XIX. THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS
BY A. L. MUMM
[Sidenote: General Topography.]
The Rocky Mountains form the backbone of the North-American Continent, and the Canadian Rockies extend from the United States frontier in a north-westerly direction for some hundreds of miles. Of the regions which are of interest to mountaineers, the northern limit is marked by Mount Sir Alexander, a peak which rises a few miles to the west of the continental divide or watershed, a little over 400 miles, as the crow flies (very roughly speaking), from the frontier, and from 60 to 80 miles beyond Mount Robson. The country situated between these two mountains is full of interest for explorers and climbers, but is at present very imperfectly known and mapped. From Mount Robson southward we possess mountaineering knowledge which is extensive, but not quite continuous and far from complete, as far as Mount Assiniboine, a distance in a direct line of about 200 miles (another rough estimate). Till quite recently nothing of alpine or mountaineering interest was known to exist in the main chain of the Canadian Rockies south of Mount Assiniboine, but, in the course of an official survey of the watershed between Kicking Horse Pass and the frontier (1913-16), no less than four groups of mountains, clad in snow fields and glaciers, and containing three peaks of over 11,000 feet, were discovered. No climbing has as yet been attempted on any of them. They extend for about 40 miles beyond the Assiniboine group.[36]
The continental watershed pursues a very tortuous and irregular course, and is probably at least half as long again as the ‘air-line’ length of the range. East of the watershed the mountain region extends for a comparatively short distance and ends with remarkable abruptness. Through much of its length there is a succession of minor groups and ranges situated close to the main chain, but separated from it by the upper valleys of the great rivers, which show a striking tendency to run parallel to it. These possess some extensive snow fields and considerable glaciers, and will probably receive attention from climbers in the near future, but very little is known of them at present. Beyond them is a belt of mountains, not attaining to the snow-level but often rocky and bold in outline, which reaches to the edge of the great central plain, and presents to the traveller approaching it by the railway the appearance of a solid impenetrable wall. There are no snow fields or glaciers in this outer belt so far as I am aware. (It may be as well to say here once for all that this qualification is often unavoidable in dealing with an area so extensive and little known as the mountain region of Canada; it is impossible to give any information at all without putting forward as probable statements which may turn out to be erroneous.) To the west of the watershed, on the other hand, the country is continuously mountainous all the way to the Pacific Coast, three hundred miles away, and there are several ranges, alpine in size and character, standing quite apart from and independent of the main chain. Of these the Selkirks, an immense mountain system, enclosed by the great loops of the Columbia and Kootenay Rivers, are by far the largest and most important.
The outstanding feature of all this region is that till quite modern times it was entirely uninhabited, and for the most part still remains so. Indians in old days came up into the mountains to hunt, and to some extent for purposes of trade, but they did not live among them. Two or three outposts of the Hudson Bay Company, long since abandoned, were the only permanent human habitations. This differentiates mountain travel in Canada in many ways--as soon as the immediate neighbourhood of the railway is left--from mountain travel in the Caucasus or the Himalaya, particularly with respect to food supplies, roads and methods of transport. In the high mountain region the railways have had little or no effect on the character of the country, except within a few miles of the line.
The Rockies are now accessible by two lines of railway. Of these the Grand Trunk Pacific was completed early in 1914. It enters the mountains by the valley of the Athabasca River, and at the point where it leaves the Athabasca to ascend to the Yellowhead Pass (17 miles away) stands Jasper, destined to become a tourist centre, to which we shall return later. The other line, the Canadian Pacific, which has been in existence more than thirty years, crosses the main chain at the Kicking Horse Pass, and then, after descending into the deep trench of the Columbia River, passes through the very heart of the Selkirk Range. Climbing has now been carried on continuously and systematically for nearly thirty years among the mountains adjacent to this railway both in the main chain and in the Selkirks. It will be convenient to deal at once with the region here indicated, which will be referred to as the C.P.R. district. It is the only region where at the present moment conditions prevail at all resembling those of the European Alps, and climbing within its limits is quite a different affair from climbing elsewhere in Canada.
