant.

BIGNO´NIA. A genus of plants named in honor of the Abbey Bignon, the Librarian of Louis XIV.

BIS´MUTH. From the Germ. Wismuth. A brittle, yellowish white metal.

BI´TUMEN. A combustible mineral, composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

BIXA ORLEANA. A plant which produces a colouring matter, called annotto.

BOA. Name of a genus of non-venemous reptiles.

BOHEA. Specific name of a tea-plant.

BOMBAX. From bombux, one of the Greek names of cotton. A genus of plants of the family Malváceæ. Bombax heptaphyllum. A kind of cotton-tree. Bombax ceiba. The cotton-wood tree, much valued for making canoes.

BONDUC. A synonym of the Guilandina. Specific name of a plant.

BORA´CIC ACID. An acid obtained from borax, consisting of boron and oxygen.

BORA´SSUS. From the Gr. borassos, a date. A genus of the family of Palms. Borassus flabelliformus. The fan-leaved palm.

BO´RATE. The salt resulting from a combination of boracic acid and a salifiable base, as the borate of soda.

BO´RAX. Tinkal. A natural compound of soda and boracic acid.

BORON. A simple or undecomposable substance, the basis of boracic acid and borax.

BORI´CHTHYS. From the Fr. borgne, one-eyed or blind, and the Gr. ichthus, a fish.

BORRAGI´NIÆ. Name given by Jussieu to a group of plants.

BORRER´IA. From Borrera, name of a man. A genus of phanerógamous plants of the family of Rubiáceæ.

BOSWE´LLIA. A genus named in honor of Dr. John Boswell. Boswellia serrata. The olibanum tree.

BOTANY. From the Gr. botane, plant. The branch of natural history which embraces the knowledge and study of plants.

BOTANIC. Belonging or relating to botany.

BOS. Lat. An ox. A genus of ruminating mammals, embracing several species. Bos aurus. The Urus. Bos caffer. Cape buffalo. Bos bubalus. Common buffalo. Bos Americanus. The Bison. Bos moschatus. The Musk ox. Bos gruniens. The Yak.

BOULDERS, or BOWLDERS. Rounded masses of stone lying upon the surface or loosely imbedded in the soil.

BOULDER FORMATION, or Erratic block formation. A geological term applied to a part of the diluvial drift. See Ruschenberger’s Natural History.

BRAC´TEÆ. Lat. Bracts. Floral leaves, different in colour from other leaves.

BRAS´SICA. Lat. Cabbage.

BRECCIA. Italian. A rock composed of an agglutination of angular fragments. When the fragments are rolled pebbles, it constitutes a conglomerate rock, called pudding stone.

BREVISE´TUM. Lat. Brevis, short, and setum, a bristle. A specific name.

BREXIA. From the Gr. brexis, rain: in allusion to the protection from rain afforded by its ample foliage. A genus of plants of the family of Brexiáceæ.

BUBO. Lat. An owl. A specific as well as generic name. Bubo maximus. A kind of owl.

BU´FO. Lat. A toad. Bufo Agua. A Brazilian toad.

BUPHA´GA. Lat. From the Gr. bous, an ox, and phago, I eat. A genus of birds, which includes the African beef-eater.

BURSA. Lat. A sack, a purse or pouch.

BU´TEA. A genus of the family of Papillionáceæ, named in honor of John, Count of Bute, a cultivator of botanic science. Butea frondosa yields a gum (butea) which has been confounded with Kino.

CAC´TI. Lat. Plural of cactus.

CAC´TUS. From the Gr. kaktos, spiny plant. Name of a genus of the family of Cactáceæ. Cactus coccine´llifer. The cochineal cactus. Cactus opuntia. Indian fig.

CACA´LIA. Name of a genus of phanerógamous plants of the family of Compósitæ. Several species are useful as condiments.

CACHALOT, or CACHELOT. Fr. Name of the spermaceti whale. Used to designate a variety of the order of cetáceans, which has teeth in both jaws.

COCCINE´LLIFER. From coccinella (the diminutive of the Lat. coccinus, crimson,) a genus of coleopterous insects, and fero, I bear. A specific name.

CAD´MIUM. A white metal, much like tin. Its ores are associated with those of zinc. Discovered in 1818.

CA´DUCOUS. From the Lat. cado, I fall. In Botany when a part is temporary, and soon disappears or falls off, it is said to be caducous.

CÆCI´LIÆ. From the Lat. cæcus, blind. A tribe of Batrachians.

CÆESPITO´SA. Lat. From cæspes, turf or sod. Belonging or relating to turf.

CAFEINE. Fr. In chemistry the name of the proximate principle of coffee.

CAJAPUTE, } A Malay name for a greenish, volatile oil used as CAJAPUTA, } a remedy in rheumatism, &c.

CA´LAMUS. A genus of phanerógamous plants of the family of Palms. Ca´lamus draco. An East Indian plant which yields an astringent substance called Dragon’s blood. Ca´lamus rotan The rattan plant.

CALCA´REOUS. From the Lat. calx, calcis, lime. Belonging to or relating to lime. Calcareous rocks are those of which lime forms a principal part.

CALCEOLA´RIA. From the Lat. calceolus, a little shoe. A remarkable genus of phanerógamous plants of the family of Scrophulariáceæ.

CAL´CIUM. From the Lat. calx, calcis, lime. A metal discovered by Sir H. Davy in 1807, which united with oxygen forms oxide of calcium or lime.

CALLITRI´CHE. From the Gr. kallithrix, having luxuriant hair. A genus of aquatic plants. Also the name of a genus of American monkeys.

CALO´RIC. From the Lat. caleo, I am warm. The term used by chemists to designate the matter of heat.

CALORI´FIC. Belonging or relating to caloric.

CALYCA´NTHUS. From the Gr. kalux, a calyx, and anthos, flower. A genus of the family of Calycantháceæ.

CALYP´TOMENE. From the Gr. kaluptos, concealed, and meno, I remain. Name of a genus of birds.

CAM´BRIAN SYSTEM. From Cambria in Wales. A name given by geologists to the lowest sedimentary rocks, characterized by fossil remains of animals, lowest in the scale of organization, such as corallines, &c. It is also called the Schistose system, on account of its slaty nature.

CAMEL´LIA. A genus of the family of Aurantiáceæ, named in honor of Kamel, a botanist. It contains the tea plants. Came´llia sasanqua. Lady Bank’s Camellia. Came´llia odorifera. Sweet smelling Camellia.

CAMPA´NULA. From the Lat. campana, a bell, from the shape of its corolla. A genus of phanerógamous plants of the family of Campanuláceæ, of which it is the type. 182 species are described.

CAMPHORÓSMA. From the Lat. camphora, camphor, and the Gr. osme, odour. A genus of plants of the family of Chenopodáceæ.

CAMPHO´RA. Lat. Camphor. Belonging or relating to camphor.

CANARIE´NSIS. Lat. Belonging or relating to the Canary islands.

CANDELA´BRUM. Lat. A candlestick.

CA´NINE. From the Lat. canis, a dog. Teeth which resemble those of a dog are so called; the canine teeth of the upper jaw in man are commonly called the eye-teeth.

CAOU´TCHOUC. Gum elastic; India-rubber, a substance obtained from the Jatropha elastica, the Ficus indica and the Urceola elastica.

CAPE´NSIS. Lat. Belonging or relating to the Cape of Good Hope.

CARAGA´NA. A genus of plants of the family of Papilionáceæ.

CAR´BON. From the Lat. carbo, charcoal. A chemical element or undecomposed body. The diamond is pure carbon. It is the basis of anthracite, and of all the varieties of mineral coal, and is one of the principal constituents of all organic bodies.

CARBO´NIC ACID. A compound of carbon and oxygen.

CAR´BONATE. Any compound of carbonic acid and a salifiable base, as carbonate of lime, carbonate of soda.

CARBONI´FEROUS. From the Lat. carbo, coal, fero, I bear, coal-bearing; containing carbon. In geology the term is applied to those strata which contain coal, and to the period when the coal measures were formed.

CARDAMINE. Gr. Name of a plant. A genus of the family of crucíferæ. Lady’s smock. Cardamine hirsuta. Hairy Cardamine.

CARDUI. Lat. Genitive case of carduus, a thistle. Specific name of a butterfly.

CARNI´VORA. From the Lat. caro, carnis, flesh, and voro, I eat. Name of a family of Mammals.

CARTILA´GINOUS FISHES. A term used to designate that division of the class of fishes which includes only those having cartilaginous instead of bony skeletons.

CARYO´PHYLLUS. Lat. A garden pink. A genus of plants of the family of caryophy´lleæ. Caryo´phyllus aroma´ticus. The clove-tree.

CARYO´TA. A genus of Palms of equatorial Asia. The caryota urens derives its specific name from a burning sensation its fruit imparts when eaten.

CA´SPIA. Lat. Belonging or relating to the Caspian Sea.

CAS´SIA. From the Gr. kassia, cinnamon. A genus of plants of the family of Papilionáceæ. The genus contains more than 300 species.

CA´STANOSPE´RRNUM. From the Gr. kastanon, chestnut, and sperma, fruit. A genus of the family of Papilionáceæ.

CASUARI´NÆ. A family of plants separated from that of the cónifers. The casuari´næ are found in New Holland, and in India, and are remarkable for the absence of leaves.

CATA´LPA. A genus of plants of the family of the Bignoniáceæ.

CAT´ECHU. An astringent extract, used in medicine.

CAT’S EYE. A beautiful silicious mineral, penetrated by fibres of asbestos, which, when polished, reflects an effulgent, pearly light, much resembling the mutable reflections from the eye of a cat.

CAULE´RPA. From the Gr. kaulos, a stem, and erpo, I creep. A genus of algæ of the family of Zoosper´meæ. There are about 35 species of caulérpa, which inhabit equatorial seas. The caule´rpa proli´fera belongs to the Mediterranean.

CA´VIA. Genus of mammals of the family of rodents, including the guinea-pig.

CE´BUS. Lat. Name of a genus of monkeys; the marmoset.

CECRO´PIS. A genus of birds.

CEDRE´LA. Genus of plants of the family of Cedreláceæ.

CEI´BA. Synonym of Bombax, cotton. Specific name of a kind of cotton.

CENTA´UREA. A genus of plants of the family of Synanthéreæ Cyanáreæ and type of the tribe of Centaúrieæ.

CERATI´TES. From the Gr. keratetes, horned. A generic name of certain insects.

CERATO´DES. From the Gr. keratodes, formed of horns. A genus of mollusks.

CER´EAL. From the Lat. Ceres, corn. Applied to grasses which produce the bread corns; as wheat, rye, barley, oats, rice, &c.

CEREA´LIA. Lat. Name of a tribe of grasses.

CEREO´PSIS. From the Gr. keros, wax, and opsis, aspect. A genus of birds of the order of palmípedes and family of lamelliróstres. It is marked by a wax-like membrane on the beak. Cereopsis striata. A kind of goose.

CE´RIUM. Named after the planet Ceres. A white brittle metal discovered in 1803, by Hisinger and Berzelius.

CER´THIA. Latin. Name of a genus of passerine birds, commonly called creepers.

CER´VUS. Latin. A stag. A genus of mammals.

CETA´CEA. From the Gr. ketos, a whale. A genus of pisciform mammals that have fins in place of feet, and inhabit the sea. Name of an order of aquatic mammals.

CHALK. Earthy carbonate of lime.

CHAMBERED SHELLS. A term used to designate those shells of mollusks which are divided internally into cells or chambers by partitions.

CHAM´ÆROPS. From the Gr. chamai, on the ground, and rops, a brush. Name of a genus of palms. Chamærops humilis. The dwarf fan palm.

CHEIRO´PTERA. From the Gr. cheir, hand, and pteron, a wing; signifying the hand has become a wing. Name of a family of mammals, including the bats.

CHEIROS´TEMON. From the Gr. cheir, hand, and stemon, filament. A genus of plants of the family of Sterculiáceæ, and tribe of bombáceæ.

CHELO´NIAN. From the Gr. chelone, a tortoise. Applied to reptiles resembling tortoises.

CHEL´YDÆ. From the Gr. chelus, a tortoise. A tribe of reptiles of the family Emy´des.

CHLAM´YPHORE. From the Gr. chlamus, a cloak, and phero, I bear. A genus of mammals of the tribe of armadillos.

CHLENA´CEÆ. From the Gr. chlaina, a cloak. A tribe of plants, native in Madagascar.

CHLOA´NTHES. From the Gr. chloros, greenish yellow, and anthos, flower. A genus of plants of the family of chloantháceæ.

CHLORI´TIC. From the Gr. chloros, green. Belonging or relating to chlorite, an earthy mineral found in the cavities of slate rocks.

CHROME, CHRO´MIUM. From the Gr. chroma, colour. A whitish brittle metal, discovered by Vauquelin in 1797. In union with oxygen it forms chromic acid.

CICHORA´CEÆ. From the Gr. kichore, chichory. A tribe of plants of the family of Compósitæ.

CI´RRI. Plural of cirrus.

CI´RRO-CUMULUS. A sondercloud; a kind of cloud. The cirro-cumulus is intermediate between the cirrus and cumulus, and is composed of small well defined masses closely arranged.

CI´RRO-STRATUS. A wanecloud. The cirro-stratus, intermediate between the cirrus and stratus, consists of horizontal masses separated into groups, with which the sky is sometimes so mottled as to suggest the idea of resemblance to the back of a mackerel.

CI´RRUS. Lat. A tendril. A kind of cloud. Applied to certain appendages of animals; as the beard from the end and sides of the mouth of certain fishes. The cirrus cloud consists of fibres or curling streaks which diverge in all directions. It occupies the highest region, and is frequently the first cloud which is seen after a continuance of clear weather.

CI´STUS. A genus of plants of the family of cistáceæ.

CLA´RKIA. Proper name. A genus of plants of the tribe of epilóbiæ.

CLAY-SLATE. A rock which resembles clay or shale, but is generally distinguished by its structure; the particles having been re-arranged, and exhibiting what is called slaty cleavage. It is one of the metamorphic rocks.

CLAYTO´NIA. A genus of plants of the family of Portuláceæ-calandríneæ.

CLEAVAGE. The mechanical division, the laminæ of rocks and minerals, to show the constant direction in which they may be separated.

CLERODE´NDRON. From the Gr. kleros, accident, and dendron, tree. In allusion to its accidental effects in medicine. A genus of plants of the family of Verbenáceæ-Lantáneæ.

COAL MEASURES. The geological formation in which coal is found.

CO´BALT. From the Germ. kobold, a devil, A brittle metal of a reddish gray colour. Its ores are always associated with arsenic.

COBRA CAPELLO. Portu. cobra, snake, and capello, a cawl or hood. Hood snake, a venomous serpent.

COCA. Quechua or aboriginal Peruvian word. Specific name of the genus Erythróxylum.

COCCINE´LLA. From the Gr. kokkinos, scarlet. A genus of coleopt´erous insects: commonly called Lady birds.

COC´CUS. From the Gr. kokkos, a seed which dyes scarlet. A genus of insects of the order Hemíp´tera. Coccus lacca. A species of cochineal insect. Coccus ilicus. Green oak cochineal.

CO´COS. Gr. A genus of palms; the cocoanut. Cocos olera´cia. The oil cocoanut.

CODI´UM. From the Gr. kodion, a fleece. A genus of plants of the tribe siphóneæ. Codium bursa and Codium flabelliforme are species.

COLO´BUS. From the Gr. kolobos, mutilated. A genus of monkeys which belong to the old world. Colobus comosus. A hairy monkey.

COLU´BRIFORM. From the Lat. coluber, a serpent, an adder, and forma, shape. Adder-shape.

COLUM´BA. Lat. A pigeon. A genus of birds. Columba migrato´ria. Wild pigeon.

COLUM´BIUM. A metal discovered in a mineral found in Massachusetts by Mr. Hachett, in 1801.

COLU´MNAR. In the form of columns.

COMBU´STION. The combination of two bodies accompanied by the extrication of heat and light. When a body rapidly combines with oxygen, for example, with a disengagement of heat and light, it is said to undergo combustion.

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. The comparative study of the various parts of the bodies of different animals.

COMPO´SITE. A family of monopetalous plants.

CONDUCTOR. Those substances which possess the property of transferring caloric or heat, and electricity, are termed conductors of heat or caloric, and conductors of electricity.

CONFE´RVÆ. Tribe of plants of the family of Zóospérmeæ. It includes many sea-weeds.

CON´GENER. From the Lat. con, with, and genus, race. Species belonging to the same genus, are termed congeners.

CONGLO´MERATE. From the Lat. conglomero, I heap together. Any rock composed of pebbles cemented together by another mineral substance, either calcareous, silicious or argillaceous.

CO´NIFER. From the Lat. conus, a cone, and fero, I bear. A tree or plant which bears cones, such as pines, fir-trees, &c.

CONI´FERÆ. A family of plants which includes the conifers.

CO´RAL. From the Gr. koreo, I ornament, and als, the sea. The hard calcareous support formed by certain polypi.

CORA´LLINE. Belonging or relating to coral.

CORALLI´NEÆ. The corallines, a tribe of calciferous polypi.

COREO´PSIS. From the Gr. koris, a bug, and opsis, aspect. A genus of plants.

COR´DIA. A genus of plants of the family of Cordiáceæ. It contains about 150 species.

CORIA´CEOUS. From the Lat. corium, the hide of a beast. Leathery.

CORO´NA. Lat. A crown. A genus of plants.

CORO´NÆ. Plural of corona.

CORU´NDUM. A crystallized or massive mineral of extreme hardness, almost opaque, and of a reddish colour. It is allied to the sapphire, and is composed of nearly pure alúmina.

COT´TUS. A genus of fishes.

COTY´LEDON. From the Gr. katuledon, a seed-lobe.

COTYLE´DONOUS. Belonging or relating to a cotyledon or seed lobe.

CRA´TER. Lat. A great cup or bowl. The mouth of a volcano.

CRATE´RIFORM. In form of a crater.

CRATERI´FEROUS. Containing craters.

CRETA´CEOUS. From the Lat. creta, chalk. Of the nature of chalk, relating to chalk.

CRINOI´DEÆ. From the Gr. krinon, a lily, and eidos, resemblance. A family of radiate animals.

CROP OUT. When a rock, in place, emerges on the surface of the earth, it is said to crop out.

CRO´TON. A genus of plants of the family of Euphorbiáceæ.

CRUCIFE´RÆ. From the Lat. crux, crucis, a cross, and fero, I bear. A family of plants which have flowers in form of a Maltese cross.

CRU´CIFORM. In shape of a cross.

CRUSTA´CEA. From the Lat. crusta, a crust. A class of articulated animals.

CRUSTA´CEAN. An animal of the class of crustacea; a crab.

CRYPTOGA´MIA. From the Gr. kruptos, concealed, and gamos, marriage. A class of plants, which are propagated without apparent seeds.

CRYTO´GAMOUS. Belonging or relating to crytogámia.

CRYPTO´NYX. From the Gr. kruptos, concealed, and onux, a nail. A genus of birds; also, a genus of insects.

CRYST´AL. From the Gr. krustallos, ice. This term was originally applied to those beautiful transparent varieties of silica or quartz known under the name of rock-crystal. When substances pass from the fluid to the solid state, they frequently assume those regular forms which are generally termed crystals. A crystal is any inorganic solid of homogeneous structure, bounded by natural planes and right lines, symmetrically arranged.

CRYS´TALLINE. Relating to, or resembling crystals.

CRYSTALLIZA´TION. The process by which crystals are formed.

CUCIFE´RA THEBAI´CA. A palm of Egypt which grows to the height of 20 feet. Also known as the genus Hyphæne, from the Gr. Huphaino, I entwine. A fan-leaf palm of the tribe of Borassíneæ.

CU´CULUS. Lat. A cuckoo. A genus of passerine birds.

CU´LEX. Lat. A gnat. A genus of insects of the family of Dip´tera, and type of the tribe of Culícides: culex pipiens, the common gnat.

CU´MULI. Plural of cumulus.

CU´MULO-STRA´TUS. Twain cloud: it partakes of the appearance of the cumulus and stratus.

CU´MULUS. A form of cloud. A convex aggregate of watery particles, increasing upwards from a horizontal base, and assuming more or less of a conical figure.

CUR´VIDENS. Lat. Curvus, bent, and dens, tooth. Having a bent tooth.

CUSPA´RIA. A genus of plants, named after the tree which yields the Angustura bark.

CYANAP´TERA. From the Gr. kuanos, blue, and pteron, wing. A specific name.

CYANEROI´DES. From the Gr. kuanos, blue, and eidos, resemblance. A family of medusæ.

CY´CAS. A genus of plants, the type of the family cycádeæ. Cycas revoluta. Narrow-leaved cycas.

CYCA´DEÆ. A family of plants allied to the cónifers.

CYCADA´CEOUS. Belonging or relating to the cycádeæ.

CY´CLAS. From the Gr. kuklos, a circle. A genus of gasteropods.

CYGNUS. Lat. A swan. A genus of birds. Cygnus musicus. The whistling swan.

CYNOCE´PHALUS. From the Gr. kuon, a dog, and kephale, head. A genus of mammals. Dog headed monkey or baboon.

CYPERA´CEÆ. Name of a family of herbaceous plants.

CYP´RÆA. From the Gr. kupris, Venus. A cowry. A genus of mollusks. Cypræa moneta. The money cowry.

CYPRI´NIDÆ. From the Gr. kuprinos, a carp. Name of a family of fishes.

CYSTOSEI´RIÆ. From the Gr. kustis, a vesicle, and seira, a chain. A tribe of sea-weeds.

DAC´TYLIS. From the Gr. daktulos, a finger. A genus of the family of Gramíneæ. Dactylis cæspitosa. Tussock grass.

DAHLIA. After Dahl, a Swedish botanist. Genus of plants of the family of Compósitæ.

DALBE´RGIA. After Dalberg, a Swedish botanist. A genus of plants of the family of Papilionáceæ, and of the tribe of Dalbergiæ.

DAMAN. Alteration of the Arabic word Ghannem, the name of an animal. Specific name of a mammal.

DANAIS. Genus of plants of the family of Rubiáceæ.

DAPH´NE. A genus of plants of the family Daphnáceæ.

DARWI´NII. The name of Darwin latinized. Belonging or relating to Darwin.

DASY´URIDÆ. From the Gr. dasus, thick, hairy, and oura, tail. A family of mammals.

DEBRIS. Fr. Wreck, ruins, remains. In geology the term is applied to large fragments, to distinguish them from detritus, or those which are pulverized.

DECI´DUOUS. From the Lat. decido, I fall off. Applied to plants whose leaves fall off in autumn, to distinguish them from evergreens.

DEC´LINATION of any celestial body, is the angular distance of the body, north or south, from the equator.

DEINOTHE´RIUM. From the Gr. deinos, terrible, and thereion, wild beast. A genus of fossil pachyderms.

DELESSE´RIÆ. Proper name. Tribe of plants of the family of Flori´deæ.

DELPHI´NUS. Lat. Dolphin. A genus of aquatic mammals.

DEL´TA. The Gr. letter Δ. The triangular deposits, shoals or islands, at the mouths of rivers are called deltas.

DEL´TOID. From the Gr. letter Δ and eidos, resemblance. Resembling the letter delta.

DENUDA´TION. From the Lat. denudo, I strip. A removal of a part of the land, so as to lay bare the inferior strata.

DEODA´R. A kind of pine tree.

DE´POSITION. From the Lat. depono, I let fall. In geology the falling to the bottom of matters suspended or dissolved in water.

DEVONIAN SYSTEM. So called because it is largely developed in Devonshire, England. It is synonymous with the old red sand formation. It is composed at first of pudding stone, and then passes into sandstone, with which it alternates at different places.

DE´TINENS. Lat. Detaining; that which has the power to detain.

DE´TRITUS. A geological term applied to deposits composed of various substances which have been comminuted by attrition. The larger fragments are usually termed debris; those which are pulverized, as it were, constitute detritus. Sand is the detritus of silicious rocks.

DIAMAGNETIC. If a bar of iron be suspended between the poles of an electro-magnet, it will be attracted by both poles on the line of force. But if a bar of bismuth be suspended in the same manner, it will be repelled by both poles, and rest at right angles to the line of force. Substances which are attracted by both poles of an electro-magnet are said to be magnetic, and those which are repelled by both poles are termed diamagnetic.

DICHOTO´MA, } From the Gr. dicha, divided, and tomos, DICHOTO´MU, } section. In zoology this term is applied to a species DICHOTO´MUS, } of the genus Iris, the body of which is bifurcate. In botany it is applied to the stem, branches, peduncles, leaves, hairs, styles, &c., when they are bifurcated in form.

DICOTY´LEDON. From the Gr. dis, two, and kotuledon, seed lobe. A double seed lobe.

DICOTYLE´DONOUS. Relating to dicotyledon; having a double seed lobe.

DIDEL´PHOUS. From the Gr. dis, double, and delphus, womb. Applied to opossums and other marsupial mammals.

DIDEL´PHIS. A genus of marsupial mammals.

DIDEL´PHIDÆ. A tribe of marsupial mammals.

DIGITA´TA. Lat. Digitate; spread out like the fingers.

DINO´RNIS. From the Gr. deinos, great, terrible, and ornis, a bird. A genus of fossil, or extinct birds.

DIO´TIS. From the Gr. diôtos, having two ears: referring to the flower. A genus of plants of the family of heliantháceæ.

DISLOCATION. Displacement. In geology where strata or veins have been displaced from the position where first deposited or formed, they are said to be dislocated.

DI´SA. A genus of plants of the family of Orchi´deæ. Di´sa grandiflora. Large-flowered Disa.

DIO´SMA. From the Gr. dios, divine, and osme, smell. A genus of plants of the family of Dios´meæ.

DILLENIA´CEÆ. Proper name. A family of plants.

DIONÆ´A. One of the names of Venus. A genus of plants of the family of Droserácea. Dionæa musci´pula. Venus’ Fly-trap.

DIP´TERYX. From the Gr. dis, double, and pterux, a wing, in allusion to the two appendages of the calyx. Tonquin Bean. A genus of plants of the family of Leguminósæ. Dip´teryx odora´ta. Sweet-scented Tonquin Bean.

DIC´TYOTA. From the Gr. dictuon, a net. A genus of plants of the family of Phy´ceæ, and tribe of dictyóteæ.

DICTYO´NEMA. From the Gr. dictuon, a net, and nema, a filament. A genus of plants of the family of Phy´ceæ.

DIP. In geology direction of the inclination of strata. “To take a dip,” is to measure the degree that a stratum inclines or dips from a horizontal line.

DIS´INTEGRATE. From the Lat. de, privative, and integer, a whole. To separate or break up an aggregate into parts.

DO´LOMITE. Magnesian marble, or granular magnesian carbonate of lime. Named after Dolomieu.

DOMBE´YA. In honor of Joseph Dombey. A genus of plants of the family of Byttneriácea: it is found in Madagascar and the Isle of Bourbon.

DORSIGE´RA. Lat. From dorsum, the back, a ridge, and gero, I carry or wear. A specific name.

DORYA´NTHES. From the Gr. doru, doratos, a lance, and anthesis, a flowering. A genus of plants of the family of Amaryllidáceæ.

DRABA. A genus of plants of the family of Cruciferæ.

DRACÆNA. Lat. A genus of Saurians.

DRACÆNÆ. Plural of Dracæna.

DRYOBA´LANOPS. From the Gr. drus, os, an oak, balanos, an acorn, and ops, aspect. A genus of plants of the family of Dip´terocárpeæ. Dryobalanos camphora. The camphor tree of Sumatra.

DYNA´MIC. From the Gr. dunamis, power, force. Belonging or relating to dynamics.

DYNAMICS. The doctrine of forces as exhibited in moving bodies which are at liberty to obey the impulses communicated to them. The motions of celestial bodies in their orbits, or of a stone falling freely through the air, are embraced in the study of dynamics.

DI´DYMIUM. A metal discovered recently by Mosander.

EARTHS. Formerly chemists, believing them to be simple bodies, included the following substances under the name of earths: Baryta, Strontia, Lime, Magnesia, Alumina or clay, Silica, Glucina, Zirconia, and Yttria. Research has shown that all have metallic or metalloid bases.

ECHID´NA. Greek name of a monster, supposed to have the body of a beautiful woman, and the tail of a serpent. A genus of mammals of the family of Monotrema.

E´CHIMYS. From the Gr. echinos, spiny, and mus, a rat. A genus of mammals; a sort of rat found in South America.

ECLIPTIC. In Astronomy the great circle of the heavens which the sun appears to describe in his annual revolution.

EDENTA´TA. From the Lat. e, without, and dens, tooth: without teeth. An order of mammals which are destitute of teeth.

E´DULIS. Lat. Eatable; that which may be eaten.

EFFLORE´SCENCE. The pulverulent covering formed on the surface of saline substances from which the atmosphere has removed the water of crystallization. When saline substances give up their water of crystalization to the air, they are said to effloresce.

ELAIS. } From the Gr. elaia, the olive. A genus of plants ELÆIS. } of the family of Palms. The Elais Guinea´ensis yields the Palm oil.

ELAPS. Gr. Name of a serpent. A genus of ophidians.

ELECTRICITY. From the Gr. elektron, amber, the substance in which it was first observed. The property acquired by glass and resin from friction to attract light substances. Electricity exists in all bodies, and becomes manifest, at least partially, whenever the natural state of equilibrium of their molecules is disturbed by any cause.

ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. The phenomena produced when a current of electricity is traversing any substance, or when electricity is in motion, magnetism is at the same time developed.

ELECTRO-MAGNET. An apparatus for exhibiting the phenomena of electro-magnetism.

ELEC´TRICUS. Lat. Electric. Belonging to, or relating to electricity.

ELLIP´TICA. Lat. Elliptic.

E´LEPHAS. Lat. Gr. name of the elephant. A genus of mammals of the order of pachydemus.

ELEPHANTI´NA. Lat. Belonging or relating to an elephant; elephantine.

EM´BRYO. From the Gr. embruon, from, bruô I bud forth. A germ at the early stages of development.

E´MERALD. A mineral of a beautiful green colour, much valued for ornamental jewelry. It consists of silica, alumina, glucina, oxide of chromium, which is the colouring matter, and a trace of lime.

E´MYS. Lat. From the Gr. emus, a water tortoise. A genus of reptiles of the family of emydians.

EMY´DIANS. A family of reptiles of the order of Chelónia.

ENCRI´NITES. From the Gr. krinon, a lily. A genus of fossil Echinoderms. The skeleton of this animal is said to consist of not less than 26,000 separate pieces.

E´OCE´NE. From the Gr. eôs, dawn, and kainos, recent. In geology a name for the older tertiary formation, in which the first dawn, as it were, of existing species, appear.

EPACRI´DEÆ. From the Gr. epi, upon, and akros, an elevated place, a hill. A family of plants.

EP´IPHYTE. From the Gr. epi, upon, and phutos, a plant. Applied to plants which grow upon other plants.

EQUINOCTIA´LIS. Lat. Equinoctial.

EQUISE´TUM. From the Lat equus, a horse, and seta, hair. A genus of plants of the family of equisitáceæ.

EQUUS. Lat. A horse. A genus of mammals.

ER´BIUM. A metal, recently discovered.

ERICA. A genus of plants of which there are 429 species.

ERI´OCAULON. From the Gr. erion, wool, and kaulon, stem or stalk. A genus of plants of the family of eriocaulóneæ.

ERYTHRI´NA. From the Gr. eruthros, red. A genus of plants of the family of Papilionáceæ.

ERYTHROX´YLON. From the Gr. eruthros, red, and xulon, wood. A genus of plants.

ESCARPMENT. From the Ital. scarpa, sharp, formed from the Lat. carpere, to cut. The steep face often presented by the abrupt termination of strata where subjacent beds crop out from beneath them.

ESCULENTA. Lat. Esculent.

EUCALY´PTI. Lat. Plural of eucalyptus.

EUCALY´PTUS. From the Gr. eu, well, and kaluptos, covered. A genus of plants of the family of Myrtáceæ.

EUPHO´RBIA. Gr. Name of a plant. A genus of plants of which there are 300 species.

EXCE´LSA. Lat. Noble, tall, stately.

EXCO´RTICA. Lat. Without bark.

EX´OGENOUS. From the Gr. ex, from, and geinomai, I grow. Applied to plants which grow by successive external additions to their wood.

EXTENSILE. Having the power to extend itself.

EXU´VIÆ. Lat. The sloughs or cast skins, or cast shells of animals.

FA´GUS. Lat. Beech. A genus of plants of the family of Amentáceæ.

FALCO. Lat. Falcon. A genus of birds. Falco islandicus. The Gerfalcon.

FAMILY. In natural history the term is applied to an assemblage of several genera which resemble each other in many respects.

FAR´INA. Lat. Meal.

FAR´INHA. Portu. Meal, flour.

FARINO´SA. Lat. Meally; belonging or relating to meal.

FAUNA. All animals of all kinds peculiar to a country constitute the fauna of that country.

FELIS. Lat, A cat. A genus of mammals of the family of carnivóra. Felis irbis. The panther.

FENESTRA´LIS. Lat. Belonging or relating to a window or opening.

FER´BIUM. A recently discovered metal.

FERNS. The filices; an order of cryptogámic plants.

FI´CUS. Lat. A fig. A genus of plants of the family of Moræ´ceæ.

FICOIDE. A genus of plants of the family of Mesembrya´nthe´meæ, of which there are about 200 species.

FICOIDES. } The family of Mesembryánthémeæ. Ficoides FICOIDEÆ. } is applied as a specific name.

FLACOUR´TIA. Proper name. A genus of plants of the family of Flacourtiáceæ.

FLABEL´LIFORME. From the Lat. flabellum, a fan, and forma, form. Fan-shaped.

FLORA. Lat. Name of the Goddess of Flowers. All the plants of all kinds belonging to a country constitute the flora of that country.

FLO´RIDA. Belonging or relating to flowers; or relating to the State of Florida.

FOCI. Lat. Plural of focus.

FOCUS. Lat. A hearth. In optics the term describes the point or space where the rays of light are concentrated by a lens. The apex of a cone of rays of light, or of heat, formed by a lens, or concave mirror.

FOLIA´CEOUS. From the Lat. folium, a leaf. Leafy. Having the form of leaves.

FOOTSTALKS. In botany the stalks of flowers, or of leaves.

FOSSIL. From the Lat. fodio, I dig. Any organic body, or the traces of any organic body, whether animal or vegetable, which has been buried in the earth by natural causes.

FOSSILI´FEROUS. Contain fossils.

FORMI´CIDÆ. From the Lat. formica, an ant, and the Gr. eidos, resemblance. A family of insects of the family of Hymenóptera.

FROND. Also, frons. A name applied to the leaves of palms, and of cryptógamous plants.

FRONDO´SA. Lat. Full of green leaves.

FRA´GRANS. Lat. Fragrant; odorous.

FRA´GILIS. Lat. Fragile; easily broken.

FRINGI´LLÆ. Lat. fringilla, a chafinch. A family of birds, the most numerous of the group of conirostres, or thick billed birds.

FUCCA. Name of a genus of aquatic plants.

FUCI. Lat. Plural of fucus.

FUCUS. Lat. Sea-weed. A genus of aquatic plants.

FUCHSIA. After Leonard Fuchs, a physician of the 16th century. A genus of plants.

FUNCTION. From the Lat. fungor, I act. The action of an organ, or system of organs.

FUNGI. Lat. Plural of fungus.

FUNGUS. Lat. A mushroom.

FUNE´REUS. Lat. Funeral: belonging to a dead body.

GA´DUS. Lat. A codfish.

GALLINA´CEOUS. From the Lat. galle´na, a hen. Relating to birds of the order of Gallináceæ.

GALE´NA. From the Gr. galene, lead ore. A mineral composed of sulphur and lead: a natural sulphuret of lead.

GAL´VANISM. From Galvani, a distinguished Italian philosopher. That branch of electrical science in which electricity is made manifest by the mediate contact of different metals. Also, the phenomena exhibited by living animal matter when placed between the poles or extremities of an apparatus for showing electricity by the mediate contact of different metals.

GALVA´NIC. Belonging or relating to galvanism.

GANGEA´TICUS. Lat. Gangeatic; belonging or relating to the river Ganges.

GARDE´NIA. After a proper name. A genus of plants of the family of Rubiáceæ; it contains some forty species. The Gardenia grandiflora is the Cape Jasmin.

GAR´NET. A mineral consisting of silicates of alumina, lime, iron, and manganese. It occurs imbedded in mica-slate, granite, and gneiss, and occasionally in limestone, chlorite-slate, serpentine, and lava. There are several varieties of garnet.

GAS. From the Germ. geist, spirit. The name given to all permanently elastic fluids, or airs, different from the atmospheric air.

GASEOUS. Of the nature of gas.

GENRE. Fr. Genus, kind, manner, style. In painting it is applied to signify the representation of certain kinds of objects, as landscapes, views, animals, plants, flowers, scenes in common life. Pictures of genre, then, are pictures of a genus or kind as to subject; as landscapes, marine views, flower pieces, still-life, &c.

GE´NERA. Lat. Plural of genus.

GENUS. Lat. A kindred, breed, race or family.

GE´OLOGY. From the Gr. ge, the earth, and logos, discourse. That branch of natural history which treats of the structure of the terrestrial globe. It is divided into descriptive geology; dynamic geology, which treats of the forces by which the surface of the earth has been modified; practical and economic geology, embracing the application of geological science to mining, road-making, architecture, and agriculture.

GEOTHER´MAL. From the Gr. ge, the earth, and thermos, heat, temperature. Relating to the temperature of the earth.

GERA´RDIA. Proper name. A genus of plants of the family of Scrophulárieæ.

GERMINA´TION. The process of the development of the seed, and the embryo which it contains.

GEY´SERS. From an Icelandic word, signifying raging or roaring. Celebrated spouting fountains of boiling water in Iceland.

GIBBOSA. Lat. Gibbous; having protuberances or bunches.

GIBRALTA´RICA. Lat. Belonging or relating to Gibraltar.

GIGAN´TEA. } Lat. Gigantic, huge. GIGAN´TEUS. }

GILEADE´NSIS. Lat. Belonging or relating to Gilead.

GLA´CIAL. Belonging or relating to ice.

GLA´CIERS. Fr. Masses or beds of ice formed in high mountains, derived from the snows or lakes frozen by the continued cold of those regions.

GLADIO´LUS. A genus of plants of the family of Iri´deæ.

GLAND. An organ formed for the purpose of secreting a peculiar fluid.

GLAU´COUS. From the Gr. glaukos, blue. Applied to the bluish and pulverulent aspect which certain plants present, such as the leaves of cabbages, &c. Also used to signify the bloom of the color of cabbage leaves, sometimes observed on polished bodies.

GLEDI´TSCHIA. A genus of plants of the family of Leguminósæ, named in honor of J. G. Gleditsch, a German botanist. It includes the Honey and Swamp locust trees among its species.

GLOBBA´RIA. From the Lat. globum, a ball. A genus of insects: also a specific name.

GLUCI´NUM. A metal discovered in glucina in 1798 by Vauquelin.

GLU´TEN. Lat. The viscid elastic substance which remains when wheat flour is wrapped in a coarse cloth, and washed under a stream of water, so as to carry off the starch and soluble matters. It exists in many plants and in animals. It is the basis of glue.

GLYCE´RIA. A genus of plants of the family of grami´neæ, and the tribe Festucáceæ.

GLY´CINE. From the Gr. glukus, sweet. A genus of plants of the family of Papilionáceæ.

GNAPHA´LIUM. From the Gr. gnaphalion, the cotton tree. A genus of plants of the family of Compositæ.

GNEISS. Germ. A rock resembling granite. It is composed chiefly of feldspar and mica, and is more or less slaty in its structure. Gneiss is used for building and flagging.

GOLD. The most valuable and longest known of the metals.

GOODE´NIA. Proper name. A genus of plants of the family of Goodeniáceæ.

GORDO´NIA. Proper name. A genus of plants of the family of Gordonieæ.

GRANDIFLORA. Lat. Large-flowered.

GRAMI´NEÆ. Lat. Grasses. A family of monocotylédonous plants, containing about 3000 species.

GRANIVOROUS. } Applied to animals which feed upon grains, GRANIVORA. } especially to passerine birds.

GRÆCA. Lat. Greek.

GRA´NULAR. Composed of grains.

GRANITE. A rock which is a crystaline aggregate of quartz, feldspar, and mica.

GRANITIC. Of the nature of granite.

GREENSTONE. A rough variety of trap-rock, consisting chiefly of hornblende.

GRIT. A coarse-grained sandstone.

GUILANDI´NA. A proper name. A genus of plants of the family of Leguminósæ. Guilandina Bonduc, the oval-leaved Nicker-tree.

GUINEAEN´SIS. Lat. Belonging or relating to Guinea.

GUM. A vegetable product, which is tasteless and inodorous, and is distinguished by being soluble in water, and insoluble in alcohol. Gum arabic, for example.

GYMNO´TUS. From the Gr. gumnos, naked, and nôtos, back. A genus of fishes.

GYPSUM. Native sulphate of lime. It is converted into plaster of Paris by heat.

GYRO´PHORA. From the Gr. guros, a circle, and pherô, I give. A genus of cryptógamous plants.

HABITAT. Lat. He inhabits. Used to designate the place in which animals and plants are naturally found.

HALIO´TIS. From the Gr. als, the sea, and ous, the ear. A genus of mollusks.

HA´LCYON. From the Gr. alkuo´n, a king-fisher. A genus of birds.

HELIA´NTHUS. From the Gr. elios, the sun, and anthos, flower; sunflower.

HELI´ACAL. From the Gr. elios, the sun. Relating to the sun. When a star rises so as to be visible in morning twilight before the appearance of the sun, it is said to rise heliacally.

HEP´TAPHYLLUM. From the Gr. epta, seven, and phulon, a leaf. Seven-leaved. A specific name.

HERBA´CEOUS. In botany, Herb-like; that perishes every year. An annual stem. Not woody.

HERBIVO´RA. Lat. Herbivorous.

HERBIVO´ROUS. From the Lat. herba, a plant, and vorare, to eat. Plant eating. Applied to animals which feed chiefly or exclusively on plants or herbs.

HERITIE´RA. Proper name. A genus of plants of the family of Sterculiáceæ.

HIBERNATE. From the Lat. hibernare, to winter. Animals which retire and sleep throughout the winter, are said to hibernate.

HIBI´SCUS. A genus of plants of the family of Malváceæ.

HIEROCH´LOA. From the Gr. ieros, sacred, and chloa, herb. A genus of plants of the family of Grami´neæ.

HIPPOPO´TAMUS. From the Gr. ippos, a horse, and potamos, river. River Horse. A genus of mammals.

HIRSU´TA. Lat. Hirsute; covered with soft hairs.

HOL´CUS. A genus of plants of the family Grami´neæ.

HOPEA, or HOPPEA. Proper name. A genus of plants.

HO´RRIDA. Lat. Horrid; spiny.

HO´RARY. From the Lat. hora, an hour. The motion of a celestial body, or the space it moves through in an hour, is termed its horary motion.

HORSE-SHOE MAGNET. A magnet in form of a horse-shoe.

HUMI´RIA. A genus of plants of the family of humoriáceæ. They inhabit tropical America.

HYDRAN´GEA. From the Gr. udôr, water, and aggos, a vessel. A genus of plants of the family of Saxifragáceæ, and tribe of Hydrangéeæ.

HYDRAU´LIC. From the Gr. udôr, water, and aulos, a pipe. Relating to liquids in motion. Hydraulics is that branch of natural philosophy or physics which treats of the force of water and other liquids in motion.

HYDROSTA´TIC. From the Gr. udôr, water, and staô, I stand. Relating to water in a state of rest. Hydrostatics is the science which treats of the equilibrium and pressure of water and other liquids.

HY´DROGEN. From the Gr. udôr, water, and gennaein, to generate. A colorless, tasteless, inodorous gas, one part of which, by weight, combined with eight parts of oxygen forms water;—combined with sulphur it constitutes sulphuretted Hydrogen;—and with carbon, carburetted Hydrogen, the gas used for illumination.

HYDROGETON. A synonym of Ouviraudra. A genus of aquatic plants.

HYLA. From the Gr. ule, wood, a tree. A tree frog.

HYMENÆ´A. A genus of plants of the family of Papilionáceæ. A resinous tree of tropical America.

HYMENO´PTERA. From the Gr. umen, a membrane, and pteron, wing. Systematic name of a class of insects, characterized by membranous wings.

HY´RAX. From the Gr. urax, a shrew mouse. A genus of mammals.

IANTHINA. See Janthina.

I´BEX. Lat. A wild goat. A genus of mammals.

I´BIS. A genus of birds.

IGNEOUS ROCKS. Are those rocks whose structure is attributable to the influence of heat, such as granite and basalt. They are distinct from stratified rocks, or those formed by deposits from water.

I´GUANA. A reptile of the lizard tribe.

IGUA´NIAN. Applied to Saurians which resemble the iguana.

IGUA´NODON. From iguana, and the Gr. odous, tooth. A genus of extinct or fossil reptiles of gigantic size discovered in the south of England.

I´LEX. Lat. The Holly.

ILI´CIS. Lat. Of the Holly; belonging or relating to the holly.

ILLI´CIUM. From illicio to attract; from its agreeable perfume. The aniseed tree. A genus of plants of the family of Magnoliáceæ.

IM´BRICATE. Laid one over another like tiles.

INCONSPICUUS. Lat. Not conspicuous or remarkable.

INCISOR. From the Lat. incido I cut. Applied to those teeth which occupy the anterior or centre of the upper and lower jaws, because they are used for cutting the food.

INCA. Designation of the aboriginal Peruvian princes; used as a specific name. Also, a genus of insects.

INDICA—INDICUS. Lat. Indian: Belonging or relating to India.

INDICA´TOR. Lat. Indicator; one who points out. A genus of birds.

INFUSO´RIA. Animals of infusions; microscopic animalcules.

INFUSO´RIAL. Belonging or relating to the Infusoria.

INORGANIC. Without organs or organization.

INSECT. From the Lat. in, into, seco, I cut. Applied to animals whose bodies are cut, as it were, into three parts—head, thorax, and abdomen.

IRID´EÆ. A family of monocotylédonous plants.

IRIDIUM. From the Lat. iris, the rainbow. A grey, brittle, very infusible metal, which is found associated with the ores of platinum.

ISATIS. From the Gr. isazô, I render equal. Woad. A genus of plants of the family of Cruciferæ. Also the name of a species of dog.

ISLA´NDICUS. Lat. Belonging or relating to Iceland.

ISO´GEO´THERMAL. From the Gr. isos, equal, ge, the earth, and thermos, heat. Applied to lines which are supposed to pass through all parts of the earth’s structure on the surface where the mean heat is the same.

ISOTHE´RMAL. From the Gr. isos, equal, and thermos, heat. Isothermal lines are supposed to pass through all places where the mean temperature of the air is the same.

ISOTHERIAL. From the Gr. isos, equal, and thereios, having the heat of summer. Isotherial lines are supposed to be drawn through all places having the same mean summer temperature.

ISOCHI´MENAL. From the Gr. isos, equal, and cheima, winter. Isochimenal lines pass through all places where the mean winter temperature is the same.

IXIA. A genus of plants of the family of Irideæ.

JANTHI´NA. From the Gr. ianthinos, violet. A genus of mollusks.

JAPO´NICA—JAPO´NICUS. Belonging or relating to Japan.

JASPER. A silicious mineral of various colors; sometimes spotted, banded or variegated. It takes a fine polish.

JERBO´A. A genus of mammals of the family of Rodents, or gnawers.

JURA´SSIC. Belonging or relating to the Jura mountains. Applied to a system of rocks of the middle secondary geological period. Also termed oolitic.

KA´LMIA. A genus of plants of the family of Ericáceæ.

KER´RIA. Proper name. A genus of plants of the family of Rosáceæ.

KE´URVA. Synonym of Pandanus.

KING´IA. Proper name. A genus of plants of the family of Joncáceæ, found in New Holland. Kingia australis; the grass tree.

LABIA´TÆ. From the Lat. labium, lip; in allusion to the form of the corolla. A family of dicotylédonous plants.

LAGO´PUS. From the Gr. lagôs, a hare, and pous, foot: hare-footed. A genus of birds of the order Gallináceæ.

LAM´ANTIN. The manatus. A genus of mammals of the order of Cetácea.

LAMINA´RIA. A genus of aquatic plants of the family of Phy´ceæ.

LAMPRATO´RNIS. A genus of birds. Lampratornis superba. A kind of raven.

LANA´TA. Lat. Woolly.

LANCEOLA´TUS. Lat. Lanceolate; lance-shaped.

LANDSLIP, or LANDSLIDE. In geology, the removal of a portion of land down an inclined surface, from its attachment being loosened by the action of water beneath, or by an earthquake.

LANTA´NIUM. A metal discovered in 1840 by Mosander.

LAPIS LAZULI. A mineral belonging to the aluminous silicates, of an azure blue colour.

LAUREO´LA. Specific name of a plant.

LAURI´NEÆ. } From laurus, laurel, one of the genera. LAUREA´CEÆ. } A family of plants.

LATENT HEAT. Heat not indicated by the thermometer, upon which the liquid and aëriform conditions of bodies depend, and which becomes sensible during the conversion of vapour into liquids, and of liquids into solids.

LA´RVA. Lat. A mask. The first state of an insect after leaving the egg.

LA´RVÆ. Lat. Plural of larva.

LA´VA. In geology, substances which flow in a melted state from a volcano. Lavas vary in consistence and texture.

LEGUMINO´SÆ. From the Lat. legumen, a bean. A family of plants.

LEGU´MINOUS. Belonging or relating to the Leguminoseæ.

LEONI´NA. Belonging or relating to a lion.

LEPORI´NA. Lat. Belonging or relating to a hare.

LEPIDO´PTERA. From the Gr. lepis, a scale, and pteron, a wing, scaly wings. An order of insects characterized by scaly wings.

LESSO´NIA. Proper name. A genus of plants; also a genus of birds.

LEUCADE´NDRON. From the Gr. leukos, white, and dendron, tree. A genus of plants of the family of Proteáceæ.

LIAS. Provincial corruption of the word layers. In geology, a division of the secondary formation. It is also called the Liassic, Jurassic, and Oolitic system of rocks.

LI´CHENS. An order of cryptógamous plants. They include various mosses.

LILIA´CEOUS. Belonging or relating to the lily.

LILIA´CEÆ. A family of plants.

LLANOS. Span. Planes.

LIMO´NIA. A genus of plants of the family of Aurantiáceæ.

LIMB. In botany, the spreading part or border of a leaf or petal. In astronomy, the outermost edge of the sun or moon.

LI´RIODE´NDRON. From the Gr. leirion, a lily, and dendron, a tree. The tulip tree. A genus of plants of the family of Magnoliáceæ.

LI´THIUM. A metal.

LO´ASA. A genus of plants of the family of Loasáceæ.

LOBE. A term applied in botany to the more or less profound divisions of a leaf, corolla, or other part of a plant.

LOBELIA´CEÆ. In honor of Lobel, a botanist. A family of dicotylédonous plants.

LONGIFRONS. Lat. Having a long front or forehead.

LOPHOBRA´NCHES. From the Gr. lophos, a tuft, or crest, and branchia, gills. An order of fishes.

LOPHOPHO´RUS. From the Gr. lophos, a tuft, and phoros, bearer. A genus of birds of the order Gallináceæ.

LORA´NTHUS. From the Gr. lôron, a leather strap, and anthos, flower. Loranth. A genus of plants of the family of Lorantháceæ.

LO´TUS. A genus of plants of the family of Leguminósæ.

LOXIA. A genus of birds.

LU´TEUM. Lat. Yellow; dirty; made of clay. A specific name.

MACROCE´PHALUS. From the Gr. makros, large, and kephale, head. A genus of insects. The specific name of a mammal.

MACROCY´STIS. From the Gr. makros, large, and kustis, bladder. A genus of aquatic plants of the family of Phyceæ. Gigantic sea-weeds found in the southern hemisphere.

MACROU´ROUS. From the Gr. makros, great, and oura, tail. Having a long or large tail.

MAGNET. Loadstone is the natural magnet, which has the property of attracting iron. Artificial magnets are prepared so as to possess the peculiar attractive properties of the loadstone.

MAG´NETISM. The science which investigates the phenomena presented by natural and artificial magnets, and the laws by which they are connected.

MAGNE´SIUM. A silvery white metal obtained from magnesia.

MAGNE´SIAN. Containing magnesia.

MAGNO´LIA. Name of Magnol, a French botanist. A genus of plants of the family of Magnoliáceæ.

MA´LACHITE. A mineral; native green carbonate of copper.

MAL´LOTUS. A genus of fishes of the family of Salmones. A genus of plants of the family of Euphorbiáceæ. A synonyme of the genus Rottlera.

MALU´RUS. A genus of passerine birds.

MAM´MAL. Any animal that suckles its young.

MAMMA´LIA. From the Lat. mamma, a breast. The name of the class of mammals or animals which suckle their young.

MAMMI´FERÆ. Same as mammalia.

MANA´TI. Lat. Plural of manatus.

MANA´TUS. A genus of mammals. The Lamantin.

MANGANE´SE. A metal.

MARITI´MA. Lat. Maritime; relating to the sea.

MARL. Argillaceous carbonate of lime. There are several varieties of marl.

MARSU´PIAL. From the Lat. marsupium, a pouch. Any animal having a peculiar pouch in front or on the abdomen.

MAS´TODON. From the Gr. mastos, a nipple, and odous, a tooth. A genus of extinct mammals allied to the elephant.

MA´TRIX. In geology, the stony substance or bed in which metallic ores and crystaline minerals are embedded. The gangue.

MAURI´TIA. Lat. Belonging to the island of Maritius.

MAURO´RUM. Lat. Of the Moors.

MAXIMUS. } MAXIMA. } Lat. The greatest. MAXIMUM. }

MEDU´SA. A genus of marine animals of the class Acalepha.

MEGATHE´RIUM. From the Gr. megas, great, and therion, beast. Name of a fossil quadruped.

MELALEU´CA. From the Gr. melas, black, and leukos, white. A genus of plants of the family of Myrtáceæ.

MELA´STOMA. From the Gr. melas, black, and stoma, opening. A genus of plants of the family of Melastomáceæ.

MEL´IA. A genus of plants of the family of Meliáceæ.

MELOFO´RMIS. From the Lat. melo, a melon, and forma, shape. Melon-shaped.

MENOPOMA. From the Gr. menos, strong, and poma, cover. A genus of reptiles of the family of Salamanders. Specific name of a batrachian.

MENURA. A genus of passerine birds. The Menura superba, the lyre-bird.

MERCURY. Quicksilver. A metal which is liquid at the ordinary temperature.

MESE´MERYAN´THEMUM. From the Gr. mesembria, the mid-day, and anthemum, flowering, because the flowers usually expand at that time. The fig marygold. A genus of plants of the family of Ficoides.

ME´SA. Span. A table.

MESPILUS. From the Gr. mesos, half, and pilé, bullet, the fruit resembling a half ball. The medlar. A genus of plants of the family of Rosáceæ.

MET´ALLOID. Literally, resembling metal. The metals obtained from the alkalis and earths are called metalloids.

METALLI´FEROUS. Containing metal, or metals.

METAMOR´PHIC. From the Gr. meta, indicating change, and morphe, form. Metamorphic rocks are those which are evidently of mechanical origin, but owing to the presumed action of heat, have undergone change. Altered rocks.

METROSI´DEROS. From the Gr. metra, heart of a tree, and sideron, iron, in allusion to the hardness of its wood. A genus of plants of the family of Myrtáceæ.

METUR. A species of wild corn which grows in Iceland.

MIA´SMA. } From the Gr. miainô, I contaminate. Applied MIA´SMATA. } to any emanation from animal or vegetable substances, or from the earth, which may prejudicially influence the health of those persons who may be exposed to it.

MI´CA. From the Lat. mico, I shine. A mineral, generally found in thin elastic laminæ, soft, smooth, and of various colors and degrees of transparency. It is one of the constituents of granite.

MICA-SCHIST. Germ. (Gr. schistos, slaty, easily split.) Mica-slate. A lamellar rock composed of quartz, ordinarily grayish, and a great quantity of brilliant lamellæ of mica arranged in scales, or extended leaves.

MI´DAS. Name of a genus of monkeys; also, of a genus of reptiles.

MIGRATO´RIA. Lat. Migrating.

MILLINGTO´NIA. Proper name. A genus of plants of the family of Bignoniáceæ.

MILLEPO´RA. From mil, a thousand, and pori, holes. A genus of stony polyps, or corallines.

MIMO´SA. From the Lat. mimus, a comedian, in allusion to its numerous varieties. A genus, and a tribe of plants.

MI´OCENE. From the Gr. meiôn, less, and kainos, recent. In geology a name of a group of rocks of the tertiary period.

MI´NIMUM. Lat. The least.

MIRA´GE. Fr. A kind of natural optical illusion, arising from the unequal refraction of the lower strata of the atmosphere. The illusive appearance of water in deserts is explained in this manner.

MISODENDRON. A genus of plants of the family of Lorantháceæ.

MITE´LLA. A genus of plants of the family of Saxafragáceæ.

MOLLUSK. From the Lat. mollis, soft. Applied to certain soft animals which inhabit shells, as oysters.

MOLLU´SCA. A branch of the animal kingdom.

MOLLU´SCOUS. Belonging or relating to mollusks.

MOLYB´DENUM. A white, brittle metal.

MONOCOTYLE´DON. From the Gr. monos, single, and kotuledon, seed-lobe. A single seed-lobe.

MONOCOTYLE´DONOUS. Relating to monocotyledon.

MONO´CEROS. From the Gr. monos, single, and keras, horn. Having one horn.