A climber wishing to see something of the mountains of Canada, who has not ample time at his disposal after arriving among them--I should be inclined to say at the very least a month--would be well advised to confine himself to the C.P.R. district, making, perhaps, one short trip of the kind mentioned below. He would find enough, and more than enough, to occupy him.
[Sidenote: The ‘C.P.R.’ District.]
Taking the main chain first, the extent of the C.P.R. district may be taken to be the area dealt with in Baedeker’s Canada (1907), which contains about ten pages packed with accurate and highly condensed information. The alpine particulars given are mainly based on chapters i. to ix. of In the Heart of the Canadian Rockies, by the Rev. Sir James Outram, who has been over almost the whole district and has supplemented his own experiences by copious extracts from the original narratives of Dr. Collie, Mr. Wilcox, and the members of the Appalachian Mountain Club.[37]
The railway enters the mountains from the east by the valley of the Bow River, the principal constituent of the South Saskatchewan, and soon afterwards arrives at Banff. The excellent C.P.R. Banff Springs Hotel is the most frequented place in the Rockies; but Banff itself is not a mountaineering centre, though Dr. Collie discovered a good rock climb in the neighbourhood on Mount Edith, and doubtless others might be found.[38] It is, however, of interest to climbers as the site of the Club House of the Alpine Club of Canada (of which more anon), and as the starting-point for Mount Assiniboine. This peak is the highest to the south of the railway, and its ascent is a very fine expedition. Given favourable conditions it can be reached and climbed, and the return journey to Banff completed, within six days. This involves travelling with a camp outfit and pack-horses; but it would be well worth while for a climber visiting Canada for the first time to make one such trip (and this one is probably the most repaying), for, besides being pleasant and interesting in itself, it would give him much useful experience in case he contemplated returning another year, and making a more extended journey off the beaten track.
Soon after leaving Banff, the valley of the Bow River runs parallel with the main chain, passing Storm Mountain and Mount Ball, which can be reached via the Vermilion Pass in two days from Banff.[39]
Thirty-five miles beyond Banff is Laggan, where the railway leaves the Bow River, and ascends by Bath Creek to the Kicking Horse Pass. Laggan[40] is the station for Lake Louise, where there is another first-class C.P.R. hotel (3 miles from the railway), the principal centre for the mountains on the south side of the line. Several of these can be climbed from the hotel itself; and there may be a permanent summer camp for the use of climbers in the valley of the Ten Peaks. If not, it is easy to have a tent, provisions, etc., sent there from the hotel.[41] A similar arrangement could be made either at Lake Louise or Field for a camp at Lake O’Hara, and this would bring within easy reach all the other peaks which deserve attention, except those of the Ottertail Range.
The last-mentioned group is best attacked from Field, 16 miles beyond Laggan and 8 miles to the west of the Kicking Horse Pass, where there is another C.P.R. hotel, the Mount Stephen House, the best centre for visiting the mountains on the north side of the railway. Besides the hotel at Field there are a chalet hotel on Emerald Lake and two permanent summer camps, one at the Takakkaw Falls; the other, Camp Warren, I have not been able to locate. It is, of course, also possible to approach the mountains of the Waputik Range by making a short trip up the Bow River, but the Yoho and Emerald Valleys seem to be more attractive. From the climber’s point of view these mountains are distinctly inferior in interest to those on the south side of the line, and the same may be said of Mount Hector, the highest summit between the Bow and Pipestone Valleys. East of the Pipestone the mountains of the Ptarmigan Lake district, just opposite Laggan, should be worth a visit.[42]
The best general map that I can discover of this part of the C.P.R. district is the southern sheet of a map of “The Rocky Mountains between lat. 51° and lat. 53°,” published by the Department of the Interior. Unfortunately, it comes to an end four or five miles short of Mount Assiniboine. The part of it which is material for present purposes is given in a pamphlet issued by the C.P.R. Company, entitled The Challenge of the Mountains. The scale is 4 miles to an inch. The large-scale maps accompanying the Report mentioned on p. 572 show the mountains actually forming the watershed (and this includes the Assiniboine group) southward from Vulture Col and Mount Gordon in the Waputik Range.