MO´NODON. From the Gr. monos, single, and odous, tooth. Name of a genus of aquatic mammals. The Narwhal.

MONE´TA. Lat. Belonging or relating to money.

MONI´LIFORM. From the Lat. monile, a necklace. In form of a string of beads, necklace-like.

MO´NITOR. A genus of Saurian reptiles.

MONOSPE´RMA. From the Gr. monos, single, sperma, seed. One-seeded. A specific name.

MON´TIA. A genus of plants of the family of Portuláceæ.

MORI´NDA. A genus of plants of the family of Rubiáceæ.

MORAINES. Longitudinal deposits of stony detritus found at the bases, and along the edges of all the great glaciers.

MO´RUS. Mulberry. A genus of plants of the family of Urti´ceæ.

MOSASAU´RUS. From Meuse, name of a river, and the Gr. sauros, a lizard. A genus of fossil reptiles.

MOS´CHUS. From the Gr, moschos, musk. A genus of mammals.

MOSCHI´FERUS. Lat. Musk bearing; containing musk.

MOSSES. Crytógamous parasites of the family of Lycopodeácæ.

MU´CILAGE. A mixture of gum and water.

MURAL. Belonging or relating to a wall.

MUSA. The banana. A genus of plants of the family of Musáceæ.

MUSCHELKALK. German. Shell limestone.

MUSCI´PULA. Lat. A fly trap or mouse trap.

MUSICUS. Lat. Relating to music; musical.

MYCETUS. Name of a genus of monkeys.

MYOPO´TAMUS. From the Gr. mus, a rat, and potamos, a river. A genus of gnawing mammals.

MYRI´STICA. A genus of plants of the family of Myrista´ceæ; Mystri´tica moschata, the nutmeg tree.

MYRTUS. Myrtle. A genus of plants of the family of Myrta´ceæ.

NANA. From the Gr. nanos, a dwarf. A specific name.

NA´PTHA. A limpid bitumen.

NARCI´SSUS. A genus of plants of the family of Amarylli´deæ.

NA´TRIUM. A metal.

NATRON. A subcarbonate of soda.

NECTARY. That part of a flower which produces honey.

NELUM´BIUM. A genus of plants of the family of Nymphæ´ceæ. Sacred Bean.

NESTOR. An extinct bird.

NEURO´PTERA. From the Gr. neuron, a nerve, and pteron, wing. An order of insects.

NEW RED SANDSTONE. In geology, a system of rocks of the secondary formation.

NICKEL. A white metal. It is the basis of “German Silver.”

NIGRA. Lat. Black.

NIMBUS. A rain cloud.

NI´TIDA. Lat. Neat, clean, bright.

NITROGEN. A simple, permanently elastic fluid or gas, which constitutes four-fifths of the atmosphere, and is the basis of nitric acid.

NIVA´LIS. Lat. Snowy.

NON-CONDUCTOR. Applied to substances which do not possess the property of transmitting electricity, or heat.

NOTACANTHUS. From the Gr. nôtos, back, and akantha, a spine. A genus of fishes.

NOTOTHERIUM. A fossil genus of marsupial mammals.

NOTORNIS. An extinct bird.

NUMMULA´RIA. From the Latin nummus, a coin. A family of Mollusks. Nummulites.

NYMPHÆ´A. A genus of plants of the family of Nymphæa´ceæ.

NYSSA. From the Gr. nussô, I prick. A genus of plants.

OBSI´DIAN. A glassy lava. Volcanic glass.

OCEAN´ICA. Lat. Relating to the ocean.

OENO´THERA. From the Gr. oinos, wine, and therô, I hunt. A genus of plants of the family of Oenothera´ceæ. Synonym of onagrariæ.

ODORA´TA. Lat. Odorous.

ODORATISSI´MA. Lat. Very, or most odorous.

ODORI´FERA. Lat. Odoriferous.

O´LEA. Lat. Olive. A genus of plants of the family of Olea´ceæ.

OLD RED SANDSTONE. A system of rocks of the secondary formation.

O´OLITE. From the Greek ôon, an egg, and lithos, stone. A granular variety of carbonate of lime, frequently called roestone.

O´PAL. A brittle mineral, characterized by its iridescent reflection of light. It consists of silica with about ten per cent. of water.

O´PALES´CENT. Resembling opal.

OPHI´DIAN. From the Gr. ophis, a serpent; applied to reptiles of the order of Ophidia.

OPHICE´PHALUS. From the Gr. ophis, serpent, and kephale, head. Serpent-head. A genus of acánthoptery´gian, or bony-finned fishes.

OR´CHIS. A genus of plants of the family of Orchid´eæ, named from most of the species being marked by two tubercles.

ORCHID´EOUS. Relating to the genus orchis.

ORGAN. From the Gr. organon, an instrument. Part of an organized being, destined to exercise some particular function; for example, the ears are the organs of hearing, the muscles are the organs of motion.

ORGA´NIC. Relating to an organ. Organic remains, are the fossil remains of organized beings.

ORGANIZA´TION. The mode or manner of structure of an organized being.

ORGANIZED. Composed of organs; having a mode of structure.

ORIENTA´LIS. } Lat. Eastern. Belonging to the East. ORIENTA´LE. }

ORNITHORYN´CHUS. From the Gr. ornis, ornithos, a bird, and rugchos, a beak. A genus of mammals, having the beak of a duck.

OR´TYGIS. From the Gr. ortux, a quail. A genus of birds.

OS´MIUM. From the Gr. osme, odour. A metal discovered in 1803, by Tennant.

OSCILLA´TION. The act of moving backwards and forwards like a pendulum.

OTA´RIA. From the Gr. ôtarion, a small ear. A genus of amphibious mammals, of the tribe of seals.

OUT CROP. In geology, the emergence of a rock in place, at the surface.

O´VARY. In botany, that part of a flower in which the young seeds are contained.

OXA´LIS. A genus of plants of the family of Oxalideæ.

OXLE´YA. A genus of plants of the family of Cedrela´ceæ.

OXYGEN. The vivifying gas which constitutes about one-fifth of the atmosphere, the presence of which is essential to life.

OZO´NE. From the Gr. ozô, I smell of something. The odorous matter perceived when electricity passes from pointed bodies into the air.

PACHYDER´MATA. From the Gr. pachus, thick, and derma, skin. An order of mammals—Pachyderms.

PADI´NA. Same as Zonária, a beautiful marine plant. Padina pavonia, or Zona´ria pavonia. Turkey feather.

PALAP´TERYX. From the Gr. palaios, ancient, and apteryx, formed from the Gr. a, privative, and pteron, wing, wingless. Name of a genus of fossil birds, discovered recently in New Zealand.

PALÆOTHE´RIUM. From the Gr. palaios, ancient, and therion, beast. A fossil genus of pachyder´matous mammals.

PALÆONTO´LOGY. From the Gr. palaios, ancient, and on, a being or creature, and logos, discourse. That branch of zoological science which treats of fossil organic remains.

PALÆ´OZOIC. From the Gr. palaios, ancient, and zoe, life. Relating to ancient life; belonging or relating to fossils.

PALMA REA´L. Spanish. Royal Palm.

PALLA´DIUM. A white, hard, very maleable and ductile metal, which is susceptible of a fine polish. It is more difficult to melt than gold.

PALMEL´LA. A genus of plants of the family of Conferváceæ. Palmella nivalis, a plant of the snowy regions, which gives color to the snow amidst which it grows. Protococcus is the red snow plant.

PANDA´NUS. From the Malay name of the tree, pandang. Screw-pine. A genus of plants, of the family of Pandancæ. Pandanus candelabrum. Candlestick screw-pine.

PANDA´NA. Relating to, or resembling the Screw-pines.

PA´NICUM. Panic-grass. A genus of plants of the family of Gramineæ. Panicum miliaceum, millet, a grain used for feeding poultry in England.

PAPA. Spanish. Pope. Specific name of a vulture.

PAPY´RUS. A genus of plants of the family of Cypera´ceæ. The Papyrus antiquorum yields the substance used as paper by the ancient Ægyptians.

PAPYRI´FERA. From papyrus, a sort of paper, and fero, I bear. Paper-bearing.

PARHELIA. Plural of parhelion.

PARHELION. From the Gr. para, for, elios, the sun, A mock sun. A meteor which consists in the simultaneous appearance of several suns, “fantastic images of the true one.”

PARADISA´ICA. Lat. Belonging or relating to Paradise. A specific name.

PARNA´SSUS. A genus of lepidopterous insects of the tribe of Parna´ssidæ.

PASS´ERINES. } From the Lat. Passer, a sparrow, name PASS´ERES. } of a varied and extensive order of birds, not PASSERINE BIRDS. } easily characterized.

PASSIFLORA. Abbreviation of flos, flower, and passionis, of the passion. Passion-flower, so called from a supposed resemblance between its floral organs, and the instruments of the Passion of our Saviour. An extensive and beautiful genus of plants.

PATAGO´NICA. Lat. Relating to Patagonia. Specific name of a penguin.

PAVO´NIA. Formed from the Latin, pavo, a peacock. A specific name.

PEAT. The natural accumulation of vegetable matter on the surface of lands not in a state of cultivation; always moist to a greater or less degree, varying, according to the kind of plants to the decay of which the formation of peat is due.

PELO´PIUM. A metal discovered by Prof. H. Rose.

PELARGO´NIUM. From the Gr. pelargos, a stork. Stork’s bill. A genus of plants of the family of Geraniáceæ.

PELA´SGIC. After a mythological name of Jupiter.

PEN´DULUM. From the Lat. pendo, I hang. A weight suspended at the end of a rod, so that it may vibrate from side to side in a plane, is called a pendulum.

PENNISE´TUM. From the Lat. penna, a feather or pen, and seta, a bristle. A genus of plants of the family of Grami´neæ.

PEP´LIS. Gr. Water-purslane. A genus of plants of the family of Salicáriæ.

PER´MIAN. After the ancient kingdom of Permia. A name applied by Mr. Murchison to a system of rocks, consisting of an extensive group of fossiliferous strata, intermediate, in their geological position, between the Carboniferous and Triassic systems, the latter being the upper portion of the New Red Sandstone formation.

PERTURBATION. In astronomy, the deviation of a celestial body from the elliptic orbit which it would describe, if acted upon by no other attractive force than that of the sun, or central body about which it revolves.

PE´TAL. From the Gr. petalon, a leaf. A part of the corolla of a flower analogous to a leaf.

PETRO´LEUM. From the Gr. petros, a rock, and the Lat. oleum, oil. Rock-oil, often called Barbadoes tar. A brown, liquid bitumen, found in the West Indies, Europe, &c.

PHACO´CHÆ´RE. Fr. } From the Gr. phake, a wart, and PHACO´CHÆ´RUS. Lat. } choiros, a hog. Agenus of mammals of the order of pachydermata; allied to the hogs.

PHALA´NGER. From the Gr. phalagx, a phalanx. A genus of marsupial or pouch-bearing mammals.

PHANEROGA´MIA. From the Gr. phaneros, evident, and gamos, marriage. Phanerógamous plants. Applied to plants having distinct flowers.

PHI´LEDON. } Name of a genus of birds. PHI´LEMON. }

PHLE´UM. Cat’s tail grass. A genus of plants of the family of Grami´neæ.

PHLOX. Gr. Flame. A genus of beautiful plants of the family of Polemoniáceæ.

PHO´CÆ. Lat. Plural of phoca.

PHO´CA. Lat. A seal. A genus of aquatic mammals, embracing the common seal or Phoca vitulina; the Harp seal or P. oceanica; the Hare-tailed seal or P. lagura; the sea-lion; sea-wolf; sea-elephant; sea-cow; &c., &c.

PHO´NOLITE. From the Gr. phoneó, I resound, and lithos, a stone. Clinkstone. A kind of compact basalt which is sonorous when struck.

PHOR´MIUM. From the Gr. phormos, a basket. Flax-lilly. A genus of plants of the family of Asphodéleæ. Phormium tenax, Iris-leaved flax-lilly of New Zealand.

PHOS´PHORUS. From the Gr. phos, light, and pherô, I bear. A simple substance which is highly inflammable.

PHOSPHO´RIC ACID. A compound of phosphorus and oxygen, having the properties of acids.

PHOS´PHATES. Compounds of phosphoric acid with salifiable bases, as soda, are termed phosphates; Phosphate of soda, for example.

PHOSPHORE´SCENCE. Emission of light from substances at common temperatures, or below a red heat.

PHOSPHORESCENT. Having the property of emitting light without sensible heat.

PHYSA´LIA. } From the Gr. phuse, a vesicle. A genus of PHYSA´LIS. } animals of the family of Acalepha. The Portuguese man-of-war belongs to this genus.

PHYSA´LIS. A genus of plants of the family of Solanáceæ. Physalis edulis, the Cape gooseberry.

PHYSE´TER. A blower. Name of a genus of mammals of the family of Ceta´cea.

PIME´NTO. Allspice; Jamaica pepper.

PINNATE. From the Lat. pinnatus, feathered. Having leaflets arranged along each side of a common petiole, like the feather of a quill.

PINNATI´FIDA. Lat. Pinnatifid. A leaf is so called when it is divided into lobes from the margin nearly to the midrif.

PINUS. Lat. A pine-tree. A genus of plants of the family of Coniferæ. Pinus abies. The Norway Spruce. Pinus canariensis. The Canary pine. Pinus cembra. The Riga balsam tree; the Cembran or Siberian pine. Pinus excelsa. The lofty or Nepal pine. Pinus maritima. The maritime pine. Pinus pinea. The Stone pine.

PIPIENS. Lat. Peeping like a chicken.

PIPA. A genus of batrachian reptiles. A kind of toad.

PLAT´INA. } The diminutive of the Spanish plata, silver. PLAT´INUM. } A metal of a steel gray colour, approaching to the white colour of silver, to which resemblance it owes its name. It was found in Choco, one of the provinces of Columbia, and brought to Europe in 1741, by Don Antonio de Ulloa.

PLEI´OCENE. } From the Gr. pleion, more, and kainos, PLI´OCENE. } recent. A term applied by geologists to the newer tertiary formation, because there is found fossilized in it a greater number of existing than of extinct species.

PLUMB-LINE. } From the Lat. plumbum, lead. An instrument, PLUMMET. } consisting of a string with a weight, usually of lead, attached to a straight staff, for the purpose of ascertaining the direction of gravitation, or the perpendicular to the horizon.

PLUTO´NIC ROCKS. Unstratified crystaline rocks, probably formed at great depths beneath the surface by igneous fusion. Volcanic rocks are formed near the surface.

PODOCA´RPUS. From the Gr. pous, podos, the foot, and karpos, fruit. A genus of plants of the family of Coniferæ.

POLARIZED LIGHT. Light so modified as to possess poles, or sides, having opposite properties.

POLARIZA´TION. Light, by reflexion, by passing through crystals possessing the power of double refraction, becomes modified, so that it does not present the same phenomena of transmission and reflection, as light which had not been polarized.

POLYG´ONUM. From the Gr. polus, many, and gonu, a knee or joint. A genus of plants of the family of Polygona´ceæ. Polygonum viriparum, Alpine Bistort.

POLYMO´RPHA. Lat. From the Gr. polus, many, and morphe, form. Many-shaped. A specific name.

PO´LYPI. Lat. Plural of polypus.

POLYPLE´CTRON. Name of a genus of birds.

POL´YPUS. From the Gr. polus, many, and pous, foot. A genus of radiate animals.

PON´TICA. From pontus, the sea. Belonging or relating to the sea.

PONTOP´PIDA´NA. Synonym of Couroupita. A genus of plants of the family of Myrtáceæ, Lecythideæ. A large tree of Guiana.

PONTO´PHIDAN. From the Lat. pontus, the sea, and the Gr. ophis, a serpent. The sea serpent.

PORTULACA´RIA. A genus of plants of the family of Portula´ceæ. The Purslane-tree. Portulaca´ria afra. The African purslane-tree.

PORPHYRI´TIC. Of the nature of porphyry.

PORPHYRY. From the Gr. porphura, purple. Originally applied to a red rock found in Egypt. A compact feldspathic rock containing disseminated crystals of feldspar, the latter when polished forming small angular spots, of a light color, thickly sprinkled over the surface. The rock is of various colors, dark green, red, blue, black, &c.

PORTLAND BED. A name given by geologists to the superior division of the upper óolite or lias system. The “Portland stone” is a kind of limestone found in the south of England, and more particularly in the Isle of Portland. In this series of strata is a silicious sand known as the “Portland Sand.”

POTAS´SIUM. A metal discovered in potash by Sir H. Davy in 1807.

POTENTI´LLA. A genus of plants of the family of Rosáceæ. Cinquefoil. Potentilla tridenta´ta. Trifid-leaved cinquefoil.

PRE´HENSILE. From the Lat. prehendere, to lay hold of. Having the faculty to lay hold of. Applied to the tails of those monkeys, for example, which have the power to suspend themselves by the tail.

PREDA´CEOUS. Living on prey.

PRIMARY FORMATION. A term applied by geologists to designate the different rocks which were formed prior to the creation of plants and animals.

PRIMIGENIUS. Lat. Original; first of its kind.

PRI´MUM MO´BILE. That which first imparts motion.

PRIM´ULA. Lat. A primrose. A genus of plants of the family of primuláceæ. Primula farino´sa, the Bird’s-eye primrose.

PRISM. A solid bounded by three planes, two of which are equal.

PRISMATIC. Belonging or relating to a prism.

PROBOSCI´DIAN. From the Gr. proboskis, a proboscis or trunk. Applied to mammals of the family which includes the elephant.

PROCELLA´RIA. From the Lat. procella, a tempest at sea. A genus of birds of the family of Palmipedes.

PROLI´FERA. Formed from proles, a race or stock, and fero, I bear. Prolific.

PRO´TEA. A genus of plants of the family of Proteáceæ. Protea cyaneroides, Artichoke-flowered protea.

PRO´TEUS. A genus of reptiles.

PTEROCA´RPUS. From the Gr. pteron, a wing, and karpos, fruit. The pods have membranous wings. A genus of plants of the family of Leguminósæ. Pterocarpus santalinus. The red saunders tree.

PTE´RIS. Gr. Name of Fern. A genus of cryptógamous plants. Brake. Pteris esculenta. Edible fern.

PTEROPUS. From the Gr. pteron, wing, and pous, foot. A genus of mammals of the tribe of bats, termed Roussettes.

PU´MA. A name of the couguar or American Lion.

PYROGE´NOUS. From the Gr. pur, fire, and geinomai, I beget. Applied to rocks which owe their origin to the action of fire, as granite.

PY´RUS. A genus of plants of the family Rosáceæ. A pear-tree.

PYRI´FERA. Lat. From pyrus, a pear, and fero, I bear.

PYTHON. A genus of reptiles.

QUADRUMA´NA. Formed from the Lat. quatuor, four, and manus, hand. An order of mammals characterized by having four hands.

QUA´RTZ. Germ. Rock crystal.

QUARTZOSE. Of the nature of quartz.

QUICKSILVER. A metal which is fluid at ordinary temperatures. Also called mercury.

RADIA´TA. Lat. Radiate; the name of a class of zóophytes.

RA´DIATE. From the Lat. radius, a ray. Furnished with rays; having rays.

RADIA´TION. The emission of the rays of light, or of heat, from a luminous or a heated body.

RAFFLE´SIA. After Sir T. Raffles. A genus of plants of the family of Rafflesiáceæ, which are parasites, growing on the roots of dicotyledonous plants. The flowers of some of them are enormously large; the Rafflesia arnoldi are said to be three feet in diameter.

RAINE´TTE. Fr. A tree-frog.

RANUN´CULUS. From the Lat. rana, a frog, because the species inhabit humid places. Crow-foot. A genus of plants of the family of Ranunculáceæ.

RANUN´CULI. Lat. Plural of ranunculus.

RA´NA. Lat. A frog. A genus of reptiles.

REFRA´CTION. From the Lat. refractus, broken. The deviation of a ray of light from its rectilinear course, caused by passing through a transparent substance. The degree of refraction depends upon the density of the medium through which the ray of light passes.

REFU´LGENS. Lat. Shining brightly; refulgent.

RE´PTILE. From the Lat. repere, to crawl. A term applied to any animal that moves naturally upon its belly, or on very short legs, as serpents, &c.

REPTI´LIA. The class of reptiles: it comprises those vertebrate animals which have cold blood, an aërial respiration, and an incomplete circulation.

RESENIFE´RA. Lat. Containing resin.

REVOLU´TA. Lat. Turned back; tumbled.

RHEA. Synonyme of Struthio, an ostrich.

RHO´DIUM. From the Gr. rodon, a rose, on account of the rose red color of some of its salts. A metal discovered in the year 1803 by Wollaston.

RHODODE´NDRON. From the Gr. rodon, a rose, and dendron, a tree. A genus of plants of the family of Ericáceæ.

RHODOME´LIA. From the Gr. rodon, a rose, and melas, black. A genus of plants of the family of Phy´ceæ.

RHUS. A genus of plants of the family of Terebintáceæ. Rhus vernix. The varnish Sumach.

RHYNCHOPS. From the Gr. rugchops, a beak. A genus of birds: the skimmers or scissor-bills.

ROCK-SALT. Common salt found in masses or beds in the new red sandstone.

ROD´ENTIA. From the Lat. rodere, to gnaw. An order of mammals.

RODENTS. Animals of the order Rodentia.

ROR´QUAL. A kind of whalebone whale.

RO´SA. A genus of plants of the family of Rosáceæ. Rosa sinensis. The Chinese rose.

RU´BER. Lat. Red.

RUBIA´CEÆ. A family of plants.

RU´BY. A crystalized gem of various shades of red.

RUFIMA´NUS. Lat. Red-handed.

RU´MINANT. An animal that chews the cud.

RUMINA´NTIA. An order of mammals which are characterized by chewing the cud.

RU´MINATI. To chew the cud.

SA´LINES. Natural deposits of salt; salt springs.

SA´LIX. Lat. Willow. A genus of plants of the family of Salici´neæ Sa´lix lana´ta. Woolly willow.

SALT. A combination of an acid with one or more bases.

SAMO´LUS. From the Celtic, san, salutary, and mos, pig. Salutary to pigs. Brook-weed. A genus of plants of the family of Primuláceæ. Samo´lus valera´ndi. Common brook-weed.

SANDARA´CH. A name given by the Arabs to an odorous resin.

SANDALI´NUS. Lat. Sandal-like.

SANDSTONE. Any rock consisting of aggregated grains of sand.

SAPA´JOU. Fr. A genus of monkeys.

SAPI´NDUS. Abbreviation of sapo, soap, and indicus, Indian soap. Soap-berry. A genus of plants of the family of Sapindáceæ. Sapi´ndus sapona´ria. Common soap-berry.

SAPONA´RIA. Lat. Soapy.

SAPOTA´CEÆ. A family of plants.

SA´PPHIRE. A very hard gem consisting essentially of crystalized alu´mina. It is of various colors; the blue variety being usually called sapphire; the red, the oriental ruby; the yellow, the oriental topaz.

SA´QUIS. } A genus of monkeys. SAKIS. }

SARGA´SUM. From the Span. sarga´zo, sea-lentils. A genus of plants of the family of Phy´ceæ.

SARRACE´NIA. After Dr. Sarrazin. The side-saddle flower, or pitcher plant. A genus of plants of the family of Sarracénieæ.

SAU´RIAN. From the Gr. sauros, a lizard. Applied to animals of the lizard tribe.

SAUROID. From the Gr. sauros, a lizard, and eidos, resemblance. Resembling a lizard.

SCA´NDENS. Lat. Climbing.

SCHIST. From the Gr. schistos, split. Slate.

SCHISTO´SE. Slaty.

SCHOT´IA. After Schott, a Dutch gardener. A genus of plants of the family of Leguminósæ. Schotia speciosa. Small-leaved Schotia.

SCI´TAME´NEÆ. A family of plants.

SCIE´RIA. From the Gr. skleros, hard. A genus of plants of the family of Cyperáceæ.

SCO´LOPAX. A genus of birds: a heron.

SCOPA´RIA. From scopa, a broom. A genus of plants of the family of Scrophulari´neæ.

SCO´RIÆ. Volcanic cinders. Cinders and slags of basaltic lavas of a reddish brown and black color.

SCORIA´CEOUS. Of the nature of scoriæ.

SCO´RIFORM. In form of scoriæ.

SCY´THROPS. From the Gr. skuthrops, sad. A genus of birds of the order of climbers. A cuckoo.

SEAMS. Thin layers or strata interposed between others.

SECONDARY FORMATION. In geology the formation which is next in order to the transition formation.

SE´CULAR. From the Lat. seculum, a century. Secular elevations are those which take place gradually and imperceptibly, through a long period of time. Secular tides are those which are dependent upon the secular variation of the moon’s mean distance from the earth.

SE´DIMENT. From the Lat. sedeo, I sit. That which subsides or settles to the bottom of any liquid.

SEDIME´NTARY. Belonging or relating to sediment.

SEBIFE´RA. Lat. Containing tallow.

SEED-LOBE. The envelope in which the seed in plants is formed.

SELE´NITE. A variety of gypsum, or sulphate of lime.

SE´MITIC. Applied to the languages of the descendants of Sem, or the Orientals.

SE´PAL. That part of the calyx of a flower which resembles a leaf.

SE´PIA. A kind of paint prepared from the cuttle fish. A genus of mollusks.

SER´PENTINE. A magnesian rock of various colors, and often speckled like a serpent’s back. It is generally dark green.

SE´PTENTRIONA´LIS. Lat. Northern.

SER´RATE. From the Lat. serra, a saw. Toothed like a saw.

SERRA´TA. Lat. Serrate.

SHAFT. A cylindrical hollow space, or pit, in mines, made for the purpose of extracting ores, &c.

SHALE. An indurated slaty clay, or clay-slate.

SHINGLE. Loose, water-worn gravel and pebbles.

SHORE´A. Synonym of Vatica. A genus of plants of the family of Diptérocárpeæ.

SIERRA. Span. A mountain chain.

SI´LEX. From the Gr. chalis, a pebble. The principal constituent of quartz, rock-crystal, and other silicious minerals.

SI´LICA. Silicious earth: the oxide of silicon (the elementary basis of Silica,) constituting almost the whole of silex or flint. It combines with many of the metallic oxides, and is for this reason sometimes called sili´cic acid.

SI´LICATE. A compound of silicic acid and a base. Plate-glass and window-glass are silicates of soda and potassa; and flint-glass is a similar compound with a large addition of silicate of lead.

SILI´CIOUS. Containing silica.

SILI´CIFIED. Petrified or mineralized by silicious earth.

SILT. The name given to the sand, clay, and earth, which accumulate in running waters.

SILI´CIUM. The metalloid which forms the basis of silica.

SILURIAN SYSTEM. Series of rocks formerly known as the greywacke series. So called after the Silures or Siluri, the ancient Britons who inhabited the region where these strata are most distinctly developed. They are entirely of marine origin.

SILU´RUS. A genus of fishes of the family of Silurida.

SILVA. A forest, or woods.

SIMU´LIUM. From the Lat. simulo, I feign. A genus of insects of the order of Diptera.

SINE´NSIS. Lat. Chinese; belonging or relating to China.

SIN´TER. Germ. A scale. Calcareous sinter is a variety of carbonate of lime composed of successive concentric layers. Silicious sinter is a variety of common opal.

SIPHO´NIA. A genus of plants of the family of Euphorbiáceæ.

SLATE. A well known rock which is divisible into thin plates or layers.

SMYNTHUS, or SMINTHUS. From the Gr. sminthos, rat. A genus of rodent mammals.

SMYRNE´NSIS. Lat. Belonging, or relating to Smyrna.

SOLAR SPE´CTRUM. Lat. Spectrum, an image. In optics the name given to an elongated image of the sun formed on a wall or screen by a beam of undecomposed light, received through a small hole, and refracted by a prism.

SOLFATA´RA. Italian. A volcanic vent emitting sulphur and sulphurous compounds.

SOLIDA´GO. Golden-rod. A genus of plants of the family of Compósitæ.

SO´MATE´RIA. Synonym with platypus. A genus of birds.

SOPHO´RA. A genus of plants of the family Leguminósæ.

SPAR. (Germ. Spath.) Applied to certain crystalized mineral substances, which easily break into cubic, prismatic, or other forms.

SPAR´RY. Of the nature of spar.

SPE´CIES. A kind; a subdivision of genus. Extinct species is a term applied to those kinds of organized beings, whether plants or animals, which are not found living upon the face of the earth.

SPECI´FIC. Relating to species.

SPECIFIC WEIGHT, or SPECIFIC GRAVITY. The relative weight of one body with that of another of equal volume.

SPECIO´SA. } SPECIO´SUS. } Lat. Handsome. A word used as a specific name. SPECIO´SUM. }

SPE´CULAR IRON. A kind of iron ore of granular structure, and metallic lustre, sometimes shining.

SPECTA´BILIS. Lat. Visible, remarkable, noteable.

SPICA´TA. Lat. Having spikes; eared like corn.

SPINE´LLE, or SPINE´L. French. A sub-species of ruby.

SPIRÆ´A. A genus of plants of the family of Rosáceæ.

SPORES. The seeds of lichens, and crytógamous plants.

SPORU´LES. The diminutive of spores.

SPUMA´CEOUS. From the Lat. spuma, foam. Foamy.

STAGMA´RIA. From the Gr. stagma, a drop. A genus of plants of the family of Anacardiáceæ. Stagma´ria verniciflua, a tree of Sumatra, from the bark of which exudes an extremely acrid juice. This juice quickly dries in the air, becomes black, and is sold at a high price; it is employed in the preparation of a varnish. The Sumatrans consider it dangerous to sit or sleep in the shade of this tree.

STA´MEN. Lat. The male apparatus of a flower.

STAPE´LIA. Proper name. A genus of plants of the family of Asclepiádeæ.

STARCH. A vegetable substance which exists in many tuberous roots, the stalks of palms, and in the seeds of the cereal grasses.

STEP´PE. Fr., from the Lat. stipes, a landmark. A term applied to the Savanahs of Tartary, of the Crimea, &c., and salt deserts of Northern Asia.

STI´GMA. The superior, terminating part of the pistil of a flower.

STILLIN´GIA. After Dr. Stillingfleet. A genus of plants of the family of Euphorbiáceæ. Stillingia sebifera. The tallow tree of China.

STRA´TA. Lat. Plural of stratum, a layer, a bed.

STRATIFICA´TION. An arrangement in beds or layers.

STRA´TIFIED. Arranged in strata.

STRA´TUS. A kind of cloud: it consists of horizontal layers, and includes fogs and mists; its under surface usually rests upon the land or sea, and it is therefore the lowest of the clouds.

STRELIT´ZIA. After Queen Charlotte, of the family of Mecklenburgh Strelitz. A genus of plants of the family of Musáceæ.

STRI´Æ. Lat. Diminutive channels or creases.

STRIA´TA. Lat. Striated; marked with striæ.

STRON´TIUM. A metalloid found in the earth called strontia.

STRU´THIO. Lat. An ostrich. A genus of birds.

STRU´THEOUS. Of the nature of an ostrich.

STRYCH´NOS. A genus of plants of the family of Apocy´neæ. Strych´nos toxica´ria. The poison strychnos.

STYLE´DIUM. From the Gr. stulos, a column. A genus of plants of the family of Stylideæ, found in New Holland.

SUBLIMA´TION. The process by which volatile substances are raised by heat, and again condensed into the solid form. The substances so obtained are called sublimates.

SUB SOIL. An under soil.

SUB STRA´TA. Lat. Plural of substratum, an under layer or bed.

SUL´PHURET. A compound of sulphur with another solid, as with iron, forming sulphuret of iron.

SUL´PHURETTED. Containing sulphur; as hydrogen, containing sulphur, is called sulphuretted hydrogen.

SUPE´RBA. Lat. Superb, elegant.

SURIA´NA. A genus of plants of the family of Suriáneæ; it was formerly of the Rosáceæ.

SYCOMO´RUS. Lat. The Sycamore; applied also as a specific name.

SY´ENITE and SI´ENITE. A granite rock from Syene or Siena in Egypt. It consists of quartz, feldspar, and hornblende. It is tougher than granite.

SYL´VIA. Name of a genus of birds.

SYNGENE´SIA. From the Gr. sun, together, and geinomai, to grow. Linnean name of a class of plants.

TAC´CA. Malay. A genus of plants of the family of Aroïdeæ. Tac´ca pinnatifida. The Salep tree.

TANG´HINIA. From the Madagascar name, Tanghing. A genus of plants of the family of Apocy´neæ. Tang´hinia vene´niflua yields an active poison which is used to cause death, under judicial sentence, by the natives of Madagascar.

TANTA´LIUM. A metal, remarkable for its insolubility in acids.

TAN´TALUS. A genus of birds of the family of Herons.

TATA´RICA. Lat. Belonging or relating to Tartary.

TELESCO´PIC. Relating to the telescope; telescopic objects are those which may be seen by the aid of a telescope.

TELLU´RIUM. A rare metal, found in the gold mines of Transylvania.

TEMPERA´TURE. A definite degree of sensible heat.

TEMPORA´RIA. Lat. Temporary; relating to time.

TE´NAX. Lat. Tenacious.

TER´MES. A genus of insects of the order of Neuroptera, and family of Termitidæ. White ants.

TERRA JAPO´NICA. An astringent medicinal gum, obtained from the Acácia catechu.

TERTIARY FORMATION. A series of sedimentary rocks which are superior to the primary and secondary, and distinguished by the fossil remains found in them.

TESTA´CEÆ. From testa, a shell. Testáceans; animals provided with an external shelly cover, composed chiefly of carbonate of lime.

TESTA´CEOUS. Consisting of carbonate of lime and animal matter.

TESTU´DO. Lat. Tortoise. A genus of reptiles of the order of Chelonians.

TETRACE´RA. From the Gr. tettaras, four, and keras, a horn. A genus of plants of the family of Dillenáceæ.

TE´TRAGO´NA. From the Gr. tetra, four, and gonos, angle. Having four angles; applied as a specific name. A genus of plants of the family of Portuláceæ.

THE´A. A genus of plants of the tribe of Camelleæ. The´a bohea, Bohea tea; Thea viridis, Green tea.

THE´INE. The proximate principle of tea.

THER´MAL. From the Gr. thermos, heat. Warm; belonging or relating to heat.

THO´RIUM. A metal obtained from Thorina, an earthy substance.

THU´IA, also THU´JA. A genus of plants of the family of Coni´feræ. Thuia articulata. Jointed arbor vitæ. T. orientalis; Chinese arbor vitæ. T. sandarach, Shittim wood.

TIDAL. Relating to tides. Tidal wave is the elevation of the water of the ocean, produced by the attraction of the moon.

TILLAND´SIA. A genus of plants of the family of Bromeliáceæ.

TITA´NIUM. A metal discovered in 1781, by W. Gregor, in a ferruginous sand.

TO´DUS. A genus of birds of the order of Passerinæ.

TO´PAZ. A crystalized mineral, harder than quartz, of a yellow wine color.

TORSION BALANCE. See, BALANCE.

TOU´RMALINE. A mineral substance consisting of a Boro-silicate of alumine, harder than quartz, but not as hard as topaz.

TOURNFO´RTIA. After Tournefort. A genus of plants of the family of Borragi´neæ.

TRA´CHYTE. From the Gr. trachus, rough. A variety of lava. A feldspathic rock, which often contains glassy feldspar and hornblende. When the feldspar crystals are thickly and uniformly disseminated, it is called trachytic porphyry.

TRAP. From the Swedish trappa, a flight of stairs, because trap rocks frequently occur in large tabular masses rising one above another like the successive steps of a stair-case. Applied to certain igneous rocks composed of feldspar, angite, and hornblende.

TRA´PPEAN. Belonging to trap rocks.

TREMA´NDRA. A genus of plants of the family of Tremándrea.

TRIAS. From the Lat. tres, three. Synonym of the triássic system of rocks, consisting of the Bunter sandstein, the Muschelkalk, and Keuper, a group of sandy marls of variegated colors.

TRICHO´MANES. From the Gr. trichos, hair, and mania, madness, excess. A genus of plants of the class of Crytoga´mia. Tricho´manes brevise´tum. Short-styled trichómanes.

TRICY´RTIS. From the Gr. treis, three, and kurtis, a sack or pouch. A genus of plants of the family of Melantháceæ.

TRIDENTA´TA. Lat. Three-toothed; having three teeth.

TRI´GONOCE´PHALUS. From the Gr. treis, three, gonos, an angle, and kephale, head. A genus of very venemous serpents. Tri´gonoce´phalus lanceola´tus. Lance-head viper.

TRI´LOBITE. From the Lat. tres, three, and lobus, lobe. A genus of fossil crustáceans.

TRIO´NYX. From the Gr. treis, three, and onux, a nail. A genus of Chelonians.

TRIO´STEUM. From the Gr. treis, three, and osteon, a bone, a nut. A genus of plants of the family of Caprifoliáceæ.

TU´FA. Italian. A volcanic rock, composed of an agglutination of fragmented scoriæ.

TUNG´STEN. Swedish. Heavy stone. A metal which is hard, white, brittle, and difficult to fuse.

TU´RQUOISE. A blue mineral found in Persia; its color depends on the presence of oxide of copper.

UM´BEL. A form of inflorescence, in which several peduncles expand so as to produce a flower somewhat resembling a parasol when open.

UMBELLI´FERÆ. From umbel, screen, and fero, I bear. Name of a family of plants.

UMBELLI´FEROUS. Belonging or relating to Umbelliferæ.

UNCINA´TA. Lat. From uncus, a hook. Hooked; having hooks.

UPHEAVAL. The elevation of land by earthquakes.

URA´NIUM. A metal discovered by Klaproth, in 1789.

URSI´NUS. Lat. Belonging or relating to bears.

U´SNEOIDES. From u´sne, a kind of lichen, and the Gr. eidos, resemblance. Resembling the u´sne.

U´RENS. Lat. Burning.

VA´CUUM. From the Lat. vacuus, empty. A portion of space void of matter.

VAGINA´LIS. Lat. From vagina, a sheath. A genus of birds.

VANA´DIUM. A silvery white metal, discovered originally by Del Rio, in 1801, but not admitted until 1830.

VANE´SSA. A genus of butterflies. Vanessa cardui, the painted lady butterfly.

VERO´NICA. A genus of plants of the family of Scropularínæ.

VE´RTEBRA. From the Lat. vertere, to turn. A joint or bone of the spine. Vertebral column, is the spine or back bone.

VER´TEBRATE. Having vertebræ, or a spine.

VERTICOSE. Whorl-like.

VENE´NIFLUA. Lat. Flowing with poison.

VERNI´CIFLUA. Lat. Flowing with varnish.

VER´NIX. Lat. Varnish.

VILLO´SUS. Lat. Velvety.

VI´RIDIS. Lat. Green.

VI´TEX. Chaste-tree. A genus of plants of the family of Verbenáceæ.

VIT´RIFIED. From the Lat. vitrea, glass. Converted into glass.

VITULI´NA. From the Lat. vitulus, a sea calf. Belonging or relating to seals.

VIVIPA´RUM. Lat. Viviparous.

VOLCA´NIC. Belonging or relating to volcanoes.

VOLTA´IC. Applied to electricity produced after the manner of Volta, an Italian philosopher.

VULTUR PAPA. The king of vultures.

WATERSHED. The general declivity of the face of a country which determines the direction of the flowing of water.

WEALD. Name of a part of Kent and Surrey in England. The Wealden clay and Wealden deposit are found in this part of England.

XANTHOX´YLUM. From the Gr. xanthos, yellow, xulon, wood. Tooth-ache tree. A genus of plants of the family of Rutáceæ.

XERA´NTHEMUM. From the Gr. xeros, dry, and anthos, flower. A genus of plants of the family of Compo´sitæ.

YERBA MATE. Spanish name of the Ilex paraguensis.

YTT´RIUM. A metal discovered by Wöhler, in 1828; it is of a dark gray color and brittle.

YUC´CA. Adam’s needle. A genus of plants of the family of Liliáceæ. It yields an esculent root.

ZA´MIA. A genus of plants of the family of Cycádeæ.

ZANNICHE´LLIA. After Zannichella, a Venetian apothecary. Pond weed. A genus of plants of the family of Naiades.

ZIRCO´NIUM. A metal found in zirconia, an earth, discovered by Klaproth in 1789.

ZI´ZYPHUS. A genus of plants of the family of Rhamni. Z. jujuba, yields the jujube fruit.

ZOSTE´RA. From the Gr. zoster, a riband. Sea-wrack grass. A genus of plants of the family of Fluviales.

ZO´OLOGY. From the Gr. zo´on, an animal, and logos, a discourse. That branch of Natural History which treats of animals.

ZO´OPHYTE. From the Gr. zo´on, an animal, and phuton, a plant. An animal without vertebræ, or extremities, that attaches itself to solid bodies, and seems to live and vegetate like a plant.

INDEX.

Abyssinia, 89; dimensions of, ib.; table-land, ib.; mountains, ib.; geological structure, ib.

Acidulous springs, 153.

Admiralty, its encouragement of science, 463.

Afghanistan, flora of, 320.

Africa, extent and area, 85; height of table-land, ib.; interior of continent, 86; width at the Cape of Good Hope, ib.; western mountains, 87; the koroos, ib.; western coast, ib.; fertile tract across the continent, 89, 90; deserts, 90, 91; analogy of Southern Africa to the Deccan, 92; earthquake, 154.

Africa, rivers of, 218-224; the Gariep, or Orange River, 218; the Zambesi, 219; the Haines, ib.; the Hawash, ib.; the Zaire, ib.; the Nile, ib.-223; the White Nile, 220; its affluents, ib.; the Blue Nile, ib.; its tributaries, ib.; the Takkazie, ib.; Abyssinian rivers, 221; course of the Nile, ib.; its basin, 222; velocity, ib.; inundations, ib.; ancient renown of, ib.; the Niger, 223; barbarous state of its nations, ib.; its sources and course, 223; its affluents, ib.; its branches, ib.; inundations, 224; the Gambia, ib.; the Senegal, ib.

Africa, flora of, 330; quadrupeds of, 423; birds of, 402.

Agassiz, M., on a former glacier in Chamouni, 53.

Agouti, 432.

Aconcagua, volcano of, 95.

Ai, species of sloth, 429.

Airy, Mr., 16; 462.

Alector, genus of birds, 407.

Alleghanies, chain of, 128, 129; area, ib.; scenery, ib.; branches, 129; vegetation on, 342.

Alligators, 389.

Alpaca or Paco, 431; on naturalization of, in Europe, ib.

Alpine vegetation, 318.

Alps, the, 49; higher Alps, their extent, ib.; elevation of central ridge of, ib.; width of the chain, 50; ice in, 52; flora of, 313.

Altai Mountains, 65; length and breadth of the chain, ib.; form, ib.; geology of, 66.

Alluvial deposits by rivers, 33.

Amblyrhinchus, genus of reptiles, 391.

Amboyna, its vegetation, 325.

America, length and form of the continent, 93; its natural divisions, ib.; climate, ib.; mountains, ib.; mean height of, 135.

America, rivers of, 234-244; the St. Lawrence, 235; Arctic streams, ib.; the Mississippi, 235, 236; its sources, 235; its tributaries, ib.; the Missouri, ib.; the Arkansas, ib.; the Red River, ib.; the Ohio, 236; length of the Mississippi, ib.; floods, 237; rivers of the Alleghany chain, ib.; of the Rocky Mountains, ib.; Mexican rivers, ib.; rivers of the Andes, 238; the Orinoco, its rise and course, 239; tributaries, ib.; area of its basin, 240; floods, ib.; the Amazons, its rise and course, ib.; its basin, ib.; tributaries, 241; floods, ib.; branches, ib.; colour of American rivers, 242; the Rio de la Plata, its rise, ib.; tributaries, ib.; length, ib.; floods and inundations, 243; the Colorado, 243; the Rio Negro, ib.; the Essequibo, ib.; navigation of South American rivers, ib.; the Parà, 244; the San Francisco, ib.

America, continental islands of, 139.

American quadrupeds, 426; birds, 404, 405; races of man, 438.

America peopled from Asia, 448.

America, Central, its dimensions, 114; mountains, ib.; climate and vegetation, 116; volcanos, ib.; geology, 118.

America, Central, flora of, 344.

America, North, its dimensions and structure, 119; mountains, 119-123, 128-129; plains, 123, 130; progressive extinction of aborigines, 131; geological notice, 131-133; volcanic action, 131; fossil mammalia, ib.; analogy of the geology of North America with that of Europe, 132-133; mean height of the continent, 135; coalfields, 184, 185; flora of, 341.

America, South, length and width, 93; its mountains, 94-105; low lands, 105-114; their extent and area, 105; geology, 109-114; volcanic remains, 109, note; upheavings and subsidences, 112; mean height of the continent, 134; earthquakes, 154; tropical flora of, 346.

Ammonia, its use in vegetation, 301.

Amphiuma, 386.

Amucu, lake, 104.

Anatolia, table-land and mountains of, 56.

Andes, chain of, 93-103; Patagonian Andes, 94; Chilian Andes, 95; Peruvian Andes, 96; fertility and populousness of, ib.; ancient civilization, ib.; Bolivian Andes, ib., 97; three ranges of the chain, 98; Andes of Cundinamarca and Merida, 100; passes of the Andes, elevations of, 101; climate and temperature, 102; development of volcanic force in the Andes, 109, 110; geology of, 111, 113; coal found in, 111; volcanic products, 112; sea-shells in, ib.; alternate elevation and depression of, 112, 113; volcanos in eruption in 1835, 112; Andes of Central America, 114, 115.

Aneroid barometer, 261.

Angara, a Siberian river, 250.

Angora goat, 418.

Animated beings, new races of, accompany great geological changes in the strata, 34; their ancient geographical distribution, 35.

Anjou, Lieutenant, his voyage, 76, note.

Anoa, the, 422.

Anolis, genus of reptiles, 390.

Antarctic lands, 165-167.

Ant-eaters, 420.

Antelopes of Asia, 420; of Africa, 424.

Antelope Saiga, 419.

Antelope, Prongbuck, or American, 427.

Anti-Libanus, height of, 83.

Ants, 367.

Ants, white, their ravages, ib.

Antuco, vegetation at, 350.

Apennines, their extent, 51.

Aptenodytes, southern penguin, 408.

Apteryx, anomalous bird, 410.

Arabia, peninsula of, 81, 82; elevation of table-land, 81; mountains, 82.

Arabia Felix, 82.

Arabia Petrea, 83.

Arabia, flora of, 329.

Arabians, 437.

Arago, M., on polarized light, 284.

Aral, lake of, 248, 249.

Ararat, Mount, 56, 418.

Araucari, a bird, 407.

Araucaria, genus of plants, 349.

Arctic lands, 159-167.

Ardea helias, 408.

Areca tree and nut, 324.

Argali sheep, 418.

Armadilloes, 429.

Armenia, plains of, 56.

Arrow-root, 347.

Artesian wells, 152, 210.

Asia, mean height of, 134; volcanos of, 152; earthquakes in, 153.

Asia, rivers of, 224, 234; system of the Euphrates and Tigris, area of its basin, 224; rise and course of the Euphrates, 225; of the Tigris, ib.; their junction, ib.; ancient and present state of their banks, ib.; the Indus, its sources, 226; its tributaries, ib.; its navigation, 227; its delta, ib.; length and area, ib.; the Ganges and Brahmapootra, sources of, 228; their tributaries, ib.; length, 228, 229; inundations, 229; branches, ib.; drainage, ib.; the Irawady, 230; the Menam, ib.; the Cambodja, ib.; the Saüng, 231; the Hoang-Ho, ib.; the Yang-tse-Kiang, ib.; the Hong-Kiang, 232; the White River, ib.; the Amur, ib.; the Lena, ib.; the Yenessei, 233; the Oby and Irtish, ib.; great difference in the inhabitants of the basins of Asiatic rivers, 234.

Asia, flora of, 319; quadrupeds of, 417; birds of, 400.

Asp, Egyptian, a snake, 387.

Ass, wild, or onagra, 418.

Assal, lake of, 250.

Assam, Upper, its mountains, 64.

Assam, tea-plant in, 322.

Assyrian wilderness, 84.

Atlantic Ocean, volcanic islands of, 140; its size, 189.

Atlantic Plain, 130.

Atlantic Slope, 130.

Atlas mountains, 46.

Atmosphere influential in modifying the distribution of light and heat, 15.

Atolls, 142-145; description of, 143; diameter, 144; atolls of the Pacific, ib.; of the China Sea, ib.; of the Indian Ocean, 145; great extent of atolls, 148.

Auchenia, genus of llamas, 430.

Auckland Islands, flora of, 353.

Aurochs, or wild ox, 416. Aurora, the, 290; form and height of, 291; effect on the magnetic needle, ib.

Australia, continent of, 136-139.

Australia, rivers of, their insignificance, 244; the Murray, ib.; the Macquarrie, ib.; Swan River, ib.

Australia, flora of, 336; quadrupeds of, 344; birds of, 309; human races, 438.

Axolotl, a Mexican reptile, 386.

Azerbijan, 418.

Babbage, Mr., on age of peat-mosses, 358.

Babiroussa hog, 421.

Back, Sir George, 463.

Bahama Islands, 118.

Bahr-el-Abiad, or White Nile, 251. See Nile.

Bahr-el-Azrek, or Blue Nile. See Nile.

Baikal mountains, 99.

Baily, Mr., 19; and note.

Balkan, 50.

Baltic Sea, its area, 207; basin, ib.; depth, ib.; climate, ib.; influence on European civilization, 449.

Baratra, the, 403.

Barbican, a genus of birds, 403.

Baring, Sir Francis, 463.

Barley, origin and cultivation of, 356.

Barometer, use in determining heights, 261; how affected by storms, 269; horary visitations of, 262; aneroid, 261, note.

Barren Ground, the, of North America, 129.

Barrier-reefs, 145; notice of a reef off the north-east coast of Australia, 146.

Batrachians, an order of reptiles, 384; their distribution, 385.

Bear, 417, 419.

Bear, the grizzly, 427.

Beaufort, Admiral Sir Francis, 463.

Beaumont, M. Elie de, extension of Von Buch’s views, 39, note; parallelism of contemporary chains, 43.

Beechey, Captain, his measurement of the height of the Nevado of Aconcagua, 95.

Bees, distribution of, 366.

Beke, Dr., travels in Africa, 89.

Beloot Tagh, or Cloudy Mountains, 59.

Benguela, 88.

Ben Nevis, its elevation, 71.

Besborough, Earl of, 463.

Bessel, M., his measurement of the earth’s radii, 16; his results compared with those of Mr. Airy, 17; with Colonel Sabine’s, 17, note.

Birds, classification of, 392; geographical distribution of, 393; migration of, ib.; gregarious, 397; British, 398; European, 394; Asiatic, 400; African, 402; North American, 404; South American, 405; Australian, 409; of New Zealand, 410; fossil from New Zealand, 410.

Bison, the, a species of ox, 427.

Black Sea, its area, 207; basin, ib.; depth, ib.

Blue Mountains, 117.

Boa, a genus of serpents, 388.

Boar, wild, 416.

Bombon, plain, its height, 98.

Borax, lakes of, in Tibet, 250.

Borneo, general features, products, and climate of, 143; population of, 438.

Boué, M., his deductions from a comparison of different parts of the land, 42; nature’s fundamental types few, 43; interruptions in continents and mountain-chains, 45; Scandinavian mountain system, 70.

——, Dr., on the influence of chains of mountains on the difference of nations, 448.

Brazil, table-land, its form, 104; boundaries, ib.; soil, 105; flora of, 348.

Brienz, lake of, 247.

Britain, flora of, 317.

British mountains, geology of, 71.

British population, 443.

Brooke, Sir J., at Borneo, 460.

Buch, Von, the structure of the globe, 39, note; notice of mountains in Germany, 44; classification of islands, 139; boundary of the Australian continent, 141.

Bunsen, Chevalier, on the antiquity of the Egyptian dynasties, 444, note.

Buphaga, a genus of birds, 403.

Caama antelope, 424.

Cabiai, or myopotamus, 433.

Cachalot, or spermaceti whale, 379.

Calbongos, 88.

Camel, Bactrian, 420; Arabian, or dromedary, ib.

Camellia, country of, 321.

Campbell’s Island, 354.

Campos Parecis, desert of, 105.

Canadas, the, products, 127; ice-storms 128; waste-land, ib.

Cape Negro, 87.

Cape pigeons, or pintadoes, 393.

Cariama, a gallinaceous bird, 407.

Caribbean Sea, 209.

Caroline Archipelago, 144.

Carpathian mountains, 49.

Carnivorous quadrupeds, 414.

Cashmere, flora of, 310.

Cashmere, goat, 419.

Casius, Mount, height of, 83.

Caspian Sea, its depression, 73.

Caspian Sea, 248.

Cassican, genus of birds, 401.

Cassowary, 402.

Caucasus, the, 55.

Caucasian race of mankind, 436; its distribution, ib.

Cavendish, Mr., 19.

Cebus, an American monkey, 429.

Celtic races of man, 441.

Cerealia, geographical distribution of, 355.

Cereopsis, a New Holland bird, 410.

Cerro Duida, height of, 104.

Cetacea, division of, 377.

Ceylon, island of, 80; flora of, 329.

Chameleons, 390.

Chamois, 417, 419.

Charpentier, M., his measurement of the base of the Pyrenees, 134, note.

Cheiroptera, or bats, 414.

Chelonians, or turtles, 392.

Chelydæ, 391.

Cherokee Indians, 458.

Chile, its climate, 95; group of volcanic vents, 110; rise of the coast, 113; vegetation of, 349.

Chimpanzee, 422, 425.

China, great productiveness of, 78; area of its alluvial plain, ib.; extent of great canal of, ib.; climate, ib.; fire-hills and fire-springs of, 152; flora of, 321.

Chinchilla, 432.

Chinese empire, extent of mountains in, 59.

Chinese population, 437.

Chionis, an antarctic bird, 409.

Chious, 410.

Chiquisaca, 97.

Chitta, the hunting leopard, 421.

Chlamyphores, 429.

Choco, chain of, 100.

Cinchona, or Peruvian-bark tree, 311; 347.

Circassians, 436.

Civilization, effects of, 439; greatest in the vicinity of the sea, 457.

Climate during the Eocene period, 29; excessive cold of the Pleiocene period, 31.

Climate altered by cultivation, 451.

Clouds, formation and height of, 274; different names given to, ib.

Coal, diffusion of, 181-186; quantity consumed and exported annually by Great Britain, 184, note; quantity produced in France in 1841, ib.; quantity raised in one year, ib., note; annual value of coal, 184.

Coalfields, great extent of, 36.

Coasts, extent and form of, 40; comparative extent of, in the four quarters of the globe, 41.

Cobra capello, or hooded snake, 387.

Coca (Erythroxylon), 350.

Coccineal insect, 366.

Cæciliæ, genus of reptiles, 386.

Coffee-plant, and history of, 330.

Cold, regions where greatest, 258.

Colima, volcanic cone, 121.

Colobus, genus of Lemuridæ, 425.

Colombian Archipelago. See West Indian Islands.

Condor, the, 406.

Coniferæ, family of plants, 362.

Continent, the great, form of, 45; its high lands, 46, 69; European portion of its mountains, 47; extent and breadth of high lands between the Mediterranean and the Pacific, 55; area of its high land, 73; southern low lands, 77; great extent of desert, 92; continental islands of, 140.

Continents, forces that raised them, their mode of action, 37; area of the great continent, 38; relative extent of continents and islands, ib.; elevation of continents, 41; interruptions in, 45; mean height of, 133; height of their centres of gravity, 135.

Continental islands described, 139.

Copper, diffusion of, 178.

Coral formations, four kinds of, 143.

Coral reefs, 146.

Cotopaxi, height of, 99.

Coucals, genus of birds, 401.

Coucou, 407.

Couroucou, species of bird, 401.

Crater of elevation, definition of, 48, note.

Crax alector, 407.

Crime, decrease of, by education, 471.

Crocodiles in general, 389; of the Nile, ib.; of the Ganges, ib.

Cryptogamia, 306.

Cuba, area and coast-line, 118; height of its mountains, ib.

Culture, its influence on the human form, 447.

Currents, causes of, 197; direction and velocity, ib.; great oceanic currents, 198; Gulf-stream, 199; breadth of currents, ib.; counter-currents, 200; periodical currents, ib.; effect of currents on voyages, 201.

Cusco, city, 98; reliques of the Incas, ib.

Cush, or land of Ethiopia, 443.

Cutch, river of, 81.

Cuvier, Baron, 30, 32, 463.

Cuyo, a province of South America, 430.

Daman, or Hyrax, 425.

Dangerous Archipelago, 144.

Daouria mountains, 66.

Daouria, flora of, 316.

Darwin, Mr., his speculations on perfect animals found buried in Siberia, 32; his ‘Travels in South America’ quoted, 112; on red water on the coast of Chile, 370; on reptiles of Galapagos, 391; on Aconcagua Peak, 272.

Dasyurus, a genus of carnivora, 434.

Da Vinci, Leonardo, his hydraulic operations, 217, note.

Davy, Sir Humphry, his discovery of metalloids, 168; his safety-lamp, 173, note.

Day and night, unequal duration of, 15.

Dead Sea, depression of, 84, note.

Dead Sea, 247.

de Candolle, M., on botanical regions, note, 308; on growth of trees, 358.

Deccan, table-land of, 79; its height and composition, 80; structure, ib.; soil, ib.

Deer, Asiatic, 421.

De la Beche, Sir Henry, on metalliferous deposits, 170, 463.

Dembia lake, 251.

Deodora pine, 320.

Desaguadero, table-land or valley of, its dimensions, 96; its area, 97.