Coming now to the Selkirks, Glacier House (about 90 miles by rail beyond Field and 3 miles beyond Rogers
Pass, where the line crosses the crest of the range), is probably the best of the centres of the C.P.R. district, in so far that the largest number of expeditions can be carried out from the hotel itself, or with only one night out. In this respect Glacier House has very few rivals even in Switzerland. Baedeker gives a short summary of these expeditions and an excellent little map of the mountains, which literally surround the hotel.
[Sidenote: The Selkirks.]
But much more than Baedeker is available. Besides Mr. Palmer’s exhaustive book (of which more presently), no visitor to the Selkirks should omit to secure a copy of Mr. A. O. Wheeler’s Selkirk Range and the accompanying map in four large sheets, which covers a large portion of the range on a scale of practically 1 mile to an inch. The topographical information secured by Mr. Wheeler during his survey is embodied in the form of a Climbers’ Guide in chapter ii. of The Selkirk Mountains, a Guide for Mountain Pilgrims and Climbers, where very full particulars are given as to the number of days and nights required for each expedition, whether pack-horses are available, etc. Huts or cabins are mentioned at Rogers Pass and the Caves of Cheops. There seem to be no huts or summer camps south of the railway, and it must be borne in mind that pack-horses cannot be taken southward into the mountains direct from Glacier House.[43]
The limits in the Selkirks of the C.P.R. district can be easily grasped by examining together the map in Baedeker and that in the Climbers’ Guide (difficult to read, but useful as showing at a glance the area comprised in Mr. Wheeler’s large maps). It will be seen at once that the latter covers a wider area, and in particular has a large extension to the west and south-west, reaching even beyond the Columbia River to the Gold Range--a quite independent group. This extension seems to come well within the C.P.R. district: one or two of the expeditions in it can be taken from Glacier House; the remainder are treated in chapter vi. of the Guide in connection with Revelstoke, which accordingly must be added to the list of C.P.R. centres. Since the publication of the Guide fine climbing has been accomplished on Mount Moloch and other peaks reached by the north branch of the Illecillewaet River.[44] The extension of Mr. Wheeler’s map to the north is unimportant; the notices in the Guide of Mountain Creek and Mount Pearce are not encouraging, and, so far as Glacier House is concerned, the crest of the Hermit Range forms the limit of ordinary mountaineering in this direction. To the south, on the other hand, both maps extend to regions which can only be reached by a journey of some days, and several of the expeditions described in the Guide clearly lie outside the category now under consideration. No hard-and-fast line can be drawn, and the traveller must use his own judgment; only, if he is at all tied as to time, let him bear in mind that estimates of a journey’s length by little-trodden trails are necessarily very rough, and that what is called a week’s trip may easily turn out to require two or three days less or more.
[Sidenote: Guides and Equipment.]
Swiss guides, to the number of six or eight, are imported every summer by the C.P.R. Company, and endeavours are being made to induce some of them to settle permanently at Edelweiss, near Golden, on the Columbia. They are distributed during the season among the four or five centres which have been mentioned. Anyone desiring their services, the charge for which is (or used to be) $5 per day, should communicate as early as possible with the hotel from which he intends to climb. A mountaineer arriving in the C.P.R. district with his ordinary Swiss outfit could thus enjoy plenty of climbing without any special preparations. Even ropes and ice-axes are supplied at Glacier House, and, probably, at the other centres also. The Hudson Bay Company’s excellent blankets can be procured at Banff, and for a single odd night out bedding could probably be borrowed.