Dinornis, a fossil bird, 410.

Dip of the horizon, 17.

Distance estimated from known height of an object, 17.

Dodo, an extinct bird, 410.

Dogs, American, 427.

Dolphins, 378.

Domestic animals, number of species, 452.

Donny, M., his experiments with boiling water, 163.

Douglas, Mr., his account of an eruption of the volcano of Kirawah in 1834, 151.

Dove, Professor, on mean temperatures, 259.

Dragon lizard, 390.

Dry River, 86.

Dugong, the, 377.

Dzeran goat, 419.

Dziggetai, the, 418, note.

Earth, the, its insignificance in space, 13; instability of its shell, 14; its internal fires, ib.; changes which have brought about its present state, ib.; its future destruction, ib.; its distance from the sun, 15; its annual and diurnal revolutions, ib.; its position in the solar system, ib.; inclination of the axis, ib.; its relative magnitude, ib.; its oblateness, note, ib.; its figure and density deduced from the perturbations in the motions of the moon, ib.; its curvature, 16; modes of determining its form and size, ib.; its radii, ib.; its circumference and diameter, ib.; experiment to ascertain the value of its mass, 18; its mean density, 19; increase in density towards the centre, ib.; constitution of its surface, ib.; an idea of its structure obtained from mining, ib.; its antiquity, 34; unequal arrangement of land and water, 37, 38; ancient internal action, 135.

Earthquakes, 153-157; causes of, 154; propagation of the shocks ib.; effect on the sea, 155; elevation of the ground, ib.; sound of the explosion, rate of progression of, ib.; velocity of the great oceanic wave, 156; comparative destructiveness of earthquakes, 157; frequency of small shocks, ib.; extent of undulations, ib.; rapidity of destruction, ib.; partial shocks, ib.; effects of earthquakes on the configuration of the country, 158.

Eagles, 395.

East India Company, its encouragement of science, 463.

Echidna, 435.

Edentata, 414; South American, 429.

Egede, M., on sea-serpents, 381.

Ehrenberg, M., microscopic shells discovered by, 35.

Eider duck, the, 407.

Eocene period, the globe and its inhabitants during, 29.

Elburz, elevation of, 56.

Electricity in general, 285; of the atmosphere, 286.

Elephants, fossil, multitudes of, in Siberia, 36.

Elephants, Asiatic, 421; African, 424.

Elk, the, 416.

Elliot, Mr. Alexander, his expedition to the sources of the Ganges, 228.

El-Teh, desert of, 82.

Eltonsk, lake of, 248.

Emigration, its effects in Great Britain, 459.

Emu, Australian cassowary, 410.

Emys, fresh-water tortoise, 391.

Encircling reefs, 145.

England, earthquakes in, 154; its coalfields, 182.

Equator, protuberant matter at, influences and is influenced by the moon’s motion, 17, note.

Erebus, Mount, 166.

Erie, lake, 251.

Erman, M., on evaporation, 273.

Espenhaço, chain of, 105.

Esquimaux, 437.

Ethiopian races, 438.

Etna, manner of its explosions, 153.

Europe, mean height and area of, 134.

European mountains, frequency of deep lakes in, 50; geological notice, 53.

Evaporation in different regions, 272.

Factory labour, 412, note.

Falkland Islands, vegetation of, 352.

Famel, 425.

Faraday, Dr., on auroras, 291; on magnetic properties of matter, 296.

Feroe Islands, 70.

Fichtelberge, area of, 48.

Finns, the, 442.

Fire, subterranean lakes of liquid, 14; volcanic, its agency in the formation of rocks, 20.

Firefly, the, 366.

Fishes, geographical distribution, 373; migration of, 375; fresh-water, ib.

Fitzroy, Captain, 447; note, 459.

Floras of different countries, 312.

Fogs, how produced, 273.

Fonseca Bay, 252.

Forbes, Professor E., on British fauna and flora, 31, note; on glaciers, 53; on primary floras, 310; on Egean fuci, 360; on the influence of depth on marine animals, 370; on the Mediterranean, 371.

Formosa, population of, 438.

Fossil remains, immense quantity of, 35.

Foulahs, an African nation, 438.

Fourier’s theory of central heat, 256.

Fox, the, 416.

Fox, Mr., on metalliferous deposits, 170.

France, its high lands, 48; mean height of its flat provinces, 73; mean elevation of, 134.

Franklin, Sir John, 464.

Fringillæ, genus of birds, 398.

Frogs, 384.

Fuci, or sea-weeds, 361.

Fuegians, 392.

Fuego, volcano del, 115.

Future state, a universal belief in, 448.

Galago, genus of Lemuridæ, 426.

Galapagos islands, flora of, 341; birds of, 408; mollusca of, 372.

Ganges, valley of the, 79; soil, ib.; flatness, ib.

Gardner, Mr., his computation of the extent of dry land, 38, note.

Gecko, a species of lizard, 390.

Gems, diffusion of, 186.

Geneva, lake of, 247.

Geography, Physical, definition of, 13; effects of the intellectual superiority of man among its most important subjects, ib.; connection between it and geological structure of countries, 42.

Geology, outline of, 19-36.

Georgian race, 436.

Gerard, Captain, his estimate of the mean height of the Himalaya, 61; notices of its vegetation, 63; snow-line, ib.; height of the snow-line on mountains of Middle Asia, 135, note.

Gerboa, or Jerboa, 419.

Geysers, 162; Great Geyser, 163; Strokr, ib.

Giant petrel, 408.

Gibbon, a genus of monkeys, 422.

Gibraltar, Strait, depth of, 46.

Gipsies, number of, 442.

Giraffe, 423.

Glaciers, 52; their rate of motion in the Alps, ib.; their composition, ib.; their enormous pressure, ib.

Glutton, 417.

Goatsuckers, 398.

Gobi, Great, area and elevation of, 69; climate, ib.; mean height, 134.

Gobi, desert of, 250.

Gold, diffusion of, 174.

Gonung-Api, volcanic island of, 149.

Gothard, St., pass of, 50.

Guasacalco river, 252.

Gough’s Islands, 282.

Grampian hills, 71.

Grampus, 379.

Gran Chaco, desert of, 107.

Gran Sasso d’Italia, height of, 51.

Gravitation, variations in its intensity, 18.

Great Central Plain of North America, see Mississippi, valley of.

Great Northern Plain, 73; its soil, ib.; geology, 77.

Grecian mountains, 51.

Greeks, 436.

Greenland, 159; flora of, 341.

Greenwich Observatory, 462.

Guachero, the, 406.

Guan, a gallinaceous bird, 407.

Guanáco, 431.

Guatemala, table-land of, 115; fertility, ib.; elevation, ib.; volcanos, ib.

Guinea, flora of, 348.

Guinea, North, 88.

Guinea, New, its size, 141; height of its mountains, 142.

Gulf of Mexico, 209.

Gurla, mountain of, 249.

Hail, how formed, 280.

Haiti (San Domingo), dimensions, 117; its mountains, ib.

Halos, 283.

Haudramaut, depth of loose sand in, 82; tradition concerning, ib.

Hebrides, 71.

Heckla, mount, 161.

Heights of places, table of, 475.

Helena, St., 295.

Hermit Island, 352.

Herschel, Sir John, on cause of revolving storms, 264.

Himalaya, chain, general structure, 60; mean height, ib.; height of its peaks, ib.; passes of, 62; climate, 63; range of vegetation, ib.; geology of, 64.

Hindoo Coosh, 60, 296; passes of, 62.

Hindostan, plains of, their extent, 79; peninsula, ib.

Hippelaphus of Aristotle, 422.

Hippopotamus, 424.

Holland, depression of, 73.

Holland, New, length and breadth, 136; climate, ib.; coasts, ib.; mountain-chain, 137; length and average height of mountains, ib.; rivers, 138. See Australia, rivers of.

Hooker, Sir William J., 463, note.

Hooker, Dr. J. D., on marine plants, 359, note; on Antarctic Algæ, 362.

Hopkins, Mr., his theory of fissures, 44.

Horizon, its dip, 17.

Horse, 421; varieties of, ib., 427.

Houtias, a gnawing animal, 433.

Human races, 436; permanency of type, 444; discrepancy of their colour, 445.

Human constitution, its flexibility, 445.

Humboldt, Baron, his ‘Cosmos,’ 5; on the inclination of the Peak of Teneriffe, 42; estimate of the mean height of the Himalaya, 61; on the silvas of the Amazons, 107; on the influence of table-lands and mountains on the mean height of continents, 133; estimate of height of mean crest of the Pyrenees, 134, note; measurements of highest peaks and mean heights of several mountain-chains, 135, note; notice of an earthquake at Riobamba in 1797, 157; his statement of the quantity of the precious metals brought to Europe from America, 176; on river-floods, 215.

Humming birds, 406.

Hunter, John, 463.

Huron, lake, 250.

Hurricanes, 267.

Hydraulic systems of Europe, 216; divisions, ib.; system of the Volga, ib.; Danube, ib.; origin of the application of hydraulics to rivers, 217; system of Britain, 218.

Hydrogen, influence on vegetation, 301.

Hydrographic Office, Admiralty, 463.

Hyæna, Asiatic species, 431; African species, 425.

Hyla, or tree-frog, 385.

Hyrax, or Daman, 425.

Hyrcanian mountains, 48.

Ibex, or wild goat, 417.

Ibis, the red, 408.

Ice, quantity in the Alps, 52; rivers of, ib.

Ice, polar, 203; area of, in the Arctic Ocean, ib.; north polar ice, ib.; packed ice, 204; icebergs, ib.; colours of ice, 205.

Ice mountains, 67.

Iceland, 166; ice mountains, 161; glaciers, ib.; desert, ib.; volcanos, ib.; eruptions, ib.; geysers, 163; fiords, 164; products, ib.; climate, ib.; storms, ib.

Ichneumon, a carnivorous quadruped, 417.

India, flora of, 320.

Indian Archipelago, islands of, 141; their importance, 142; surveys of their coasts, ib.; flora of, 326.

Indian desert, 81.

Indo-Chinese peninsula, 78; its population, 437.

Insects, geographical distribution of, 363; number of, ib.; migration of, 367.

Iran, plateau of, see Persia.

Ireland, its scenery, 71; coal districts, 183.

Iron, diffusion of, 182; quantity manufactured in Britain in 1844, 183, note; uses, 184, note; value of, in France, in 1838, ib., note.

Isatis fox, 427.

Islands, their relative extent to that of the continents, 38; classification of, 139.

Isothermal lines, 258.

Itambe, mountain, height of, 105.

Jackal, 425.

Jaguar, or American tiger, 428.

Jamaica, its area, 117; mountains, ib.; extent of coast, 118; temperature, ib.

Jan Mayen’s Land, 164.

Japan, flora of, 321.

Japanese, 437.

Java, volcanos of, 149; height of volcanic mountains, ib.; destruction of a mountain in 1772, ib.; character of the coast, ib.; “Valley of Death,” 153.

Jebel Houra, 82.

Jebel Okkdar, height of, 82.

Jewish population of Europe, 442.

Johnston, Mr. Keith, his Physical Atlas, 5; 43, note.

Jordan, valley of, its fertility, 84; its depression, ib.

Jordan, river, 247.

Jorullo, volcanic cone, its sudden appearance, 121.

Jukes, Mr., his description of the rolling of the billows along the great Australian barrier-reef, 146.

Jura, elevation of, 50.

Kailas Peak, 249.

Kalmuks, 437.

Kamichi, a gallinaceous bird, 407.

Kamtchatka, flora of, 315.

Kangaroo, 434.

Kangaroo rat, 434.

Kelat, elevation of, 58.

Kerguelen’s Land, vegetation of, 355.

Keyserling, Count, 67, note.

Khing-han mountains, 59.

Kiang, wild ass of Tibet, 419.

Kingfishers, 398.

Kinkajou, the, 428.

Kirawah, volcano of, 151; eruption in 1834, ib.

Kirghiz, steppes of, 75.

Koko-nor lake, 250.

Kombst’s ethnographic map, 443, note.

Kosciusko, mount, height of, 137.

Kourdistan mountains, 56.

Kuen-lun (or Chinese) mountains, 59.

Kurile Islands, volcanic vents of, 151.

Laccadive Archipelago, 145.

Ladak, 317.

Ladoga, lake of, 246.

Lagoons and Lagoon Islands, 143; described, 146; theories of their formation, ib.; and note, 147.

Land, dry, its area, 37; its proportion to the ocean, 38, note; relative quantity in the northern and southern hemispheres, 38; and in the various quarters of the globe, ib.; unexplored, ib.; polar lands, ib.; tendency of land to assume a peninsular form, 39; outline of the land, ib.; changes in its level, 158.

Languages varying, 440; number of, ib.; derivation and comparison of, ib.; spoken in Britain, 443.

La Paz, city, 97.

Lapland, flora of, 315.

Lasistán mountains, 57.

Latitude, sine of, 17, note.

Layard, Mr., his antiquarian researches, 225, note.

Lead, diffusion of, 176.

Lebanon, mountains of, 83.

Leithart, Mr., 169, note.

Lemurs, 422, 426.

Leon or Managua, lake of, 252.

Leopard, 421.

Life, duration of, in different classes of society, 450, note.

Light, composed of different rays, 280; its properties, 281; absorbed by the atmosphere, 282; polarized, 284; influence on vegetation, 301.

Lightning, 288.

Lion, the, 425.

Litako, in South Africa, 459.

Lizards, 390.

Llama, 430; on its naturalization in Europe, 431, note.

Llanos of the Orinoco and Venezuela, 108; area of, ib.; character, ib.; climate, ib.; floods and conflagrations, 109; temperature, ib.

Locusts, flights of, 367.

Locks on canals, early use of, 217; their application by Leonardo da Vinci, ib.

Lophophorus, a bird, 401.

Lop lake, 250.

Loudon, Alex., Esq., account of the “Valley of Death,” in Java, 153.

Lourie, a genus of parrots, 402.

Loxa, mountain-knot of, 98.

Lucerne, lake of, 247.

Lyell, Sir Charles, his theory of the formation of rocks, 20; division of tertiary strata, 28; on the Alleghany mountains, 128; on the fossiliferous rocks of northern Europe and America, 132; on the coal fields of North America, 185; on mollusca in the temperate zones, 372; on the number of existing species of animals, 381.

Lynch, Lieut., relative height of Dead Sea and Jerusalem; analysis of Dead Sea, 248, note.

Lynch, Lieut., expedition to the Dead Sea, 84, note.

Lynx, the, 416.

MacCormick, Robert, Esq., his description of the first view of Victoria Land, 165.

Mace plant, 325.

Madagascar, 87; fauna of, 426; inhabitants of, 438.

Mageroe Island, 279.

Maggiore lake, 247.

Magnetism, 291.

Magnetic poles of the earth, 292.

Magnetic intensity, force of, 293.

Magnetic needle, hourly variation of, ib.

Magnetic variation or declination, 294.

Magnetic storms, 295.

Magnetic force, lines of equal, 296.

Magnolias, region of, 343.

Maize, or Indian corn, origin and culture of, 345.

Malabar, extent and height of its mountains, 80.

Malayan races of man, 438.

Maldive Archipelago, its dimensions, 145; size of its atolls, ib.

Malurus Africanus, 403.

Mammalia, division into groups, 413; geographical distribution, 414; migration of, 415; instinct of, ib.

Man, division into races, 436; his influence on the material world, 450.

Manasa, or Manasarowar, lake of, 67; height of, 418.

Manatus, or lamantin, 377.

Mandshur, its aspect, 78.

Mandshuria, 321.

Manfredi on the rate of rise in the bed of the ocean, 34.

Mango, a fruit, 327.

Manis, 421, 425.

Mankind, numbers of, 436.

Marabous crane or stork, 404.

Marine animals in general, 370.

Marine mammalia, classification of, 376.

Marine vegetation, 358.

Marriage, average number of, annually, 455.

Marsupial, or pouched quadrupeds, 434.

Martineau, Miss, her ‘Journey to Egypt and Syria’ quoted, 152.

Mediterranean Sea, volcanos of, 152; its area, 207; sources of supply, ib.; depth, ib.; tides and currents, 208; bed, ib.; coasts, ib.; its influence on European civilization, 449.

Miocene period, the globe and its inhabitants during, 29.

Mekram, desert of, 81.

Menopoma, genus of reptiles, 386.

Menura, or lyre-bird, 409.

Meridian, terrestrial, 16; area of, measured by M. Bessel, ib.; length of a degree of, ib.; measurement of an arc at Quito, 99.

Metals, list of, 168, note; diffusion of, 174.

Metalliferous Deposits, 169, &c.; direction of, 170; peculiar to particular rocks, 171.

Metalloids, list of, 168, note.

Mexico, table-land and mountains, 120; dimensions, ib.; city of, ib.; volcanos, 121; Barancas, 122; vegetation, ib.; flora, 344.

Midas Leonina, a genus of monkeys, 429.

Middendorf, M., 67, note.

Millet, its cultivation, 356.

Mindanao, population of, 438.

Mines, mode of opening, 172; drainage, ib.; ventilation, 173; access, ib.; depth, ib.

Mineral produce of Europe, value of, in 1829, 183, note; proportion furnished by England, ib., note.

Mineral veins, parallelism of, 43; filling of, 169; richest near the surface, 170, note.

Mirage, 282.

Mississippi, valley of the, its area, 123; table-land, ib.; general character, 124; southern desert, ib.; marshes, ib.; the Grand Saline, ib.; prairies, ib.; forests, 125; [Upper Valley of the, 126, 177;] new states, 125; principal lakes, ib.

Mitchell, Mr., on the causes of earthquakes, quoted, 155.

Mongol Tartar races, 437.

Mongolia, its situation, 60; little known, 69.

Monitor, genus of reptiles, 389; fossil, 390.

Monkeys, American, 428; African, 425.

Monocotyledonous plants, 306.

Monsoons, 266.

Mont Blanc, its height, 49; quantity of ice on, 52.

Moon, the, its influence on, and distance from the earth, 15; its perturbations show the compression at the poles, ib.; inequality in its motions produced by matter at the earth’s equator, 17, note.

Moon, the, mountains of, 88.

Moorcroft, Mr., elevation of the sacred lake Manasa, 67.

Moose-deer, or elk, 425.

Moraines, 52.

Mosasaurus, 390, note.

Moscow, height of, 73.

Mosquito, the, 365.

Mountains, forms of, 41; their declivity, 42; contemporaneous upheaval of parallel mountain-chains, 43; interruptions in, 45; table of the heights of the principal mountains of the globe, 475.

Mountain-chains, assumed form of, 129, note; a barrier to insects, 364.

Mouflon, 416.

Mowna Roa mountain, 269.

M’Quhae, Capt., 382.

Murchison, Sir Roderick J., on the geology of the Altai chain, 66; observations on Siberia, 67, note; researches in the Ural mountains, 72; on the geology of Northern Europe, 77.

Museum, British, improved state of, 462.

Museum, of Practical Geology, 463.

Museum, Hunterian, 463.

Musk-deer, Moschus, 420.

Musk-ox, 427.

Musk-rat, or musquash, 427.

Mycetus, or Beelzebub monkey, 429.

Mysore, table-land of, height, 80; soil, ib.

Myvatr, 365.

Narwhals, or Monoceros, 379.

Negro tribes, 438.

Nejed, province of Arabia, 420.

Newfoundland, population of, 130; distance from Ireland, ib.

New Ireland, people of, 438.

New Siberian Islands, 165.

New Zealand, flora, 338; fauna 411; birds, 410; inhabitants, 438.

Nevado of Aconcagua, height of, 95.

Nevado of Cayambè, height of, 99.

Niagara, lake and fall of, 251.

Nicaragua, plain and lake, area of, 115; lake and isthmus, 252.

Nile, valley of, 91; river, 219.

Nilgherry mountains, height of, 80.

Niti or Netee Pass, 62.

Nitrogen contained in the air, 300; in plants, ib.

Nitrùn, valley of, its convents, 91.

Norway, character of its coast, 70.

Notornis, fossil bird, 411.

Nova Zembla, flora of, 314.

Nutmeg, the plant, 325.

N’yassi, lake, 86.

Ocean, the proportion it bears to the land, 37; mean depth of, 135; its bed, 188; size, ib.; sandbanks, 189; pressure, 190; colour, ib.; saltness, 191; tides, ib.; waves, 192; currents, 197; temperature, 201; polar ice, 203; inland seas, 206; agency of the ocean in changing the surface of the earth, 209.

Oitz, lake of, 250.

Okhotsk, sea of, 263.

Oman, height of its mountains, 81.

Onega, lake, 246.

Ontario, lake of, 251.

Opossum, 428, 429.

Orange River, 85.

Orang-outang, 422.

Oriental plateau. See Tibet.

Orinoco, river, 103; its cataracts, ib.; region of Upper Orinoco, its fertility, 104.

Ornithorhynchus, 435.

Oscillations of the Pendulum. See Pendulum.

Ostrich, the African, 404; the American, 410.

Otaheite, 145.

Otter, the, 417.

Owen, Professor, his discoveries as a geologist, 30; on sea-serpent, 382; on British fossil quadrupeds, 417, 463.

Owhyhee, its volcanos, 151.

Owls, 398.

Ox, varieties of, 420.

Oxygen, its influence on vegetation, 301.

Paca, 433.

Pacayo, Volcano de, 115.

Pachydermata, 413.

Pacific Ocean, islands of, 140; volcanic islands in, 148; great volcanic zone in, 149; areas of elevation and subsidence in its bed, ib.; its size, 189.

Palapteryx, fossil bird, 411.

Palms, distribution of, 333.

Palte, lake of, 249.

Pamer, table-land, 420.

Pampas of Buenos Ayres, 106; their elevation, ib.; floods, 107; conflagrations, ib.; geology, 113.

Pampéros hurricanes, 271.

Panama, plains of, extent, 115.

Pandanus, genus of plants, 144.

Pangolin, or manis, 421.

Panicum, genus of Cerealia, 356.

Panthers, 421.

Paradise, birds of, 402.

Parima, mountain system of, 103; Sierra del Parima, ib.; musical rock in, ib.

Parry, Sir Edward, 464.

Parry’s Mountains, 166.

Passages across the Atlantic, 267.

Patagonia, desert of, 106; climate, ib.; geology, 113.

Peccari, or South American hog, 428.

Pelasgic Islands, description of, 140.

Peltier’s experiments on the heat of the earth, 255.

Pendulum, 17; its oscillations influenced by gravitation, ib.; variations in, 18; experiments with, for ascertaining compression at the poles, 17; affected by volcanic islands, ib.

Penguins, southern (Aptenodytes), 408.

Peninsulas, their southward tendency, 40; form, ib.

Pentland, Mr. his measurements of Cordilleras and mountains of the Andes, 97, note; and of their passes, 101, note; his discovery of a volcanic crater in the valley of the Yucay, 109, note; and of fossil shells in Bolivia and Peru, 112, note; on measurement of highest peaks and mean heights of several mountain-chains, 135, note; on horary variation of the barometer, 265; on fishes of Lake of Titicaca, 375; on the naturalization of the Llama tribe, 431.

Pepper-tree, 325.

Perfume of flowers, cause of, 304.

Persia, table-land of (Plateau of Iran), area and elevation of, 55; extent of Persian mountains, 57; great salt desert, 58; flora, 319.

Petra, appearance of its site, 83.

Petrel, stormy, the, 397.

Petrel, genus, or Procellariæ, 397, 408.

Phacochœre, or African hog, 425.

Phalanger, 434.

Pheasants, different species of, 401.

Philedon, genus of birds, 401.

Phocæ, or seals, 377.

Physalia, 376.

Physeters, or cachalots, 379.

Pichincha, height of, 100.

Planets, their magnitude relative to that of the earth, 15; their influence on the earth’s motion, ib.

Plants, division of, 306; propagation of, 305; sleep of, ib.; nourishment of, 300; elements of, 301; geographical distribution of, 306.

Pleiocene period, the earth and its inhabitants during, 30; changes during, 31; discoveries of perfect animals buried in this period, 32.

Pœppig, Dr., his ‘Travels’ quoted, 94, 176; on red water of the ocean, 370.

Pole, North, reasons for the existence of sea at, 203.

Poles, compression at, ascertained by perturbations in the moon’s motions, 15; by oscillations of the pendulum, 17.

Polynesia, flora of, 401.

Polyplectron, genus of birds, 407.

Pontoppidan, or sea-serpent, 381.

Popocatepetl, mountain, 121.

Porcupine, 417.

Porpoise, genus of, 379.

Porter, G. R., Esq., his ‘Progress of the Nation’ quoted, 184, note.

Porto Rico, dimensions and climate, 117.

Portugal, flora of, 319.

Potato, country of, 350.

Potosi, the height of, 97, note; city of, its elevation, 97; its mines, 175.

Prairies, N. American, 127, note.

Prairie-dog, a marmot, 427.

Prairie wolf, 427.

Prongbuck antelope, 427.

Prongos, 315.

Proteus anguinus, 386.

Puma, or American lion, 428.

Punjab, 80.

Pyrenees, flora of, 318.

Python, genus of snakes, 388.

Quadrumana, or monkeys, 413.

Quadrupeds, European, 416; Asiatic, 417; African, 423; American, 426; Australian, 433.

Quagga, species of horse, 424.

Quebec, summer of, 260.

Quicksilver, diffusion of, 178.

Quito, valley of, 99; dimensions, ib.; city of Quito, 100; monuments of the Incas, ib.

Quotlamba mountains, 87.

Races of mankind, 436; inhabiting Europe, 441.

Racoon, 427.

Radii of the earth measured by M. Bessel, 16.

Rakastal lake, 249.

Rain, cause of, and distribution, 275.

Rains, periodical, 275; countries without, 278.

Rainbows, 283.

Rattle-snakes, 387.

Realejo Bay, 252.

Redfield, W. C., on storms, 270, note.

Reich, M., mean density of the earth as ascertained by the torsion balance, 19, note.

Reid, Colonel, on storms, 270.

Rein-deer Lake, 252.

Reptiles, classification of, 383; geographical distribution of, 385.

Rhinoceros of Asia, 422; of Java, ib.; of Africa, 424.

Rhyncops, or scissor-bill bird, 408.

Rice, cultivation of, 356.

Richardson, Dr. Sir J., his account of the fauna of North America quoted, 131, 464.

Rivers, origin of, 212; course of, ib.; velocity, 213; junction of rivers, ib.; influence of wind and frost, 214; deltas, ib.; tides, ib.; floods, ib.; inundations, 215; heads of rivers, ib.

Rocks, their division into four classes, 19; plutonic rocks, ib.; volcanic rocks, 20; metamorphic rocks, ib.; aqueous rocks, 21; pierced by lava, ib.; Sir Charles Lyell’s theory concerning, 20; forms of, 42; height of calcareous rocks in the Alps, 53.

Rocky Mountains, 122.

Rodentia, or gnawers, 414; American, 432.

Rogers, H. D., Esq., his ‘Physical Geography of North America’ quoted, 130.

Rorqual, a species of whale, 381.

Ross, Sir James, his account of a gale, 205, 464.

Ruminating animals, 413.

Russell, J. Scott, Esq., his ‘Theory of Waves’ quoted, 195, note.

Rye, cultivation of, 356.

Sabine, Colonel, experiments with the pendulum, 18, and note; mean height of the Himalaya, 61; on terrestrial magnetism, 294, 464.

Saquis, bush-tailed monkeys, 429.

Sahama, trachytic dome of, its height, 111.

Sahara desert, 90.

Salamanders, 386.

Salt, diffusion of, 186.

Samojedes, 442.

Sanders-wood, 327.

Sandwich Land, vegetation, 351.

Santa Martha, group of, 100.

Saratov, 248.

Saurians, order of, 389.

Saussure, Necker, on direction of stratified masses, 295.

Solimaun chain, 59.

Scandinavian mountain system, 69; extent and elevation, 70; part of the same system as those of Feroe, Britain, Ireland, and northeastern Ireland, ib.

Schomburgk, Sir Robert, on water-communication in South America, 243.

Schools, ragged, 473.

Sclavonian races, 441.

Scorpions, 366.

Scotland, its mountains, 71; direction of, ib.; table-land, height of, ib.; lakes, ib.; earthquakes, 154; coal-measures, 183.

Scythrops, genus of birds, 409.

Sea, its mean depth, 17; rise and fall of, after an earthquake, 155.

Sea, Alps of North America, 122.

Sea serpents, pretended, 282.

Sea snakes, 387.

Secretary-bird, the, 402.

Sedgwick, Mr., mountains of Westmoreland, 44.

Seed, mode of development, 300.

Serpents, or ophidians, 386; venomous, ib.; innocuous, 388; tree, ib.

Shahee Lake, 248.

Siberia, its area, 75; mineral riches, ib.; soil, ib.; climate, ib.; flora, 314.

Sicily, plants of, 319.

Sierra do Mar, 104.

Sierra dos Vertentes, 105.

Sierra Madre, 122.

Silk-worms, 366.

Silvas of the Amazons, 107; dense vegetation, ib.; area of woodland, ib.; Humboldt’s description of, ib.; geology of, 114.

Silver, diffusion of, 175.

Simayang, a species of ape, 422.

Sinai, Mount (Jebel Houra), its height, 82; group of Sinai, ib.

Sine of the latitude, 17, note.

Sir-i-Kol, lake of, 249.

Skaptar Jokull, eruption of, in 1783, 161.

Skink, a species of lizard, 390.

Skua gull, 396.

Slave-lake, 252.

Slave-trade, its evil effects, 459.

Sleet, nature of, 283.

Smyth, Captain, R. N., report of soundings, 46, note.

Snae Braen, area of, 70.

Snow, how produced, 278; form of its crystals, 279.

Snow-line, its height on mountains in different latitudes, 279.

Solar system, 15, note.

Soudan, 251.

South magnetic pole, its situation, 166.

Senegambia, 89.

South Shetland, vegetation, 352.

South Wales, New character of the country, 137; structure, 139.

Spain, its mountains, 47; table-land, area of, ib.; plants of, 319.

Spiders, numbers of, 367.

Spitzbergen, 160.

Springs, their origin, 209; intermittent, 210; temperature, 211; hot springs, ib.; medicinal springs, ib.; saline springs, ib.

Squalls, arched, 271.

Squirrels, flying, 422.

Steam-power, amount of, in Great Britain in 1833, 172, note.

St. Elias, Mount, height of, 123.

Stelvio, pass of, its height, 50.

Steppes of Eastern Europe, 74; great extent of, ib.; climate, ib.; soil, ib.; atmosphere, 75.

St. Lawrence, river, 12.

Stonefield slate, 26.

Storms, rotatory, 268; waves, 270.

Strata, primary fossiliferous, 21; Cambrian, 21; lower Silurian, ib.; upper Silurian, 22; secondary fossiliferous, ib.; Devonian, ib.; carboniferous, 23; mountain limestone, ib.; magnesian limestone, 24; new red sandstone, 25; oolite, ib.; cretaceous strata, 27; tertiary strata, divided by Sir Charles Lyell into Eocene, Miocene, and Pleiocene, 28; boulder formation, 32; parallel direction of contemporary strata, 43.

Strata, tertiary, of the Alps, height of, 53.

Strachey, Lieut., journeys, 17.

Sudetes, the, 48.

Suez, projected canal of, 461.

Sulphur, diffusion of, 186.

Sumatra, character of the island, 150.

Sumbawa, population of, 438.

Summa Paz, Sierra de la, 100.

Sun, his mass, 15.

Superior, Lake, 251.

Symonds, Major A., on the depression of the Dead Sea, 84, note.

Syren, genus of reptiles, 386.

Syria, its soil, 84; deterioration of the country, ib.; shrinking of the strata, ib.

Swamps, area of, in Denmark, 74.

Table-lands, their soil and climate, 45.

Table Mountain (Cape Town), its height, 86.

Tangaras, American birds, 406.

Tapir, Indian or Malayan, 419; American, 414.

Targatabai, volcanic range of, 152.

Tartary, flora of, 321.

Tariyani, tract of, 60.

Taurus mountains, 296.

Taylor, Mr., description of an ice-storm in Canada, 127.

Taylor, John, Esq., on the Cornish mines, 172, note.

Tchad, river and lake, 251.

Tea, cultivation and varieties of, 321.

Tehuantepec, isthmus of, 116, 252; bay, ib.

Temperature of the ocean, 201; stratum of constant temperature, 202; line of maximum temperature, ib.

Temperature of the earth, 254; mean at any place, 257; highest observed, 258.

Terror, Mount, 166.

Teutonic races, 442.

Thean-Tchan, volcanic chain of, 152.

Thian-shan, or Celestial Mountains, 59, etc.

Thomas, St., island, 269.

Thunder storms, 286; causes of, 287.

Tiberias, Lake, 247.

Tibet, table-land of (Oriental plateau), its area and altitude, 55; its form and situation, 58; its width, 69; mean height, 134.

Tibet, flora of, 316.

Tides, influence of the sun and moon upon, 191; spring tides, 192; neap-tides, ib.; frequency of tides, ib.; their succession, ib.; marginal tide, ib.; heights of tides, 193; variation in, ib.; velocity, ib.; stream, 194.

Tierra del Fuego, account of, 94, 105; geology, 113; flora of, 352.

Tiger, royal, country of, 421.

Tin, diffusion of, 178.

Tinamous, an American bird, 407.

Titicaca, lake of, 97; area and height, 253.

Toads, 384.

Tobolsk, elevation of, 134.

Tomboro, volcanic eruption of, in 1815, 150.

Toozla Lake, 248.

Tortoises, 391.

Trade-winds, 265.

Tragopons, an East Indian bird, 401.

Trees, growth of, 357; age of, ib.

Trigonocephalus, or yellow ape, 387.

Tripe de Roche, 314.

Tristan d’Acunha, island, 282.

Trogon, 401.

Troupials, 406.

Trüb, lake of, 247.

Trionyx, 391.

Tui, a New Zealand bird, 412.

Tnngut, or Chinese Tartary, its geographical position, 60.

Turks, 442.

Turtles, 392.

Tuscany, earthquakes in, 154.

Tussack grass, 353.

Uleaborg, 275.

Ular, lake, 249.

Unau sloth, the, 429.

United States territory, area of, 130.

Ural Mountains, 72; extent, ib.; height, ib.; mineral riches, ib.; geology, 73.

Urmiah Lake, 248.

Valmiki, author of the Ramayana, 439, note.

“Valley of Death,” 153.

Vampire-bats, 420.

Van, lake, 57, 248.

Van Dieman’s Land, area of, 138; mountains, ib.; soil, ib.; structure, 139; flora, 337.

Vanessa Cardui, a butterfly, 364.

Vanilla Epidendron, 345.

Variables, the, 265.

Vegetation, mode of, 298; effects of, on the atmosphere, 299.

Veragua, Cordillera of, its height, 115.

Verneuil, M. de, 67, note.

Vermejo river, 349.

Victoria Land, 165; ice cliffs, ib.; mountains, ib.; its appearance described, ib.

Vicuña, 430; its naturalization, ib.

Vipers, 387.

Vultures, European, 398; American, 404.

Volcanic eruptions, frequency of, 153.

Volcanic islands, 148.

Volcanos, eruptions of, 20; active volcanos, 152.

Wales, earthquakes in, 154.

Waves, causes of, 144; height, 195; ground-swell, ib.; billows, ib.; surf, 196; force of waves, ib.

Wealden clay, 27.

Weddell, Dr., on Cinchona, 347, note; on breed of alpaca and vicuna, 431.

Werner, law of parallelism of mineral veins, 43.

Western Asia, its table-lands and mountains, 55.

West Indian islands, 116; Lesser Antillas (group), ib.; Greater Antillas, 117; Bahamas, 118; structure, ib.

Whales, 380.

Wheat, varieties and cultivation, 355.

Whirlwinds, 271.

[Wilkes, Capt. C., discovery of Antarctic Continent, 167.]

Winds, theory of, 264; trade, 265.

Winnipeg Lake, 252.

Wombat, 434.

Wrangel, Admiral, on the climate of Siberia, 76; his attempt to reach the North Pole, ib., note.

Xarayos Lake, 252.

Yablonnoi Khrebet, 66.

Yablonnoi Mountains, 296.

Yakutsk, “the coldest town on the earth,” 77, 260.

Ybera, swamp, its area, 107.

Yenesei, flora of, 316.

Zambeze, lake, Africa, 250.

Zealand, New, its mountains, 141; coast, ib.; general character, ib.

Zebra, 424.

Zenes, their breadth, 16.

Zungary, or Mingolia, its situation, 60.

Zurrah, lake, 248.

Footnotes

Footnote 1:

“Cosmos,” by Alexander Von Humboldt, translated under the superintendence of Colonel E. Sabine, F.R.S. Second Edition. London, 1848.

Footnote 2:

Alexander Keith Johnston’s “Physical Atlas,” 4to., in Monthly Numbers. Edinburgh, 1849. [Published by Lea & Blanchard, Philadelphia, 1850.]

Footnote 3:

The Solar System:—

Mercury, nearest the Sun, known to the ancients. Venus, known to the ancients. The Earth. Mars, known to the ancients. Flora, discovered by Mr. Hind in 1847. Vesta, discovered by Mr. Olbers in 1807. Iris, discovered by Mr. Hind in 1847. Metis, discovered by Mr. Graham in 1848. Hebe, discovered by Mr. Hencke in 1847. Astræa, discovered by Mr. Hencke in 1845. Juno, discovered by Mr. Harding in 1804. Ceres, discovered by M. Piazza in 1801. Pallas, discovered by Mr. Olbers in 1802. Jupiter, known to the ancients. Saturn, known to the ancients. Uranus, discovered by Sir William Herschel in 1781. Neptune, discovered by M. Le Verrier and Mr. Adams in 1846.

Footnote 4:

The compression of the earth is the flattening at the poles. Its numerical value is equal to the difference between the equatorial and polar diameters, expressed in feet or miles. [The amount of compression, oblateness at the poles, is measured by the ratio of the difference of the equatorial and polar diameters to the equatorial diameter, which is technically termed the oblateness. The following are the dimensions of the earth in miles:

Miles. Diameter. Radius at the equator 3962·6 = 7925·2 Radius at the pole 3949·6 = 7899·2 Difference of equatorial and polar radii 13·0 = 26·0 Mean radius, or at 45° Latitude 3956·1 = 7912·2 Mean length of a degree 69·05 —— The fourth part of a meridian 6214·2 ——]

Footnote 5:

The theoretical investigation of the figure of the earth, the method employed for measuring arcs of the meridian, and that of finding the form of the earth from the oscillations of the pendulum, are given in the “Connection of the Physical Sciences,” by Mary Somerville, 7th Section, 7th edition.

Footnote 6:

A pendulum which oscillates 86,400 times in a mean day at the equator, will do the same at every point of the earth’s surface if its length be increased progressively to the pole as the square of the sine of the latitude. The sine of the latitude is a perpendicular line drawn from any point of a terrestrial meridian to the equatorial radius of the earth. That line expressed in feet or miles, and multiplied by itself, is the square of the sine of the latitude. Gravitation increases from the equator to the poles according to that law, and the length of the degrees augments very nearly in the same ratio.

Footnote 7:

The compression deduced by M. Bessel from arcs of the meridian is 1/299; that deduced by Colonel Sabine from his experiment with the pendulum is 1/288·7. Other pendulum experiments have given a compression of 1/298·2 and 1/266·4. The protuberant matter at the earth’s equator produces inequalities in the moon’s motions, from whence the compression of the earth is found to be 1/305·05; and although the reciprocal action of the moon on the protuberant matter at the earth’s equator does not actually give the compression, it proves that it must be between 1/279 and 1/573. Coincidences so near and so remarkable, arising from such different methods, show how nearly the irregular figure of the earth has been determined. The inequalities in the motions of the moon and earth alluded to are explained in Sections 5 and 11 “Connection of the Physical Sciences.”

Footnote 8:

It is clear that the mean density of the earth may be found from the attraction of the plumb-line by mountains, or by the irregularity in the oscillations of the pendulum, but the torsion balance is a much more sensible instrument than either. The density determined by M. Reich differs from that found by Mr. Baily by only one twenty-eighth part.

Footnote 9:

If a line be drawn from the north-eastern coast of North America within the limit of floating ice, and if it be continued across the southern half of Ireland and England, and prolonged eastward so as to strike against the Ural mountains, it will mark the boundary of the European portion of the Glacial Sea. It submerged part of Russia to the depth of 1000 feet.—Essay on the British Fauna and Flora, by Professor E. Forbes, in the “Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain,” vol. i.

Footnote 10:

Sir James Ross and Captain Wilkes met with icebergs covered with mud and stones in the antarctic seas, and even in 66° 5ʹ lat. One block seen by Sir James Ross was estimated to weigh many tons.—Antarctic Voyages.—[Narrative of United States Exploring Expedition. By Charles Wilkes, U. S. N.].

Footnote 11:

Account of the Ganges and Brahmapootra, by Major Rennell.—“Phil. Trans.,” 1781. Sir George Staunton’s Embassy to China. Elie de Beaumont, Leçons de Géologie, 1 vol., 8vo. The latter work contains a very elaborate essay on alluvial deposits by rivers, &c.

Footnote 12:

Lieut. Anjou’s Polar Voyage.

Footnote 13:

[See Statistics of Coal. By Richard Cowling Taylor. Philadelphia, 1848.]

Footnote 14:

The author’s geological information rests on the authority of those distinguished authors whose works are in the hands of every one, namely, Baron Cuvier, Sir Charles Lyell, Sir Roderick Murchison, Sir Henry de la Beche, Professor Owen, and the Memoirs of the Geological Society.

Footnote 15:

The proportions of land to water referred to in the text were estimated by Mr. Gardner. According to his computation, the extent of land is about 37,673,000 square British miles, independently of Victoria Continent [discovered by Charles Wilkes, U. S. N.]; and the sea occupies 110,849,000. Hence, the land is to the sea as 1 to 4 nearly. The unexplored region within the Arctic Circle is about 7,620,000 square miles.

Footnote 16:

This very general view of the structure of the globe originated chiefly with the celebrated German geologist Von Buch, and has been much extended and developed by M. Elie de Beaumont, one of the most philosophical of modern geologists.

Footnote 17:

M. Boué.

Footnote 18:

The author avails herself with much pleasure of an opportunity of expressing her admiration of the accuracy, extent, and execution of Mr. Keith Johnston’s Physical Atlas, and of the valuable information contained in the letterpress which accompanies it, which has afforded her the greatest assistance. As Mr. Johnston is publishing a small and cheap edition of his Atlas, well fitted to illustrate these volumes, the necessity of inserting in them any similar maps, which was at one time contemplated, is obviated.

Footnote 19:

“On the Parallel Lines of Simultaneous Elevation in the Weald of Kent and Sussex,” by —— Hopkins, Esq.

Footnote 20:

M. Boué.

Footnote 21:

By the soundings of Captain Smyth, R. N., the Strait is 960 fathoms deep between Gibraltar and Ceuta, and varying from 160 to 500 in the narrowest part.

Footnote 22:

A crater of elevation is a mountain, generally dome-shaped, whose top has sunk into a crater or hollow, after the internal force which raised it was withdrawn, but from which no lava has issued. Dome-shaped mountains owe their form to internal pressure, probably from lava, but which have not sunk into a crater.

Footnote 23:

Professor Forbes on Glaciers.

Footnote 24:

Dr. Boué.

Footnote 25:

Sir Charles Lyell.

Footnote 26:

Johnston’s Physical Atlas.

Footnote 27:

Sir John Malcolm on Persia, and Mr. Morier’s Travels.

Footnote 28:

Johnston’s Physical Atlas.

Footnote 29:

Ibid.

Footnote 30:

Johnston’s Physical Atlas.

Footnote 31:

Sir Roderick I. Murchison.

Footnote 32:

From the observations of Sir Roderick Murchison, M. Middendorf, M. de Verneuil, and Count Keyserling, it appears also that the low land of Siberia has been extended since the existing species of shell-fish inhabited the northern seas; a circumstance that must have rendered the Siberian climate still more severe, and materially affected that of the northern parts of Europe and Asia.

Footnote 33:

In 1820, Admiral (then Lieutenant) Wrangel travelled from the mouth of the Kolyma to Behring’s Straits on sledges drawn by dogs, and made a bold but vain attempt to reach the North pole. Lieutenant Anjou, at the same time, sailed from the mouth of the Jana river, reached 76-1/2 degrees of north latitude, and passed round the group of the New Siberian Islands.

Footnote 34:

Johnston’s Physical Atlas.

Footnote 35:

From Miss Martineau’s spirited and picturesque account of her journey to Egypt and Syria.

Footnote 36:

By the trigonometrical measurement of Major Anthony Symonds, confirmed by French authorities, and adopted by Baron Humboldt, the depression of the Dead Sea is, as stated in the text, 1300 feet; but MM. Bertou and Russiger made it out to be 1388 by the barometer. See Lieut. Molyneux’s paper in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 1848.

Footnote 37:

[For a very interesting and reliable account of the river Jordan and its valley, the reader is directed to a “Narrative of the United States’ Expedition to the River Jordan and the Dead Sea, by W. F. Lynch, U. S. N., Commander of the Expedition.” Philadelphia, 1849.]

Footnote 38:

Estimated from N.E. to S.W., the proportion of the two slopes of the Abyssinian table-land is as 12·6 to 1.

Footnote 39:

Johnston’s Physical Atlas.

Footnote 40:

The Voyage of Captain King, R. N., Mr. Darwin’s “Journal of a Naturalist,” Dr. Pœppig’s “Travels in South America,” are the authorities for the account of Tierra del Fuego, Patagonia, and Chile; Baron Humboldt, Mr. Pentland, Drs. Pœppig and Meyer of Berlin, for Peru and the Andean Chain to the Isthmus of Panamá.

Footnote 41:

This great height has been deduced, adopting the position of the Peak as fixed by Captain Fitz Roy, and employing the angles of elevation observed by Captain Beechey near Valparaiso.

Footnote 42:

Dr. Pœppig’s Travels.

Footnote 43:

The celebrated silver mines of Potosi were formerly worked to the very summit of that metalliferous mountain, 16,150 feet above the sea level.

Footnote 44:

Baron Humboldt and Mr. Pentland.

Footnote 45:

The breadth of the table-land, and the two Cordilleras of the Bolivian Andes given in the text, was measured by Mr. Pentland; he also determined the heights of Illimani to be 21,150 feet; of Supäíwasi or Huayna Potosi, 20,260 feet; and of Ancohuma or the Nevado of Sorata, 21,290 feet.

Footnote 46:

Baron Humboldt.

Footnote 47:

Baron Humboldt.

Footnote 48:

It appears by the measurements of Mr. Pentland in the Peru-Bolivian Andes, that many of their passes are higher than in the equatorial portion of the chain. The passes of Rumihuasi, on the high road from Cusco to Arequipa, of Toledo (between Arequipa and Puno), of Gualillas and Chullunquiani (between Arica and La Paz), all in the Western Cordillera, attain the respective elevations of 16,160, 15,790, 14,750, and 15,160 feet;—whilst in the Eastern or Bolivian Cordillera the passes of Challa (between Oruro and Cochabamba), of Pacuani (between La Paz and Coröico), of Pumapacheta (between the lake of Titicaca and the affluents to the Amazon), of Vilcañoto (between the valley of the Collao and that of the river Yucay), rise to heights of 13,600, 15,350, 13,600, and 14,520 English feet.

Footnote 49:

Dr. Pœppig.

Footnote 50:

Baron Humboldt.

Footnote 51:

Baron Humboldt’s Personal Narrative.

Footnote 52:

Captain King, R. N., and Mr. Darwin.

Footnote 53:

Sir Woodbine Parish on Buenos Ayres, and Sir Francis Head’s Journey over the Pampas.

Footnote 54:

Mr. Pentland found a very perfect volcanic crater, with well-marked currents of lava issuing from it—a rare occurrence in the higher craters of the Andes—near to San Pedro de Cacha, in the valley of the Yucay (lat. 14° 12ʹ, long. 71° 15ʹ W., and at an elevation of 12,000 feet), near to the ruins of the Temple of the Inga Viracocha, a monument and a locality celebrated in Peruvian legend, the nearest point of the sea-coast being 175 miles distant. It is probable that many of the most celebrated mining districts of Alto Peru—Potosi, for instance, situated in a porphyry—have been upheaved at a very recent period. Modern volcanic rocks are not wanting in the valley of the Desaguadero; volcanic conglomerates exist in the deep ravines round the city of La Paz. lat. 16° 30ʹ; and the mountain of Litanias, which furnishes the building-stone for that Bolivian city (lat. 16° 42ʹ, long. 68° 19-1/2ʹ), is composed of a most perfect trachyte, and rises to a height of 14,500 feet above, and at a distance of 160 miles from the Pacific.

Footnote 55:

Dr. Pœppig.

Footnote 56:

Mr. Pentland found fossil shells of the Silurian period at a height of 17,500 feet, on the Bolivian Nevado of Antakäua, lat. 16° 21ʹ, and those of the carboniferous limestone as high as 14,200 in several parts of Upper Peru.

Footnote 57:

Mr. Darwin’s Journal of Travels in South America.

Footnote 58:

Mr. Darwin’s Journal of Travels in South America.

Footnote 59:

Johnston’s Physical Atlas.

Footnote 60:

Baron Humboldt.

Footnote 61:

[Notes on the North-west, or Valley of the Upper Mississippi. By Wm. J. A. Bradford. New York, 1846.]

Footnote 62:

Mr. Taylor.

Footnote 63:

Sir Charles Lyell’s Travels in North America.

Footnote 64:

A chain of mountains is assumed to be a three-sided horizontal prism, whose height is the mean elevation of the chain, and the base the mean length and breadth of the same, or the area on which the chain stands, and thus its mass may be computed approximately. It is evident that a table-land must have a greater effect on the mean height of a continent than a chain of mountains, for, supposing both to be of the same base and altitude, one would be exactly double the other; and even if the mountains be the higher of the two, their upper parts contain much less solid matter than their lower on account of the intervals and deep valleys between the peaks.

Footnote 65:

The author is indebted to the “Physical Geography of North America” by H. D. Rogers, Esq., of the United States, for much valuable information.

Footnote 66:

Dr. Richardson on the Fauna of the High Latitudes of North America.

Footnote 67:

Sir Charles Lyell.

Footnote 68:

This remarkable analogy between the fossil remains of the Silurian systems in the Old and New World has been more particularly shown by the researches of Messrs. de Verneuil and Sharpe.

Footnote 69:

According to M. Charpentier, the area of the base of the Pyrenees is 1720 square English miles. As the mean elevation of the passes gives the mean height of the mountains, Baron Humboldt estimated from the height of 23 passes over the Pyrenees that the mean crest of that chain is 7990 feet high, which is 300 feet higher than the mean height of the Alps, though the peaks in the Alps have a greater elevation than those of the Pyrenees in the ratio 1-4/10 to 1.

Footnote 70:

The Russian Academicians MM. Fuss and Bunge, found by barometrical measurement the mean height of that part of the Eastern Asiatic table-land lying between Lake Baikal and the Great Wall of China to be only about 6960 feet. The smallness of this mean is owing to hollows in the table-land, especially in the desert of the Great Gobi.

Footnote 71:

By the mensuration and computation of Baron Humboldt and Mr. Pentland, the elevation of the highest peaks, and the mean heights of the Himalaya, of the equatorial and Bolivian Andes and the Alps, are as follows:—

Peaks. Mean Height.

Himalaya 25,700 15,670 Andes between 5° N. and 2° S. lat. 21,420 11,380 Eastern Cordillera } Between 18° { 21,200 15,250 Western Cordillera } and 15° S. lat. { 22,300 14,900 Alps 15,666 7,353

However, the Peak of Dhawalaghini is certainly 28,000 feet high. Captain Gerard gives 18,000 or 19,000 feet as the height of the snow-line on the mountains in the middle of the Asiatic table-land, and 30,000 feet as the absolute elevation of the Kuen-lun, but Colonel Sabine observes that these measures want confirmation.

Footnote 72:

Memoirs of Count Strzelecki.

Footnote 73:

Count Strzelecki.

Footnote 74:

M. Von Buch.

Footnote 75:

—— Mansel, Esq.

Footnote 76:

Mr. Darwin on Coral Reefs.

Footnote 77:

Supplement to the Observations on the Temple of Serapis, by Charles Babbage, Esq.

Footnote 78:

By Mr. Jukes, Naturalist to the Surveying Voyage of Captain Blackwood, R. N., in Torres Straits.

Footnote 79:

Another theory relative to the formation of the lagoon islands is, that the coral circuit is but the edge of a submarine elevation crater, on which the coral animals have raised their edifice. This view, which has been adopted by Von Buch and Captain Beechy, to whom we are indebted more than to any other navigator for positive information and admirable surveys of the coral islands of the Pacific, receives corroboration from the perfect conformity in shape between many of the lagoon islands of the Gambier group and the known elevation craters, and from the circumstance of a lagoon island having been seen to rise in 1825, in lat. 30° 14ʹ, accompanied with smoke, and communicating so high a temperature to the surrounding sea as rendered it impossible to land.—See Beechy’s Voyages, and Pœppig’s Reise.

Footnote 80:

Few books have more interest than Mr. Darwin’s on Coral Reefs and Volcanic Islands, to which the author is much indebted. Consult also Captain Beechy’s Voyages, and his beautiful charts of the Coral Islands in the Pacific.

Footnote 81:

By the Nautical Survey in 1848.

Footnote 82:

Sir Stamford Raffles on Java.

Footnote 83:

Mr. Darwin on Volcanic Islands.

Footnote 84:

Mr. Douglas’s Voyage to the Sandwich Islands in 1833-4.—Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London.

Footnote 85:

Letter from Alex. Loudon, Esq., in the Journal of the Geographical Society of London.

Footnote 86:

Mitchell on the Causes of Earthquakes, in Philosophical Transactions for 1760.

Footnote 87:

Captain Graah’s Survey in 1823-4, and Dr. Pingel, 1830-2.

Footnote 88:

Lyell’s Principles of Geology, in 8vo. See also Mr. Darwin’s observations on the same subject, in the voyage of the Adventure and Beagle.

Footnote 89:

Remarks on the Antarctic Continent and Southern Islands, by Robert MacCormick, Esq., Surgeon of H.M.S. Erebus.

Footnote 90:

Captain Cook discovered Sandwich Land in 1772-5.—Captain Smith, of the brig William, discovered New South Shetland in 1819.—Captain Billingshausen discovered Peter’s Island, and the coast of Alexander the First.—Captain Weddel discovered the Southern Orcades.—Captain Bisco discovered Enderby’s Land and Graham’s Land in 1832, Admiral d’Urville La Terre d’Adelie in 1841; and Sir James Ross Victoria Land in the same year.

Footnote 91:

The author owes much information on British mines to two publications on the Mining District of the North of England, by J. Sopwith, Esq., Civil Engineer, and Mr. Leithart, Mine Agent. On the Cornish mines she has derived much information from the writings of John Taylor, Esq., and Sir Charles Lemon, Bart.; from a store of valuable materials contained in the “Progress of the Nation,” by G. R. Porter, Esq.; from the Statistical Journal; and on the general distribution of minerals over the globe, from the “Penny Cyclopædia,” and various other sources.

Footnote 92:

The metals are gold, silver, platinum, copper, lead, tin, iron, zinc, arsenic, bismuth, antimony, nickel, quicksilver, manganese, cadmium, cerium, cobalt, iridium, uranium, chrome, lantanium, molybdenum, columbium, osmium, palladium, pelapium, tantalum, tellurium, rhodium, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, dydynium, ferbium, erbium. The three last are little known.

Sir Humphry Davy discovered that lime, magnesia, alumine, and other similar substances, are metals combined with oxygen. There are thirteen of these metalloids, namely—calcium, magnesium, aluminum, glucinum, thorium, yttrium, zirconium, strontium, barium, lithium, natrium, potassium, and silicium.

Footnote 93:

This subject is ably discussed by Mr. Leithart in his work, already mentioned, on the formation and filling of metallic veins. Mr. Leithart is an instance of the intelligence that prevails among miners, notwithstanding the scanty opportunities of acquiring that knowledge which they are generally so eager to obtain. He was a working miner, whose only education was at a Sunday-school.

Footnote 94:

Mineral veins are generally richer near the surface than at great depths: this is particularly the case in the mines of the precious metals in America, where the greatest quantities of ore have been found near the surface—a fact that may be explained by supposing the mineral substances brought by sublimation from the interior of the earth, and deposited where the temperature was lowest at or near the surface in the rocks among which they are situated.

Footnote 95:

Rotation alone produces electrical currents in the earth.—“Connection of the Physical Sciences,” page 364, 7th edition.

Footnote 96:

J. Taylor, Esq., on Cornish mines.

Footnote 97:

The total amount of steam-power in Great Britain in 1833 was equal to that of 2,000,000 of men.—J. Taylor, Esq., on Cornish Mines.

Footnote 98:

The splendid discovery of Sir Humphry Davy, that flame does not pass through fine wire-gauze, prevents the fatal explosion of inflammable air in the mines, by which thousands of lives have been lost. By means of a light enclosed in a wire-gauze lantern, a miner now works with safety surrounded by fire-damp. To the honour of the illustrious author of this discovery, be it observed that it was not, like that of gunpowder and others, the unforeseen result of chance by new combinations of matter, but the solution of a question based on scientific experiment and induction, which it required the genius of a philosophic mind like his to arrive at.

Footnote 99:

Supposing the barometer to be 30 inches on the level of the sea.

Footnote 100:

Note to the English translation of Kosmos, by Colonel Sabine, on the depths below the surface of the earth attained by man.

Footnote 101:

Dr. Pœppig’s “Travels in Chile and Peru.”

Footnote 102:

Dr. Pœppig.

Footnote 103:

Constructed under the direction of Thomas Sopwith, Esq.