There is also plenty of scope for guideless climbing. Some of the expeditions are undoubtedly difficult, and only suitable for an exceptionally strong unguided party; but three reasonably experienced amateurs could accomplish a great deal. As compared with the main chain, the Selkirks offer more snow and ice work and less rock work, and there seem to be more climbs of only moderate difficulty than in the Rockies on the south side of the railway. (For a general comparison of the Selkirks with the Rockies, see Palmer, op. cit. pp. 3-10.)
[Sidenote: The Northern Selkirks.]
Turning now to remoter and less known ground in the Selkirks, to the north of the railway, beyond the Hermit and Clach na Cooden Ranges, a very considerable mountain area is enclosed in the Great Bend of the Columbia River. Pack-horses cannot be used in it effectively, and the conditions of travel are exceptional and extremely difficult; but a large part of it, probably the most interesting part, was explored with extraordinary perseverance by Mr. Howard Palmer’s party from 1908 to 1912. Only in the latter year, on their fifth visit, did they succeed in attaining the summit of Mount Sir Sandford, the monarch of the region. For further information the reader is referred to part iii. of Mr. Palmer’s Mountaineering and Exploration in the Selkirks. Part ii. of this fascinating book is equally valuable as a guide to the mountains immediately south of Glacier House, which have already been noticed. Beyond these a still more extensive region remains to be dealt with.
It will have been noticed that Mr. Wheeler’s map, breaking off abruptly along most of its southern margin in the very middle of untrodden snow fields, is itself a challenge to further exploration. His work has been carried a short distance further by the ascents of Mount Beaver and Mount Duncan, and some climbs in the Battle Range, but the regions beyond are still, so far as I am aware, a terra incognita, and I am quite unable to say how much further the southern portion of the Selkirks proper continues its alpine character.
[Sidenote: The Purcell Range.]
Between this southern portion and the main chain of the Rockies is another large mountainous tract forming part of the Selkirks system and known as the Purcell Range, comprising the Dogtooth, Spillimacheen and South Purcell Ranges. A rough idea of its extent and situation may be obtained from the sketch map accompanying Dr. Longstaff’s paper in the Canadian Alpine Journal,[45] bearing in mind that Mounts Beaver and Duncan rise close to the watershed between the two rivers which also bear those names.
The Dogtooth Range appears to be sub-alpine, and is disposed of in chapter v. of the Guide; but from the Beaver-Duncan divide to the neighbourhood of Wells Pass there is a continuous stretch of alpine country, which rivals in height, beauty and general interest the main Selkirk Range itself. The Spillimacheen Range has as yet hardly been touched, but south of Bugaboo Pass a series of energetic campaigns have, since 1910, been carried on from the Upper Columbia Valley. The district is far from being an ‘exhausted’ one, but the remarkable group of mountains situated between Horse Thief Creek and Toby Creek has been thoroughly explored and mapped.[46]
[Sidenote: Some Minor Ranges.]
It has been said that the range rapidly loses its interest to the south of Wells Pass, but it is rash to make such a statement in Canada, where the alpine area is being continually enlarged by fresh discoveries so rapidly that it is difficult to keep pace with them. In illustration of this, reference may here be made to an entirely unexpected alpine region found in 1912 in Vancouver Island, and to Dr. A. P. Coleman’s recent explorations in the Torngats (Labrador) on the other side of the continent.[47]
Another outlying district which deserves mention, though not so recent a discovery, is the Garibaldi Range, near Vancouver City.[48]
[Sidenote: The Main Chain from Laggan to Jasper.]