Footnote 104:

Sir Charles Lemon, Bart.

Footnote 105:

M. Erman’s “Travels in Siberia.”

Footnote 106:

In 1841 there were 196,921 persons employed in the mines of Great Britain and Ireland.

Footnote 107:

In the year 1829 the value of the mineral produce of Europe, including Asiatic Russia, but exclusive of manganese, amounted to—

Gold and Silver £1,943,000 Other metals 28,519,000 Salts 7,640,000 Combustibles 18,050,000 ---------- Total £56,148,000

England contributed more than half this amount, namely,—

Silver £ 28,500 Copper 1,369,000 Iron 11,292,000 Lead 760,000 Tin 536,000 Salts 756,250 Vitriol 33,600 Alum 33,000 Coal 13,000,000 ---------- Total £28,716,750

—nearly £29,000,000 sterling.—John Taylor, Esq., on the Cornish Mines.

At present there are 34,000,000 of tons of coals consumed in Great Britain annually, besides the quantity exported to our colonies and to foreign countries, amounting to nearly 2,000,000 of tons. 8,000,000 of tons are consumed in our iron-foundries alone. Between 500,000 and 600,000 tons are used in making gas.

The iron made in Britain in 1844 amounted to 1,400,000 tons. Iron is now applied to many uses instead of timber, especially in ship-building: between the years 1830 and 1847, 150 iron vessels were launched in Britain. 25 of the steamships of the East India Company are of iron.

The produce of our copper-mines has increased threefold within the last 60 years. The quantity of tin has also increased from our own mines, and also from the extensive importation of that metal from Banca, where the country yielding stream-tin extends from 7° N. lat. to 3° S. lat. The yearly produce amounts to 300 tons of pure metal.— “Progress of the Nation, in its Social and Commercial Relations, since the beginning of the Nineteenth Century,” by G. R. Porter, Esq., 2d edition.

In France there are 62 coal-mines, which yielded 3,410,200 tons in 1841, and in 1838 the 12 iron districts in that country yielded to the value of 4,975,424_l._

The British coal and metal imported into France amounted to 1,222,228_l._—Progress of the Nation.

Belgium is next to Britain as a European coal country. In Britain the coalfields occupy one-twentieth part of the area of the country—in Belgium one twenty-second part—in France one two hundred and tenth part of its area.

The quantity of coal raised in one year is, according to “The Statistics of Germany,” by R. Valpy, Esq.—

In Britain 347,000,000 tons Belgium 4,000,000 France 3,783,000 Germany 3,000,000

[The following table exhibits the quantity and value of coal produced, in the six principal coal countries in the world, in the year 1845:—

+-------+-----------------+-------------+------------+----------+-----------------------------+ | | | | Tons of | | Official estimated value at | | Order | | Square | Fuel | Relative | the places of production. | | in | COUNTRIES. | miles of | raised in | parts of +----------------+------------+ | 1845. | | Coal | the year | 1000. | United States | English | | | | formations. | 1845. | | Dollars. | Sterling. | +-------+-----------------+-------------+------------+----------+-----------------------------+ | 1 | Great Britain | 11,859 | 31,500,000 | 642 | $45,738,000 | £9,450,000 | | 2 | Belgium | 518 | 4,960,077 | 101 | 7,689,900 | 1,660,000 | | 3 | United States | 133,132 | 4,400,000 | 89 | 6,650,000 | 1,373,963 | | 4 | France | 1,719 | 4,141,617 | 84 | 7,663,000 | 1,603,106 | | 5 | Prussian States | Not defined | 3,500,000 | 70 | 4,122,945 | 856,370 | | 6 | Austrian States | Not defined | 659,340 | 14 | 800,000 | 165,290 | +-------+-----------------+-------------+------------+----------+-----------------------------+ | | Total | | 49,161,034 | 1000 | 72,663,845 | 15,108,729 | +-------+-----------------+-------------+------------+----------+-----------------------------+

The coal trade appears to be increasing in all parts of the world.

There are no authentic data from which the increasing production of bituminous coal in the United States can be exactly deduced, but what we have show that it is very rapid. The production of anthracite may be said to be entirely confined to the State of Pennsylvania, which possesses a numerous and interesting group of coal basins, of various sizes and characters.

In the year 1820, the anthracite coal trade commenced with 365 tons; in 1827 it reached 48,047 tons; in 1837, 881,026 tons, and advanced to 3,000,000 tons in 1847.

The following table exhibits the production of smelted or manufactured iron in different countries in the year 1845:—

1. Great Britain 2,200,000 2. United States 502,000 3. France 448,000 4. Russia 400,000 5. Zollverein, or Prussian States 300,000 6. Austria 190,000 7. Belgium 150,000 8. Sweden 145,000 9. Spain (in 1841) 26,000 10. All other European countries 50,000 --------- 4,411,000

The rapid increase in the number of railroads and locomotive engines, and the number of steam vessels employed in commerce, augments the demand, proportionally, for iron and fuel.

At the commencement of 1847, the length of railroad completed and partly finished in the principal countries of Europe and America was 20,000 miles, only a few thousand miles less than the entire circumference of the globe.][108]

Footnote 108:

“Statistics of Coal.” By Richard Cowling Taylor, Philadelphia, 1848.

Footnote 109:

Sir Charles Lyell’s “Travels in the United States of North America.”

Footnote 110:

For the reason of this secular variation in the Moon’s distance, see page 42 of “The Connection of the Physical Sciences.”

Footnote 111:

Every undulating motion consists of two distinct things—an advancing form and a molecular movement. The motion of each particle is in an ellipse lying wholly in a vertical plane, so that, after the momentary disturbance during the passage of the wave, they return to their places again.—“Theory of Waves,” by J. Scott Russell, Esq.

Footnote 112:

J. Scott Russell, Esq., on Waves.

Footnote 113:

Beechy’s Voyage to the Pacific.

Footnote 114:

By Captain Albrecht’s soundings.

Footnote 115:

By the measurement of M. Lepère in the French expedition to Egypt.— “Annales du Bureau de Longitude,” 1836.

Footnote 116:

Proceedings of the Royal Geological Society, vol. ii., p. 210.

Footnote 117:

Baron Humboldt’s Personal Narrative.

Footnote 118:

Leonardo da Vinci was appointed Director of Hydraulic Operations in Lombardy by the Duke of Milan, and during the time he was painting the “Last Supper” he completed the Canal of Martesana, extending from the Adda to Milan, and improved the course of the latter river from where it emerges from the Lake of Como to the Po. By means of the Naviglio Grande, the Martesana canal establishes a water communication between the Adda and the Ticino, the Lakes of Como and Maggiore.

Footnote 119:

Dr. Beke on the Nile and its affluents.

Footnote 120:

Captain W. Allen, R. N.

Footnote 121:

It is in the space comprised between two of the eastern tributaries of the Tigris, the Khaus and the Great Zab, or Abou Selman of the Arabs, that the extensive ruins of Koyunjik, Khorsabad, and especially of Nimroud, are situated, the last of which have been so satisfactorily identified with the capital of Assyria—the ancient Nineveh—by our enterprising and talented countryman Mr. Layard, to whose exertions, under circumstances of peculiar difficulty, surrounded by every privation, our national Museum is indebted for that magnificent collection of Assyrian monuments which at this moment forms the admiration of the British public. It is to be hoped that our Government will follow up the researches commenced by Mr. Layard, and that several of the gigantic sculptures removed by him, with such perseverance and labour, to Bussorah, will ere long be added to the riches of the British Museum.

See Mr. Layard’s work on “Nineveh and its Remains,” 2 vols. 8vo., and his illustrated work in folio—the former one of the most interesting narratives ever published on the antiquities of Central Asia.

Footnote 122:

M. Erman.

Footnote 123:

[Lieutenant W. F. Lynch, of the United States Navy, has recently published an interesting and valuable narrative of an expedition to the Dead Sea and River Jordan. According to his measurements and surveys, the level of the Dead Sea is 1,316·7 feet below that of the Mediterranean. The city of Jerusalem is 2,610·5 feet above the latter, and 3,927·24 feet above the former sea. The greatest depth of the Dead Sea is 1308 feet. Lieutenant Lynch states the density of the water of the Dead Sea to be 1·13, that of distilled water being 1.]

Footnote 124:

The water of Lake Eltonsk contains chloride of calcium.

Footnote 125:

The water of the Dead Sea, according to Lieutenant Lynch, contains 26·42 per cent. of saline ingredients, one of which is chloride of magnesium.

Footnote 126:

Professor Schoenbein of Basle attributes the peculiar smell, when bodies are struck by lightning, to a principle existing in the atmosphere, which he calls ozone, liberated by the decomposing action of electricity, and possessing the same electrical characters as bromine, chlorine, and iodine. He ascribes the luminous appearance of the ocean to the action of that principle on the animal matter it contains.

Footnote 127:

Annales des Sciences Géologiques, par M. Rivière, 1842.

Footnote 128:

The mean of any number of unequal quantities is equal to their sum divided by their number: thus the mean temperature of the air at any place during a year is equal to the sum of the mean temperature of each month divided by 12. This method, however, will only give an approximate value; therefore, to ascertain the mean annual temperature at any place accurately, the mean of a number of years must be taken.

Footnote 129:

Lines drawn on a map or globe through all places where the mean annual temperature is the same are isothermal lines.

Footnote 130:

For example, Professor Dove has found that the mean temperature of December, January, and February, at Toronto in Canada, added to the mean temperature of the same months at Hobart Town in Van Diemen’s Land, exceeds the sum of the mean temperature of June, July, and August, at the same places, added together, by 22°·7 of Fahrenheit. Similar results, though varying in amount, were obtained for many corresponding places in the two hemispheres, which establishes the law given in the text.

Footnote 131:

In the same manner as isothermal lines are supposed to pass through all parts of the globe where the mean temperature of the air is the same, so the isogeothermal lines are supposed to pass through all places where the mean heat of the ground is the same: the isotherial lines are supposed to be drawn through all places having the same mean summer temperature; and the isochimenal lines pass through all places where the mean winter temperature is the same. The practice of representing to the eye these lines on a map or terrestrial globe is of the greatest use in following and understanding the complicated phenomena of temperature and magnetism.

Footnote 132:

If the heights above the earth increase by equal quantities, as a foot or a mile, the densities of the strata of air, or the heights of the barometer which are proportional to them, will decrease in geometrical progression: for example, if the height of the barometer at the level of the sea be 29·922 inches, it will be 14·961 inches at the height of 18,000 feet, or one-half as great; it will be one-fourth as great at the height of 36,000 feet, one-eighth at the height of 54,000 feet, and so on.

Footnote 133:

A very ingenious little instrument, called the Aneroid Barometer, has been lately invented in France; which, at the same time that it forms an exact and very portable weather-glass, in the common acceptation of that term, may be employed with considerable accuracy in ascertaining differences of level. Although not to be compared, as an instrument of precision, with the ordinary mercurial barometer, it is infinitely more portable, and gives with promptitude and accuracy small differences of level.

A friend of the author’s has recently tested it in the latter respect on some of our railways, and found that observations made with it carefully will give, on a line of 200 miles in extent, the relative levels of the different stations within a few feet. The observations can be made in a couple of minutes. The gentleman in question writes to us, that he considers the Aneroid Barometer will prove a very useful instrument to the geological and the botanical traveller.

See, for a description of this instrument, a pamphlet recently published at 84, Strand, by Mr. E. J. Dent, on the Construction and Uses of the Aneroid Barometer. London, 1849.

Footnote 134:

The moon’s orbit is very much elongated, so that her distance from the earth varies considerably, and consequently her attractive force. Moreover, her attraction varies with the rotation of the earth, which brings her twice in 24 hours in the meridian of any place, once in the superior and once in the inferior meridian; but her action on the atmosphere is much inferior to that of the heat of the sun.

Footnote 135:

Mr. Pentland has, however, found in the Peru-Bolivian Andes, at elevations between 11,000 and 14,000 feet, the horary oscillations of the barometer as regular, and nearly as extensive, as on the level of the sea in the same latitude.

Footnote 136:

Lieutenant Maury, of the United States Navy, is led to believe that there is a region within the limit of the N.E. trade-winds, in the Atlantic, in which the prevailing winds are from the south and west: this region is somewhat in the shape of a wedge, with its base towards the coast of Africa, between the equator and 10° N. lat., and between the meridians of 10° and 25° W. long. In this space, in which the law of the trade-winds is reversed, there are great atmospheric disturbances, violent squalls, sudden gusts of wind, thunder, storms, heavy rains, baffling airs, and calms.

Footnote 137:

In the northern hemisphere, a north wind sets out with a less rotatory motion than the places have at which it successively arrives, consequently it veers through all the points of the compass from N. to N.E. and E. If a south wind should now spring up, it would gradually veer from S. to S.W. and W., because its rotatory velocity would be greater than that of the places it successively comes to. The combination of the two would cause a vane to veer from E. to S.E. and S.; but the rotation of the earth would now cause the south wind to veer round from S. to S.W. and W.; and should a north wind now arise, its combination with the west wind would bring the vane round from W. to N.W. and N. again. At the Greenwich Observatory the wind makes five gyrations in that direction in the course of a year. In Europe it is the contention of the N.E. and S.W. winds which causes the rotation of the wind, and the principal changes of weather, the S.W. being warm and moist, the N.E. cold and dry, except where it comes over the German Ocean.

Footnote 138:

In all hurricanes hitherto observed, the sinking of the mercury, and the increase of the wind, have been more or less regularly progressive till within three or four hours’ sail of the centre of the storm; and in one class they have continued so even to the centre; while in another class, and by far the most terrible, the depression of the mercury has been sudden and excessive when within that distance of the centre, and the violence of the tempest far beyond the average. When a ship is within 50 or 60 miles of the centre, the storm has the mastery, and seamanship is of little avail. Rules for avoiding this calamity, and for managing a ship when involved in a hurricane, are fully explained in the “Sailor’s Horn-Book for the Laws of Storms,” by H. Piddington, Esq., President of the Marine Courts of Inquiry at Calcutta. The following approximate table is given by him, to serve as a guide till better data shall be obtained:—

Average fall of the Distance of a ship from the barometer per hour. centre of the storm, in miles.

From 0·020 to 0·060 From 250 to 150

From 0·060 to 0·080 From 150 to 100

From 0·080 to 0·120 From 100 to 80

From 0·120 to 0·150 From 80 to 50

The rate of fall per hour doubles after the storm has lasted six hours, and within three hours of the centre of the hurricane the mercury will fall four times as fast, if it be of the violent class.

Colonel James Capper discovered the rotatory motions of storms, and W. C. Redfield, Esq., of New York, was the first who determined their laws. Colonel Reid, Governor of Barbadoes, and Dr. Thom, of the 86th regiment, have also written on the subject.

Footnote 139:

The four subordinate forms of clouds are the cirro-stratus, composed of little bands of filaments, more compact than the cirrus, forming horizontal strata, which seem to be numerous thin clouds when in the zenith, and at the horizon a long narrow band. The cumulo-stratus consists of the summer-cloud, like snowy mountains heaped on one another, which at sunrise have a black or bluish tint at the horizon, and pass into the nimbus, or rain-cloud, which has a uniform grey tint, fringed at the edges; and the fourth is the cirro-cumulus, a combination of filaments and heaped-up cumuli or summer-clouds.

Footnote 140:

The reader is referred to the chart of the distribution of rain in the Physical Atlas of Alexander Keith Johnston, Esq., where the value of the practice referred to in note p. 27 is shown.

Footnote 141:

The reader is referred to the “Connection of the Physical Sciences” for an account of Dr. Dalton’s theory of definite proportions, and the relative weight of atoms.

Footnote 142:

The reader is referred to the 18th section of the “Physical Sciences” for reflection, refraction, and absorption of light, and to the 19th section for the constitution of the solar light and colours.

Footnote 143:

For the cause of mirage, see the “Connection of the Physical Sciences.”

Footnote 144:

For phenomena and theory of polarized light, see section 21, “Connection of the Physical Sciences.”

Footnote 145:

Every substance, whether solid or fluid, has its own polarizing angle.

Footnote 146:

The reader is referred to a plate in “Johnston’s Physical Atlas” showing the phenomena of the polarization of the atmosphere.

Footnote 147:

See sections 28 and 29 of the “Connection of the Physical Sciences:” on Electricity.

Footnote 148:

Sound travels at the rate of 1120 feet in a second in air at the temperature of 62° of Fahrenheit; so if that number be multiplied by the seconds elapsed between the flash of lightning and the thunder, the result will be the distance in feet at which the stroke took place.

Footnote 149:

Colonel Sabine’s Notes to “Kosmos.”

Footnote 150:

The foci are all of different intensities; that in the South Atlantic, discovered by M. Erman, has the least intensity of the four, and the other in the southern hemisphere, discovered by Sir James Ross, has the greatest; taking 1 as the unit at the magnetic equator in Peru, their intensities are as 2·071 and 0·706. In the northern hemisphere the American focus is more intense than that in Siberia, which is moving from west to east, while the minor focus in the southern hemisphere is moving from east to west.

Footnote 151:

The author is indebted to the admirable and profound investigations of Colonel Sabine for almost all she knows on the subject of terrestrial magnetism. In these, and in his notes on the English translation of “Kosmos,” the reader will find all that is most interesting on the subject. In his own works there are plates of the course of the different magnetic lines mentioned in the text.

Footnote 152:

At St. Helena, the north end of the needle reaches its eastern extreme in May, June, July, and August, and nearly at the same hours it reaches its western extreme in November, December, January, and February. The passage from one to the other takes place at, or soon after, the equinoxes in March and April, September and October.— Colonel Sabine’s Notes to “Kosmos.”

Footnote 153:

The sporules or seeds of the fungi are so minute that M. Freis counted above ten millions in a single plant of the recticularia maxima: they were so subtile that they were like smoke.

Footnote 154:

The solar spectrum, or coloured image of the sun, formed by passing a sunbeam through a prism, is composed of a variety of invisible as well as visible rays. The chemical rays are most abundant beyond the violet end of the spectrum, and decrease through the violet, blue, and green, to the yellow, where they cease. The rays of heat are in excess a little beyond the red end, and gradually decrease towards the violet end. Besides these there are two insulated spots at a considerable distance from the red, where the heat is a maximum. Were the rays of heat visible, they would exhibit differences as distinct as the coloured rays, so varied are their properties according to their position in the spectrum. There are also peculiar rays which produce phosphorescence, others whose properties are not quite made out, and probably many undiscovered influences; for time has not yet fully revealed the sublimity of that creation, when God said, “Let there be light—and there was light.”

Footnote 155:

Professor Quetelet is desirous that the periodical phenomena of vegetation should be observed at a number of places, in order to establish a comparison between the periods at which they take place; and for that purpose he gives a list of the commonest plants, as lilac, laburnum, elder, birch, oak, horse-chestnut, peach, pear, crocus, daisy, &c., which he himself observes annually at Brussels.

Footnote 156:

Dandelion opens at five or six in the morning, and shuts at nine in the evening; the goat’s-beard wakes at three in the morning, and shuts at five or six in the afternoon. The orange-coloured Escholtzia is so sensitive that it closes during the passage of a cloud. “The marigold that goes to bed wi’ the sun, and with him rises weeping,” with many more, are instances of the sleep of plants.

Footnote 157:

M. de Candolle established 20 botanical regions, and Professor Schow the same number; but Professor Martius, of Munich, has divided the vegetation of the globe into 51 provinces, namely, 5 in Europe, 11 in Africa, 13 in Asia, 3 in New Holland, 4 in North and 8 in South America, besides Central America, the Antillas, the Antarctic Lands, New Zealand, Van Diemen’s Land, New Guinea, and Polynesia. To these, other divisions might be added, as the Galapagos, which is so strongly defined.

Baron Humboldt gives the following concise view of the distribution of plants, both as to height and latitude:—

The equatorial zone is the region of palms and bananas.

The tropical zone is the region of tree-ferns and figs.

The subtropical zone, that of myrtles and laurels.

The warm temperate zone, that of evergreen trees.

The cold temperate zone, that of European or deciduous trees.

The subarctic zone, that of pines.

The arctic zone, that of rhododendrons.

The polar zone, that of alpine plants.

Upper Limit of Trees on Mountains.—The upper limit of trees is distinguished by the Escalloniæ, on the Andes of Quito, at the height of 11,500 feet above the level of the sea.

In tropical Mexico, the upper limit of trees, at the height of 12,789 feet, is distinguished by the Pinus occidentalis.

In the temperate zone the limit of trees is marked by the Quercus Semicarpifolia, at 11,500 feet, on the south side of the Himalaya, and by the Betula Alba, on the north side, at the height of 14,000 feet: the same birch forms the limit on the Caucasus, at the elevation of 6394 feet. On the Pyrenees and Alps the limit is marked by the Coniferæ or pine tribe: on the Pyrenees by the Pinus uncinata, at the height of 10,870 feet; on the south side of the Alps by the larch, at the elevation of 6700 feet; and by the Pinus abies, at 5883 feet, on the north.

In Lapland, the Betula Alba forms the upper limit of trees, at the height of only 1918 feet.

The upper Limit of Shrubs.—In the Andes of Quito the Bejarias are the shrubs that attain the greatest height, and terminate at 13,420 feet above the sea-level.

The juniper, Salix, and Ribes, or currant tribe, form the upper limit of Shrubs on the south side of the Himalaya, at the height of 11,500 feet. The tama, or Genista versicolor, a species of broom, flourishes at the height of 17,000 feet on the north side, and vegetation is prolonged to nearly 18,000 feet.

The Rhododendron forms the upper limit of shrubs on the Caucasus, at 8825 feet; in the Pyrenees it grows to 8312 feet; in the Alps to 7480 feet; and in Lapland it forms the upper limit of shrubs at an elevation of 3000 above the Arctic Ocean.

Footnote 158:

The British flora contains at least 3000 species.

Footnote 159:

The plants with which the Chinese give flavour to tea are the Olea fragrans, Chloranthus inconspicuus, Gardenia florida, Aglaia odorata, Mogorium sambac, Vitex spicata, Camellia sasanqua, Camellia odorifera, Illicium anisatum, Magnolia yulan, Rosa indica odoratissima, turmeric, oil of Bixa orellana, and the root of the Florentine iris.

The principles of caffeine and theine are, in all respects, identical.

Footnote 160:

Davis on China.

Footnote 161:

Dr. Mantel.

Footnote 162:

Dr. J. D. Hooker.

Footnote 163:

The Euphorbia and Borreria are the distinguishing features of the low grounds in the Galapagos islands; while the Scleria, croton, and Cordia mark the high grounds. Compositæ and Campanulaceæ distinguish St. Helena and Juan Fernandez. The prevailing plants in the Sandwich group are the Goodeniaceæ and Lobeliaceæ; and in New Zealand ferns and club-mosses prevail, almost to the exclusion of the grasses.—Dr. J. D. Hooker.

Footnote 164:

Of 2891 species of flower-bearing plants in the United States of North America, there are 385 found also in northern and temperate Europe.

Footnote 165:

In the basin of Titicaca in Peru-Bolivia, Mr. Pentland has seen a variety of maize ripen as high as 12,800 feet.

Footnote 166:

Dr. Weddell, a very distinguished botanist, who has recently returned from an exploration of the districts of the Andes which furnish the Peruvian bark of commerce, has discovered several new species of Cinchona, the total number of which, according to his beautiful monography, now amounts to 21.

Footnote 167:

Professor Martius, of Munich, in his great work on Palms, has described 500, accompanied with excellent coloured plates. It is supposed that the number of species throughout the world amounts to 1000.

Footnote 168:

There are innumerable points of analogy between the vegetation of the Brazils, equinoctial Africa, and India: but the number of species common to these three continents is very small.

Footnote 169:

Dr. J. D. Hooker.

Footnote 170:

The cosmopolite ulvæ are the Enteromorpha, Codium, &c.

Footnote 171:

Dr. J. D. Hooker has divided the marine vegetation into ten provinces:—the Northern Ocean, from the pole to the 60th parallel of north latitude;—the North Atlantic, between the 60th and 40th parallels, which is the province of the delessariæ and fucus proper;— the Mediterranean, which is a sub-region of the warmer temperate zone of the Atlantic, lying between the 40th and 23d northern parallels;— the tropical Atlantic, in which sargassum, rhodomelia, corallinia, and siphinea abound;—the antarctic American region, from Chile to Cape Horn, the Falkland Islands, and the whole circumpolar ocean south of the 50th southern parallel;—the Australian and New Zealand province, which is very peculiar, being characterized, among other generic forms, by cystoseiriæ and fuceæ;—the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea;—and the last, which comprises the Japan and China Seas. There are several undetermined botanical marine provinces in the Pacific and elsewhere.

Footnote 172:

The British flowering sea-weeds are the Zostera and Zanichellia.

Footnote 173:

The vegetation at different depths in the Egean Sea is as distinctly marked as that at different heights on the declivity of a mountain. The coast plants are the Padina pavonia and Dictyota dichotoma. A greater depth is characterized by the vividly green and elegant fronds of the Caulerpa prolifera, probably the prasium of the ancients; associated with it are the curious sponge-like Codium Bursa, and four or five others. The Codium flabelliforme, and the rare and curious vegetable net called Microdictyon umbilicatum, characterize depths of 30 fathoms. The Dictyomenia, with stiff purple corkscrew-like fronds, and some others, go as low as 50 fathoms, beyond which no flexible sea-weeds have been found. The coral-like Millepora polymorpha take their place, and range to the depth of 100 fathoms, beyond which there is no trace of vegetable life, unless some of the minute and microscopic infusorial bodies living there be regarded as plants.— “Travels in Lycia,” by Lieutenant Spratt, R. N., and Professor E. Forbes.

Footnote 174:

The notocanthus and macrourus are the deep-water fish in the arctic regions; they also inhabit the seas of New Zealand. The Pacific fish that enter the Atlantic are some of the mackerel tribe, sharks, and lophobranches. The genera most prevalent in the southern hemisphere are the notothemia, borichthys, and harpagifer. The same species of these genera are found in the seas of the Falkland Islands, Cape Horn, the Auckland Islands, and Kerguelen’s Land.—Dr. Richardson.

Footnote 175:

The Chinese fresh-water fish are cyprinidæ, ophicephali, and siluridæ— genera which agree closely with those in India, though the species are different.

Footnote 176:

The carnivorous Cetacea, with two remarkable exceptions, inhabit the ocean—the Delphinus Inca, of the Amazons and its affluents; and the D. Gangeticus, of the Ganges.

Footnote 177:

Captain Scoresby’s “Arctic Voyages.”

Footnote 178:

One of the most celebrated species of this division is the crocodile of the Nile, which probably is to be met with in the western branch of that river, the Bahr-el-Abiad, as high as 4000 feet. Immense numbers of this species, of every size and age, are found embalmed in the catacombs of the ancient Egyptians, which are perfectly identical with the existing species, and offering another proof of the important fact first announced by Cuvier, from his examination of the mummies of the ibis, that no animal, in its wild state, had presented the least change, within the longest historical periods.

Footnote 179:

Mr. Pentland informs me that crocodiles are found in some of the rivers of Bolivia at a much greater elevation.

Footnote 180:

Animals of a gigantic size, and allied to the lizard family, formerly inhabited the latitudes of Britain. A monster (the Mosasaurus) much surpassing the largest living crocodile is found in our Sussex chalk-beds; and an animal allied to the Iguana, the iguanodon of Mantell, is of frequent occurrence in the strata upon which the chalk reposes in the weald of Sussex, the Isle of Wight, &c. Some bones of the iguanodon would indicate an animal more than 50 feet long.

Footnote 181:

Petrel, from St. Peter.

Footnote 182:

In some parts of the earth the same conditions which regulated the distribution of the ancient fauna and flora still prevail. The flora of the carbonaceous epoch is perfectly similar to that of New Zealand, where ferns and club-mosses are so abundant; and the fauna of that ancient period had been representative of that which recently prevailed in these islands, since foot-prints of colossal birds have been discovered in the red sandstone of Connecticut.

The age of reptiles of the Wealden and other secondary periods is representative of the fauna of the Galapagos islands, which chiefly consists of tortoises and creatures of the lizard or crocodile family; and the cycadaceous plants and marsupial animals of the oolite are representative of the flora and fauna of Australia.

The colossal birds which prevailed in New Zealand, almost to the entire exclusion of reptiles and quadrupeds, lasted to a very late period; they differed in the structure of the beak and skull from every class of birds, recent or fossil.

Footnote 183:

Perhaps no quadruped in the wild state will be found to have so wide a vertical range of habitat as this animal. It is found in the plains of Tartary, in the valley of the Tigris, at a very few feet above the sea-level, and in the most elevated plains of the Himalaya, at elevations exceeding 15,300 feet.

Footnote 184:

It is by no means certain that the wild Ass of the three countries mentioned in the text belongs to the same species. The Kiang of Tibet appears to be the same as the Dziggetai (Equus Hemonus) of Pallas, which is met with throughout central Asia; but the species found in the Run of Cutch is of a different colour and form: whilst the one neighs like a horse, the other brays like an ass; in one the striped colour of the zebra family exists in the young, and not in the second.

Footnote 185:

The attention of the scientific world in France has been recently directed to the advantages that might arise from the naturalization of the Llama tribe in Europe, and especially of its two most useful species, the Llama and the Alpaca. M. J. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, a zoologist of some note, but rather carried away by theoretical views in a branch of science where observation, and observation alone, ought to be our guide, and ignorant perhaps of what had been done in England on the same subject, where the experiment had long since been tried, and with very inadequate success, has presented lately some papers to the Academy of Sciences on this subject. We cannot imagine, even if the naturalization of the Llama on a large scale was possible, what benefit could arise from it to our agriculturists. The wool of the llama is coarse, and so infinitely inferior to the commonest qualities of sheep’s wool, that in its native country it is seldom used for any other purpose than the manufacture of ropes, of a rough carpeting and packing-cloth, and for the coarsest apparel of the poor Indian. As to its use as a beast of burden, whilst the llama eats as much as the ass, it does not carry more than one half what he can, and can scarcely travel one half of the same daily distance; besides, the female llama is useless in this respect. The flesh of the llama, as above stated, is greatly below that of all our domestic animals, even of the Italian buffalo.

As to the Alpaca, it is very doubtful if, living as it does in an extremely dry, elevated, equable, and clear atmosphere, it would ever become accustomed to the damp and variable climate of our northern latitudes, or to that of the great European chains of mountains, the Alps and the Pyrenees, and if it did, that its wool would not be greatly deteriorated. As to the vicuña, it is purely a wild species, and has hitherto resisted all the efforts of the aborigines, the most patient and docile of the human race, to render it prolific in its own climate and in domesticity.

It appears, therefore, that the domestication of the several species of Auchenia in Europe would be a costly and useless experiment, on the large scale on which it is proposed to try it; indeed, this will appear evident when it is known that in the Peru-Bolivian Andes the llama and alpaca are daily disappearing to make room for the more useful and profitable breed of the common European sheep, whilst, as a beast of burden, the ass is everywhere taking its place.

Connected with this subject, a very singular fact, and, if well established, a very curious one, has been announced by M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, on the authority of one of our countrymen, Dr. Weddel, recently returned from South America, that a cross-breed between the Alpaca and the Vicuña had been obtained, and that the mules from this cross-breed were capable of reproducing this newly-created species, the wool of which is represented to be of a valuable quality. Now, if there exists in zoological science a fact clearly established, it is this: that within historical periods no new species of vertebrate animal has been created—in fact, the great law of the immutability of species. The remains of the several wild animals which have been buried for more than 30 centuries in the catacombs of Egypt, and in the ruins of Nineveh, are perfectly identical with those now existing in the most minute details of their anatomical structure. We have examined, in the case referred to, the evidence adduced by M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire in support of his favourite doctrine, and we do not by any means consider it sufficient to shake the conclusions arrived at by all the great zoologists of past and present times—by the Cuviers, the Humboldts, and the Owens of our own period—on the impossibility of the production of a new species of animals, or the immutability of species in the animal creation. Contradictions to this law we know have been brought forward by writers of the theoretical school of naturalists, to support favourite theories of their authors; but we believe such dangerous doctrines are founded on the vagaries of a school which have ever placed in natural history observation in the back, and the dreams of imagination in the foreground.

Footnote 186:

There are 8 families, 14 genera, and 123 species of marsupial animals, amounting to about one-twelfth of all the mammalia. The opossum is American; the seven other families are inhabitants of Australia and the Indian Archipelago.

Of the Didelphidæ or opossum family there are 21 species, all inhabitants of America; the Virginian opossum is about the size of a cat, the other species are not larger than rats or mice. A pretty kind in Surinam, the D. dorsigera, is so named because it carries its young on its back, which hold on by their prehensile tails twisted round that of the mother: another species is aquatic, and in its habits resembles the otter.

The Dasyuridæ and Phalangers are nocturnal: the Dasyuridæ and wombats burrow.

Footnote 187:

Sir Charles Lyell estimates the number of existing species of animals and vegetables, independent of the infusoria, to be between one and two millions, which must surely be under the mark, considering the enormous quantity of animal life in the ocean, to the amount of which we have not even an approximation. If the microscopic and infusorial existence be taken into the account, the surface of the globe may be viewed as one mass of animal life—perpetually dying—perpetually renewed. A drop of stagnant water is a world within itself, an epitome of the earth and its successive geological races. A variety of microscopic creatures appear, and die; in a few days a new set succeeds; these vanish and give place to a third set, of different kinds from the preceding; and the débris of all remain at the bottom of the glass. The extinction of these creatures takes place without any apparent cause, unless a greater degree of putrescence of the water be to them what the mighty geological catastrophes were to beings of higher organization—the introduction of the new is not more mysterious in one case than in the other.

Footnote 188:

Valmiki, the Hindu poet, is supposed to have been contemporary with Homer, if not his predecessor: his great work is the “Ramayana,” an heroic poem of the highest order, four cantos of which have been translated by Gaspare Gorresco, an Italian. According to Dr. Pritchard, the four great dynasties of languages in the old continent are—the Indo-European or Indo-Germanic, now called the Arian or Iranian languages; the Turanian or Ugro-Tartarian, the language of high Asia; the Chinese and Indo-Chinese, or Monosyllabic; and the Syro-Arabian or Semitic languages. The three first are common to Europe and Asia; the fourth, common to Africa and some parts of Asia near Africa. The Arians are the ancient Medes and Persian; the Ugrians are the Fins, Laplanders, Hungarians, and many Siberian nations.

Footnote 189:

EUROPEAN POPULATION.

Pure blood.

Teutonic 52,000,000 Sclavonian 50,000,000 Celtic 12,000,000 Magyar 9,000,000 Fins and Samojedes 3,000,000 Tartar 2,000,000 Jews 2,000,000 ----------- Total European population of pure blood 130,000,000

Mixed blood in Europe.

Teutonic Celtic 22,000,000 Teutonic Sclavonian 6,000,000 Teutonic mixed with Walloons in Belgium 1,200,000 Teutonic Northmen in Normandy 1,500,000 Celtic in its different crosses 56,000,000 Sclavonian 6,000,000 Lettons 2,000,000 Turks 4,000,000 Turco-Tatar-Sclavonic in centre, south-east, and east of Russia 2,600,000 Kalmuk, between the rivers Volga and Ural 300,000 ----------- The number of people of mixed blood in Europe 101,600,000

The total population of Europe, pure and mixed, amounts to about 232 millions, including 600,000 Gipsies. The Teutonic population in the United States of North America and in the British colonies amounts to 20 millions; so that the total number of people of Teutonic blood is rather more than 100 millions.—Notes accompanying the Ethnographic Map of Europe, by Dr. Gustaf Kombst: “Phys. Atlas.”

Footnote 190:

POPULATION OR GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

On an average the pure-blooded population amounts to

Teutonic in England, Scotland, and in the east and north-east of Ireland 10,000,000 Celtic in Cornwall, Wales, the Scottish Highlands, and Ireland. 6,000,000 ---------- The pure-blooded inhabitants amounts to 16,000,000

Mixed blood.

Mixture in which the Teutonic blood predominates 6,000,000 Mixture in which the Celtic blood predominates 4,000,000 ---------- 10,000,000

In all 26,000,000 of inhabitants.

Notes accompanying the Ethnographic Map of Great Britain and Ireland, by Gustaf Kombst: “Phys. Atlas.”

The fear that Britain may be ruined by over population may be allayed by considering that we are ignorant of the immense treasures and inexhaustible resources of the natural world—that the ingenuity of man is infinite, and will continually discover new powers and innumerable combinations that will furnish sources of wealth and happiness to millions.

Footnote 191:

From the discrepancies in the chronological systems it is evident that the actual period of man’s creation is not accurately known. The Chevalier Bunsen has ascertained, from monumental inscriptions, that the successive Egyptian dynasties may be traced back to Meres, 3640 years before the Christian era, and from the high state of civilization during the reign of that prince, proved by the magnificence of the works thus executed, he infers that the Egyptians must have existed 500 years previous to their consolidation into one empire by him, which goes back to the renewed period of man’s creation. Compared with geological periods, man is of very recent creation, as appears from the vast extent of uninhabited land, but which would require ages and ages to people, even if the increase of population were as rapid as in the United States of North America.

Footnote 192:

Dark-coloured substances absorb more of the sun’s heat than light-coloured ones; therefore, the black skins of the natives of tropical climates absorb more heat than fair skins, but, from some unknown cause, the black skin is protected from a degree of heat that would blister a fair one.

Footnote 193:

The countenances of the Fuegians brought to England in 1830 by Captain Fitzroy improved greatly in expression by their intercourse with civilized men, but they had not returned to their savage brethren more than a year before their whole appearance was completely changed; the look of intelligence they had acquired was gone; and when compared with likenesses that had been taken of them when in England, they were not to be recognized as the same persons.

Footnote 194:

Johnston’s “Physical Atlas.”

The average age of a nation, or the mean duration of life, has a considerable influence on the character of a people. The average age of the population of England and Wales is 26 years 7 months. By the census, the average age of the population of the United States of North America is 22 years 2 months. In England there are 1365 persons in every 10,000, who have attained 50 years of age, and consequently of experience; while, in the United States, only 830 in each 10,000 have arrived at that age: hence, in the United States, the moral predominance of the young and passionate is greatest. In Ireland there are 1050 persons in every 10,000 of the population, above 50 years of age, to exercise the influence of their age and experience upon the community—an influence that will diminish with the progress of emancipation.

Footnote 195:

It is singular that the British should, for years, have possessed such extensive territories in Asia without having explored their mineral wealth. Perhaps the quantity of gold recently discovered in California and Africa may call the attention of the East India Company to the subject. Some of the richest mining districts are in countries where primary formations have been crossed or disturbed by volcanic action; and as that is eminently the case along the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal, from Aracan to the peninsula of Malacca, mines of the precious metals will most likely be found on that frontier, possibly in Siam and the Birman empire. The interior of the Deccan has also been greatly disturbed by ancient volcanos; and as that country is said to bear a strong analogy in structure to South Africa, it may also resemble it in the production of gold. The auriferous territory in California appears to be at least 400 miles long and 100 broad.

Footnote 196:

In bringing to a close a work which may in some measure be considered a kind of Résumé of Natural knowledge, it may not be either out of place or irrelevant to our subject to allude more particularly to the encouragement of late years granted to scientific investigation by our own Government.

It must be confessed that Great Britain for a long time remained behind the nations of the continent in fostering scientific enterprise and research; and if England has rivalled in most branches of natural knowledge, and surpassed in some, every other people, it has arisen more from individual exertion, and that spirit of association which forms so happy a characteristic of our race, and which has in our political institutions so mainly contributed to our national greatness and prosperity, than from any direct encouragement from our rulers. Whilst France and other continental nations were endowing the votaries of science, were lavishing money on scientific expeditions, and founding institutions which will hand down the names of their sovereigns to posterity as the benefactors of mankind, England had done little in the same track beyond fitting out those memorable expeditions of Cook, and, subsequently, those of Vancouver and Flinders, and the support granted to our great national Observatory, which, under the direction of Bradley, Maskelyne, Pond, and Airy, has attained a degree of celebrity and utility unequalled by any astronomical foundation in ancient or modern times.

The conclusion of a long war, in opening the scientific repositories of the continent to our countrymen, showed us how much our great institutions, with the above solitary exception, were behindhand, not only in extent and utility, but in the liberality with which they were conducted. Possessing as we did the most ample means, from our immense colonial possessions and our widely-extended commerce, to add to the stock of our knowledge in natural history, our collections were infinitely behind those of the great states of the continent, and scarcely on a par with those of the sovereigns of a second and even third rate importance. A better system was loudly called for, and a better system has been adopted. Our great national collection of the British Museum—and I here refer more particularly to its scientific and antiquarian department, for there is still much room for improvement in the literary—has in a few years, thanks to the liberality of Parliament and the exertions of its trustees and officers, become equal in every respect, and superior in many, to any similar institution on the continent. Two establishments have been created within the last dozen of years which reflect the greatest honour on the statesmen, Sir F. Baring, then Chancellor of the Exchequer, and the late Earl of Besborough, as chief Commissioner of the Woods and Forests, who fostered them in their infancy, and on the talented individuals who had been selected to carry out the enlightened views of the Government—the Museum of Practical Geology, a designation that conveys a very inadequate idea of the extent of its attributes or of its utility, and the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew. To the first the public is already indebted for such a geological survey and map of the empire as never had been planned or executed in any other country—only a small instalment, however, of great services which the nation and geological science are likely to derive from the labours of Sir H. Delabeche and his collaborators. The Royal Gardens at Kew, under the direction of Sir W. J. Hooker, lose nothing when compared with the most celebrated establishments of the kind, ancient or modern: never was public money better bestowed, or in a way to convey more useful instruction and gratification to the great mass of the community. Whilst every German university had its Museum of Comparative Anatomy, when the government of revolutionary France had placed at the disposal of Cuvier ample means to lay the basis of that science of which he was to be considered the founder, an eminent surgeon, John Hunter, animated by the love of science alone, and unaided by his Government, was rendering a similar service to Great Britain, in laying the foundation of that Museum which so justly bears his honoured name. Thanks to the liberality of the Government, and to the well-judged appreciation of the Royal College of Surgeons, the Hunterian Collection has become the property of the nation, and has received such additions and ameliorations as not to be behind any of those of the continent; whilst in point of arrangement, facilities granted for study, and real practical utility, it infinitely surpasses them all. To it we principally are indebted for the introduction of the study of comparative anatomy into this country, and for the possession of one of its greatest modern expositors, Professor Owen.

It may appear invidious, at a time when every department of our Government is showing itself so desirous of promoting the cause of science, to point to any in particular: still we cannot refrain from making special mention of one to which science in general, and more particularly that branch of it which forms the principal object of this work, and our best national interests, owe a deep and lasting debt of gratitude—the Hydrographic department of the Admiralty; which, under its present able chief, Sir Francis Beaufort, has attained a degree of eminence unequalled by that of any other maritime country. The Admiralty has profited of a long peace to extend our knowledge over almost every region of the globe, conferring thereby an immense service on geographical science, and placing in the hands of our national and commercial marine a collection of charts and nautical instructions unparalleled in the history of navigation for their extent and exactitude. Another branch of inquiry, closely connected with Hydrography and Navigation, which it required the encouragement of a government to institute, the investigation of the laws of terrestrial magnetism and meteorology, has been very liberally provided for by Parliament, and most ably carried out, under the direction of Colonel Sabine, by the establishment of special observatories in our widely extended colonies, and by the publication and distribution of their results.

The several maritime expeditions undertaken since the peace in a purely scientific view reflect the highest credit on the departments of the Government with which they have originated, as they do on the eminent individuals, many of whom still live to enjoy their well-merited fame, who have carried out their country’s wishes. The names of Parry, Franklin, Back, James C. Ross, and Richardson, will be preserved in the memory of posterity long after the ephemeral glory of their professional career will have been forgotten.

Although it is to the projectors of such an altered state of things, and to the statesmen who encouraged and brought it about, that our first acknowledgement is due, our thanks must be also expressed to that branch of the legislature which, holding, as it rightly does, the public purse, has so liberally come forward upon every occasion, when solicited, in granting the means to promote scientific enterprise. The votary of science therefore owes to the House of Commons the expression of his unmingled gratitude.

But, in paying that just tribute to the ministers of the Crown and to Parliament, we must not pass over in silence the encouragement which science has in every department met with from the East India Company. Lords of an immense territory, the Court of Directors, and its representatives in India, have always shown themselves ready to contribute in a most liberal spirit to the extension of our knowledge of their widely extended empire. The trigonometrical surveys of India, the establishment of observatories, the endowment of colleges and of scientific societies, the formation of collections of natural history at great expense, and which it distributes to all those who are likely to make good use of them, the publication of works on physical researches, on natural history, of astronomical observations, bestowed with so liberal a hand to men of science, the formation of such a map of its extended dominions and of charts of its coasts as would do honour to any government, must place the East India Company in the first rank of those mighty potentates of the earth to whom science will both now and in after ages feel placed under the most lasting obligations.

Connected with our Oriental empire, it is due to some of the native sovereigns of India to state that they have not been behindhand in imitating the liberal example of their powerful protectors. Two native princes, the Rajah of Travancore and the King of Oude, have at very great expense established astronomical observatories in their territories, furnished with European instruments of the most delicate construction, and placed under the direction of European officers amply endowed and provided for. The peninsula of India at the present moment possesses four astronomical observatories little behind those of Europe as regards the means of observation; until very lately there did not exist one public observatory in the whole extent of the United States of America.

[A national observatory was established at Washington in the year 1843.]

Footnote 197:

Sir John Rennie.

Footnote 198:

Charles Babbage, Esq.

Footnote 199:

We learn, on closing the present volume, that this distinguished traveller, through the liberality of Her Majesty’s Government, is again about to proceed to the former field of his exertions.

Footnote 200:

The works of Cornelius and Kaulbach bear testimony to the justice of the observations in the text. In drawing, nothing can be more beautiful—in composition, nothing can be more varied or sublime. The “Destruction of Jerusalem,” by Kaulbach, in which a powerful genius has combined the truth of the historian with the imagination of the poet, and executed with the hand of a master, might bear comparison even with the Italian school for colouring.

Footnote 201:

Twenty of these counties were in England and 11 in Wales, and so few crimes took place among educated women in the other counties during the 11 years mentioned, that the annual proportion of accusations against educated females was only 1 in 1,349,059. During the year 1846 only 48 educated persons were convicted of crimes out of the whole population of England and Wales, and none were sentenced to death. And during the years 1845 and 1846 there were 15 counties in England and 11 in Wales in which no well-educated person was convicted of any crime. The number of accusations among educated persons in Scotland is greater, because education is more general, and because the quantity of ardent spirits used in Scotland is five times greater than in England. Crime is very much below the average in the mining districts, and it is still less frequent in Wales and in the mountainous country in the North of England. The accomplishments of a well-educated person in these statistical records consist merely in being able to read and write fluently.—“London Statistical Journal.”

Footnote 202:

Every factory-child is limited to 48 hours of labour in the week, and the children must by law attend school at least two hours a-day for six days out of the seven, besides a Sunday-school—one penny being deducted out of each shilling of wages for education. The inspectors have the power of establishing schools where wanted, and of dismissing incompetent teachers. The engagement of factory-children in Britain lasts till they are 13, in the United States it ends at 15 years of age.—“Statistical Journal.”

Footnote 203:

The average duration of the life of sovereigns is greater in modern than in ancient times, but it is still lower than any other class of mankind. The most favourable average for them is 70·05 years; for the English aristocracy it is 71·69; for the English gentry, 74·00; for the learned professions, 73·62; for English literary and scientific men it is 72·10; for the army and navy, 71·99; and for the professions of the fine arts, 71·15.—“London Statistical Journal.”

Footnote 204:

There are 62 Ragged Schools in London, and Government undertakes to send annually to the colonies 150 of such of the scholars as choose to go.—“London Statistical Journal.”

Footnote 205:

The letters affixed indicate the parts of the Alps to which each locality belongs—M., Maritime; C., Cottian; G., Grecian; P., Pennine; L., Lepontine; B., Bernese, or Helvetian; R., Rhetian; J., Julian; Car., Carniac.

Footnote 206:

The authorities on which these heights are given are—the Piedmontese Surveys (P. S.), as published in 1845, in the Work entitled “Le Alpi che cingono l’Italia,” 1 vol. 8vo.; the Austrian Survey (A. S.), as given in the splendid Maps, published by the Austrian Government, of the Regno Lombardo-Veneto, in 84 sheets; and the Swiss Trigonometrical Survey, by Eichman, 1 vol. 4to., 1846.

Footnote 207:

The first eight passes are only fit for foot-passengers, and in certain seasons for mules; the remaining eleven offer carriage-roads, and are generally open at all seasons of the year, with the exception of the Stelvio.

Footnote 208:

Heights taken from the list published in the French “Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes,” converted from metres into English feet.

Footnote 209:

Heights determined by the French expedition under Captains Peytier and Boblaye, and published in the “Connaissance des Temps” for 1839.

Footnote 210:

The heights in the Sikim Himalaya are the results of the observations of Colonel Waugh, Director of the Trigonometrical Survey of India. See “Journal of As. Soc. of Bengal,” Nov. 1848.

Footnote 211:

For Lieut. Strachey’s observations during his very interesting journey to the Sacred Lakes of Manasarowar, &c., see “Journal of As. Soc. of Bengal,” Aug. 1848.

Footnote 212:

See Hooker’s “Journal of Botany,” May, 1849.

Footnote 213:

The heights followed by the letters A. C. have been taken from Humboldt’s “Asie Centrale.”

Footnote 214:

The heights given on Captain Vidal’s authority are taken from the elaborate Admiralty Surveys of Madeira, the Canaries, and Azores, partly executed under his direction; the latter not yet published.

Footnote 215:

The heights given in this table on Mr. Pentland’s authority have been taken from his Map of “The Laguna of Titicaca, and of the Valleys of Yucay, Collao, and Desaguadero,” published in 1848.

Footnote 216:

As stated in the text, vol. i., p. 155. The height here assigned to the Peak of Aconcagua differs 700 feet from that given by Captain Fitzroy. A re-calculation, however, of his elements has led us to adopt a much greater elevation for the giant of the Chilian Andes than given by that talented officer.

Captain Fitzroy’s observations place the summit of the Peak of Aconcagua, which on his chart is incorrectly designated as a volcano, in lat. 32° 38ʹ 30ʺ, long. 70° 00ʹ 30ʺ W., or 23ʹ 23ʺ N., and 100ʹ 45ʺ E. of Valparaiso, or its nearest distance about 88 9-10 geographical miles. From a station near Captain Fitzroy’s, at Valparaiso, Captain Beechy found the angle of elevation of Aconcagua, by several very careful observations, to be 1° 55ʹ 45ʺ, the distance from this station to the Peak being 88·74 geographical miles. From a discussion of all these data, the compiler of this table has deduced for the height of Aconcagua 23,910 feet above the sea.

Transcriber’s Note

This book uses inconsistent spelling and hyphenation, which were retained in the ebook version. Some corrections have been made to the text, including normalizing punctuation and capitilization, replacing ditto marks with the text they represent, and correcting the spelling of Index entries to match the spelling in the main text. Where incorrect page number references were found in the Index, these were corrected. Several instances of Antartic or antartic were changed to Antarctic or antarctic. Further corrections are noted below:

p. 8: Maratime Chain -> Maritime Chain p. 15: William Herschell -> William Herschel Footnote 7: earth’s equaor -> earth’s equator Footnote 7: The inequalties -> The inequalities Footnote 7: Connection of Physical Sciences -> Connection of the Physical Sciences p. 23: from the strata were they abound -> from the strata where they abound p. 26: mosily of extinct genera -> mostly of extinct genera p. 29: horizonial position -> horizontal position Footnote 9: mark the boundery -> mark the boundary p. 32: specificially the same -> specifically the same p. 38: perpetural fire -> perpetual fire p. 45: Immediately counected -> Immediately connected p. 47: mountains of this foam -> mountains of this form p. 51: The chains terminates -> The chains terminates p. 52: have been permament -> have been permanent p. 52: tranverse valleys -> transverse valleys p. 53: in the giaciers of the Andes -> in the glaciers of the Andes p. 62: Hindo Coosh -> Hindoo Coosh p. 66: that rocks and pillars rises -> that rocks and pillars rise p. 69: wondering Kirghi -> wandering Kirghi p. 73: greographical miles -> geographical miles p. 77: remains of animals that no longer exists -> remains of animals that no longer exist p. 80: most nothern part -> most northern part p. 88: sinks abrubtly -> sinks abruptly p. 89: tops of the monntains -> tops of the mountains p. 92: suceptible of cultivation -> susceptible of cultivation p. 93: are connnected by -> are connected by p. 99: once equal to Chimboroza in height -> once equal to Chimborazo in height p. 104: which is situate -> which is situated p. 120: thoughout its length -> throughout its length p. 121: Mexico and it lake -> Mexico and its lake p. 123: Culf of California -> Gulf of California p. 127: the forests consists of -> the forests consist of p. 131: a considerable intervals -> a considerable interval p. 132: over wide area -> over wide areas p. 132: they cccupy a tract -> they occupy a tract p. 136: idea can be formad -> idea can be formed p. 136: Tropic of Capricon -> Tropic of Capricorn p. 136: frem New Holland -> from New Holland p. 140: along the the whole coast -> along the whole coast p. 142: nothern shores -> northern shores p. 143: it seldem rises -> it seldom rises p. 147: of the the crust -> of the crust p. 153: Hot spings -> Hot springs p. 154: fall of the barometer, frogs, and unusual sultriness -> all of the barometer, fogs, and unusual sultriness p. 156: are continned after -> are continued after p. 158: on which they moor their boots -> on which they moor their boats p. 168: of these mettalloids -> of these metalloids Footnote 98: the unforseen result -> the unforeseen result Footnote 99: Suppposing -> Supposing p. 175: Rio de Janeira -> Rio de Janeiro Footnote 112: J. Scott Russel -> J. Scott Russell p. 195: the waves becomes higher -> the waves become higher p. 197: where it not so -> were it not so p. 199: closing quote position assumed ... to summer heat;” p. 206: the Alantic virtually enters -> the Atlantic virtually enters p. 219: the Nile recieves -> the Nile receives p. 226: a greater volumne of water -> a greater volume of water p. 228: covored with snow -> covered with snow p. 234: insersected with rivers -> intersected with rivers p. 242: branches as its mouth -> branches at its mouth p. 251: cannot br crossed -> cannot be crossed p. 267: Carribean islands -> Caribbean islands p. 273: whereas the the cold -> whereas the cold p. 281: only resolve bodies -> only resolves bodies p. 285: polarization of the atmosphese -> polarization of the atmosphere p. 286: positive elctricty increases -> positive electricity increases p. 296: two upheavels makes -> two upheavals makes p. 298: combination witht he oxygen -> combination with the oxygen p. 315: North Amerian -> North American p. 315: which are Amercian -> which are American p. 316: The themometer sometimes rises -> The thermometer sometimes rises p. 322: Rosa indica odoratissima, tumeric, oil of Bixa orellana -> Rosa indica odoratissima, turmeric, oil of Bixa orellana p. 337: crimson blosssom -> crimson blossom p. 344: in the Guatimala forest -> in the Guatemala forest p. 344: logwood, mohogony, and many other -> logwood, mahogony, and many other p. 349: which cones the -> with cones the p. 352: of the cyptogamous kinds -> of the cryptogamous kinds p. 352: aborescent vegetation -> arborescent vegetation p. 358: tranverse incision -> transverse incision p. 362: and alse in vast fields -> and also in vast fields p. 371: their are eight distinct regions -> there are eight distinct regions p. 374: of the mackarel tribe -> of the mackerel tribe p. 383: Emydians or tortoises, and turtle -> Emydians or tortoises, and turtles p. 384: and and form a link -> and form a link p. 386: from Bazil to Carolina -> from Brazil to Carolina p. 390: at an elevavation of -> at an elevation of p. 391: Testuno Græca -> Testudo Græca p. 392: the Indian Arcipelago -> the Indian Archipelago p. 395: More than three-fourth of the species -> More than three fourths of the species p. 395: Aquilla albicilla -> Aquila albicilla p. 396: catching moluscas and small fish -> catching mollusca and small fish p. 399: allied to to the grouse family -> allied to the grouse family p. 401: Oriols of vivid colours -> Orioles of vivid colours p. 407: Straits of Magellen -> Straits of Magellan p. 410: unexplored regions of the inferior -> unexplored regions of the interior p. 413: the restlessness of carniverous animal -> the restlessness of carniverous animals p. 420: also of the Crimera -> also of the Crimea p. 422: which serves as a parchute -> which serves as a parachute p. 425: a new speeies of -> a new species of p. 427: known as the prarie-dog -> known as the prairie dog p. 434: a characteristeric of many -> a characteristic of many Footnote 186: wombats bnrrow -> wombats burrow p. 452: are absoutely without grass -> are absolutely without grass p. 457: knowlege is power -> knowledge is power p. 457: ides are disseminated -> ideas are disseminated p. 458: stationary or retrogade -> stationary or retrograde p. 466: ancient Ninevah -> ancient Nineveh p. 472: years that preceeded -> years taht preceded p. 473: particlar and extraordinary -> particular and extraordinary Footnote 208: Annuaire du Bureau des Laugitutdes -> Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes p. 500: opposums and other marsupial -> opossums and other marsupial p. 506: soluble in alchol -> soluble in alcohol p. 507: The anniseed tree -> The aniseed tree p. 508: Synonyne of Pandanus -> Synonym of Pandanus p. 518: Erom the Gr. -> From the Gr. p. 519: Fram the Gr. -> From the Gr. p. 520: a genu of mollusks -> a genus of mollusks p. 520: Smybne´nsis -> Smyrne´nsis p. 524: Grom the Gr. -> From the Gr.

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