Returning now to the main chain, there is nothing to be added, so far as the south side of the C.P.R. is concerned, to what has been already said. There remains the main chain to the north, which falls naturally into two sections--that lying beyond the G.T.P. railway, and that situated between the two railways, the largest, and in many respects the most interesting, of all the areas with which we have to deal. This section, or rather that part of it lying south of the Athabasca Pass, was divided by Dr. Norman Collie[49] into four main groups: (1) The Balfour (or Waputik) group, between the Kicking Horse Pass and Howse Pass; (2) the Forbes group, between Howse Pass and Thompson Pass, 30 miles farther north; (3) the Columbia group, extending over the 35 miles from Thompson Pass to Fortress Lake Pass; (4) the Mount Hooker group, between the Fortress Lake Pass and the Athabasca Pass, 25 miles farther. Sir J. Outram’s divisions and subdivisions,[50] so far as they are carried, practically coincide with those of Dr. Collie. To these must now be added a fifth group, the mountains between the Athabasca and Yellowhead Passes, which may be called the Edith Cavell group. As far as the Athabasca Pass the range has a very definite western boundary consisting of the great trench of the Columbia River, and it is this portion of it which Sir J. Outram refers to when he says the Rockies are 60 miles in breadth. At the Athabasca Pass the range connects with the mass of mountains that separate the Columbia and Fraser River basins, and from this point northward no precise statement as to the breadth of the chain is possible.
Of the groups above mentioned the first falls within the C.P.R. district, and has been already dealt with; the second and third were the scene of much climbing and exploration from 1898 to 1902, in which the leading part was played by Dr. Collie. He and Mr. Stutfield have described his three expeditions in Climbs and Exploration in the Canadian Rockies, one of the Alpine classics of Canada. The whole of this exploratory work is well summarized in the second half (chapters x.-xv.) of Sir J. Outram’s book. Since that time the energies of pioneers have been diverted in other directions, and few, if any, additions have been made to our knowledge of the region.[51] The credit of having mapped it belongs to Dr. Collie; all subsequent maps are based on his; the only extensions of importance are due to Dr. A. P. Coleman.[52] A study of the records will show that there is still plenty of scope for exploration in groups 3 and 4, and if first ascents are not the principal object, groups 2, 3 and 4 probably offer as fine a field for climbing as any district in Canada.
Attempts have been made to approach the crest of the range from the west by the lateral valleys descending to the Columbia River, but the travelling proved to be exceptionally bad even for the Rockies, and this line of attack is only mentioned to be dismissed. The explorations above mentioned were carried on wholly on the eastern side of the range, and the route generally followed holds so important a place in mountaineering geography that it must be described in some detail. Starting from Laggan, it ascends the valley of the Bow River, running parallel to the Waputik Range, to the Bow Pass. Thence it descends into the basin of the North Saskatchewan by the south branch of that river (also called Bear Creek, and, more rarely, the Mistaya River), and leaves it again by the north branch. Both these streams, as their names suggest, also run parallel to the main chain. At the head of the north branch the Wilcox Pass leads to the valley of the Athabasca, which also runs nearly due north, and is followed till the G.T.P. Railway is reached at Jasper. The ‘air line’ from Laggan to Jasper is just 130 miles, and a good idea of the scale and character of the journey may be formed by comparing it with that from Chur to Martigny, which are almost precisely the same distance apart. Starting from Chur, the Vorderrhein represents the Upper Bow, and the Oberalp the Bow Pass. The Reuss corresponds to the North Saskatchewan, the Furca to Wilcox Pass, and the Rhone to the Athabasca. In each case the main chain is on the traveller’s left hand, while other ranges of varying size and importance rise on his right, though, unfortunately, the Rockies have nothing comparable to the Bernese Oberland. Of course there is no correspondence, in point of distance, between the intervening points. Very roughly speaking, it is 70 miles to Wilcox Pass, the valleys of the Upper Bow and the two branches of the Saskatchewan being each a little over 20 miles in length, while it is about 60 miles from Wilcox Pass to Jasper. The early explorers all started from Laggan, and only one of them, Dr. Coleman,[53] followed the route here described throughout its whole length. It is scarcely necessary to point out how enormously its importance and value have been enhanced by the construction of the second line of railway.
The groups mentioned above are progressively more imperfectly known as one moves farther north, mainly owing to the difficulty of time and the necessity which formerly existed of a long return journey. The mountains north of Wilcox Pass can now be much more rapidly and easily reached from Jasper. Those which enclose the Whirlpool River are still almost untouched, and would well repay a prolonged visit. The best line of attack for those on the left bank (the fifth or Edith Cavell group) would probably be found by going through the depression to the west of Mount Edith Cavell. The ascent from the Whirlpool trail to it is steep, but a good packer could get horses up it. Mount Edith Cavell was approached by this route and climbed by Mr. E. D. Holway in 1915. Some of the mountains to the west of the depression look difficult.[54] On the opposite side of the Whirlpool, which in its ordinary condition is fordable here, a large valley running deeply into the mountains on the right bank looks well adapted to facilitate the exploration of the blank space on Dr. Coleman’s map between the Whirlpool and Wood Rivers; horses could probably be taken up it. The starting-point for this valley or for the Edith Cavell depression can be reached in three days from Jasper.[55]
Close to the Yellowhead Pass, Mount Fitzwilliam, a prominent rock peak, must be of exceptional interest as a view-point, and may be a good climb as well.
[Sidenote: The Groups East of the Main Chain.]
Of the groups situated to the east of the main chain, the one between the Bow and Saskatchewan Rivers can be traversed by the Pipestone Creek and Pass and Siffleur Creek. This route, which reaches the Saskatchewan a few miles below the confluence of its north and south branches, was several times used as an alternative to that by the Bow Pass; and there are transverse passes from the Upper Bow Valley to both the Pipestone and the Siffleur Creeks, but the early explorers seem to have found no great inducements to linger in this region.[56]
A much larger block of mountains is that which separates the Saskatchewan from the Athabasca, and gives rise to its important tributary, the Brazeau; its southern portion was crossed in three or four directions by Dr. Coleman,[57] who is the only authority on it that I have come across. In the northern portion, between Mount Brazeau and the Athabasca, is Maligne Lake, reached in 1908 by Mrs. Schæffer’s party,[58] the first white visitors, via Poboktan Creek, and probably also accessible by a pass nearly opposite the mouth of the Whirlpool Valley. The few people who have visited Maligne Lake are remarkably enthusiastic about it, and, judging from photographs, the peaks round its head should prove very interesting to climbers. Much more is likely to be heard of them in the near future, as the lower end of the lake is only fifteen miles from Jasper by the valley--hitherto impassable for horses--of the Maligne River, up which a trail will certainly be made very shortly, if it has not been already completed, and the results of further investigation will have an important effect on the reputation of Jasper as a centre.
[Sidenote: The Main Chain North of the G.T.P.]
We now come to the mountains north of the G.T.P. Railway, which spread over an extensive and indefinite area, of which our present knowledge may be described as considerable but patchy. Mount Robson, the magnet which first drew explorers here in the pre-railway days, is, and must remain, the principal centre of interest. It is the great alpine asset of the G.T.P., and an hotel will probably soon arise somewhere near Mount Robson Station, opposite the mouth of the Grand Forks River, a tributary of the Fraser. Up the Grand Forks Valley the base of its western face--the best line of ascent--can now be reached in a long half-day, by rail and trail, from Jasper. Very full information with regard to this great peak, the highest in the Canadian Rockies, and its satellites and surroundings, is now available, but it would take too long to deal with it here.[59] Swift Current Creek and two or three other valleys descending into the Fraser below the Grand Forks were visited by Mr. Holway in 1915 and 1916; he reports: “A wonderful field for exploration, especially in the big bend of the Fraser.” The same energetic explorer paid a brief visit in 1916 to the Cariboo Range, on the other side of the Fraser, probably the most important of the independent minor ranges.[60]
The main watershed immediately to the north of Mount Robson (Robson Pass) consists of a long flat plain, so level that the water issuing from the Robson Glacier flows both ways. All climbing hitherto has been done from camps on this plain, which was formerly inaccessible, except by actual climbing, from the much lower Grand Forks Valley, and attainable only by a roundabout route from the east via the Moose River and Pass. It can now be reached via the Grand Forks by a trail engineered in 1913, in seven or eight hours from Mount Robson Station. If an ascent of Mount Robson itself be the sole object, it would probably be the quickest way--as above suggested--to go up to a bivouac direct from the Grand Forks Valley; but the higher camping-ground on the divide is much the best centre for exploring the neighbourhood generally. The round trip by the Moose River route is also worth making for its own sake, especially if time permits of some climbing being done on the way. There are interesting expeditions to be made near the Moose Pass: Resplendent Valley, at the head of the West Fork of the Moose River, is well worth a visit, and, though the actual line of the divide has been laid down by Mr. Wheeler, there is still exploratory work to be done among the mountains between the East Fork and Grant Creek.
For the whole of this region Mr. Wheeler’s map[61] is indispensable. The mountains facing Mount Robson immediately on the other side of the level plain above mentioned have all been climbed, but behind these there is a remarkable region which is still very little known. The range duplicates itself in a curious way difficult to explain on paper, enclosing a low plateau, along which, strange to say, the main divide seems to run. On the eastern side of the plateau is the Chown group, first visited by Dr. Collie’s party in 1911.[62] Our further knowledge of the country in this direction is mainly due to Donald Phillips, who has made a rough sketch-map extending considerably farther north,[63] and conducted three expeditions farther still, through very difficult country, to Mount Sir Alexander[64] and Jarvis Pass. This is the farthest north yet reached by climbers. Whether there are any alpine regions beyond it is, I believe, quite uncertain.
North of the Yellowhead Pass there are no blocks of mountains to the east of the main chain, and definitely separated from it, of a character at all comparable to those found between the G.T.P. and the C.P.R.; but there is a considerable area lying just outside the limits of Mr. Wheeler’s map, and shown as a blank on Dr. Collie’s map, closely connected with the divide itself, which would certainly repay farther exploration, and is within fairly easy reach of Jasper. There are three possible lines of attack: First it may be possible to approach it from the west, by the Miette River; secondly, there is the valley of the Snaring River, which joins the Athabasca a few miles below Jasper: whatever else he may find there, all the charm of the unexpected awaits the first visitor to its mysterious upper basin. It is said to be very difficult, if not impossible, of access, but the attempt would be well worth making. Anyone contemplating it should, before starting, make the ascent of Pyramid Peak at the head of Jasper Lake, and carefully note what he sees from there. Lastly, there is the much larger Stony River,[65] which enters the Athabasca below Jasper Lake, and should provide a happy hunting-ground to a climber with topographical inclinations. The southern branch already referred to calls most urgently for attention, but higher up the main valley several fine glaciers offer tempting roads to the skyline. A pass at the head of the main Stony leads to the Smoky River, which it strikes just opposite the Chown group, and thus supplies an attractive though lengthy alternative route to the Robson region. There are some wild and striking rock peaks on the right hand of the traveller crossing this pass from Jasper, but apart from these, there is nothing beyond the Stony River of any interest to a climber.
An attempt on that remarkable mountain, the Roche Miette, is recorded in the Canadian Alpine Journal, ix. 141.
[Sidenote: Modes and Manners of Travel.]
Travel away from the railway, as has already been indicated, means travelling with a camp outfit and a pack-train. The business of ‘packing’ is a highly organized one, and it is a vocation which, in untrodden country at least, makes as severe demands as that of a guide, and more varied in character, on the courage and resourcefulness of those who follow it. The packers, indeed, hold a position which presents many analogies to that of guides in the Alps, and a first-rate packer, like a first-rate guide, is a treasure beyond all price. It may be as well to mention here, for the benefit of those who have not visited the Rockies, that they are a very independent set of men, and that the social distinctions which are universally taken for granted in Europe simply do not exist for them. The sooner and more completely the traveller can get himself into the same mental attitude on this point, the more pleasantly will he fare. He will also discover, if he keeps his eyes and ears open, that there is a very well-defined, unwritten code of camp manners, of which the outstanding rules are: Never grumble; never be impatient; never tell anybody to do anything, always ask him.
The usual way of making arrangements with a packer is to inform him, as long as possible beforehand, of the number of the party and the proposed duration of the trip. He then takes charge of everything, providing saddle-horses, pack-horses, tents, cooking equipment, provisions, etc., for a fixed sum per day: the only thing which the traveller is expected to provide is his bedding. In the C.P.R. district packing is now almost wholly in the hands of the Brewster Transfer Co. Ltd., whose head-quarters are at Lake Louise. They have a good reputation, and are said to provide good men. Their usual rates are--for one person $15 per day; for two persons $12.50 for each person; and $10 per day for three persons, “with liberal reduction for larger parties.” Outside the C.P.R. district packing is still a matter of individual private enterprise; some of the packers who formerly worked in the C.P.R. district have migrated to Jasper, and probably others will make it their head-quarters as time goes on; but at present the principal centre of the packers of Northern Alberta is at Lac St. Anne, near Edmonton. Their ordinary charges are about the same as those of the Brewster Company. (N.B.--Written in 1913; charges may now be higher.)
[Sidenote: Outfit.]
A few suggestions with regard to some of the above-mentioned items may be useful.
1. Having once tried the experiment of dispensing with saddle-horses, partly on general ascetic principles, partly with a view to getting into training, I have no hesitation in saying that it is a great mistake. If one keeps with the rest of the outfit,[66] it is dreary work; if one goes at one’s own time and pace, trouble arises when rivers have to be crossed--either the traveller has to wait for the outfit or the outfit for the traveller (and to check a lot of pack-horses when on the move is a tiresome matter); while it is surprisingly easy for the unwary pedestrian to lose touch with the outfit altogether, even on such a well-trodden trail as the Jasper trail in pre-railway days.
2. The traveller should make sure that one of the tents is a teepee.[67] During a spell of cold, wet weather (and even snow is sometimes encountered in August at quite low levels) a teepee makes things much less intolerable. A packer with a large and varied experience of both summer and winter travel told me he preferred a large ordinary tent with a stove. I have no personal experience of this, but one or the other is essential. The other tents provided by the packers satisfy all ordinary requirements, but are sometimes inadequate under stress of prolonged wet weather. I once took a Whymper tent made of extra light material, which, besides being absolutely watertight, possessed two great advantages: first, it had a floor; secondly, it could be put up immediately on arriving in camp: other tents have to wait till the necessary poles can be cut down, and a good many other things have to be attended to before this can be done. The drawback to it--a serious one--was that the poles were inconveniently long for packing purposes: this might perhaps be got over by making the poles with two joints instead of one. A small Mummery tent for making a flying camp is not required so often as alpine experience would lead one to expect, but on the whole it is worth taking.
3. As to clothing, the same sort is required as in the Alps. It is well to bear in mind that one spends more time--generally much more time--‘on the trail’ than in climbing, and heavily nailed climbing boots are not very suitable for riding; they are apt to stick in the stirrups, which might easily be a source of great danger in case of a fall. Shooting boots with ordinary (not projecting) nails are much better for an ordinary day’s travel. Gloves are useful in riding through thick forest, and a silk neckerchief is some protection against mosquitoes. Fortnum & Mason, Jermyn Street, London, have a good camp boot which is also useful for this purpose.
Either a mackintosh or a suit of ‘oilies’ is indispensable for riding in wet weather. ‘Oilies’ are a more complete protection against rain, but difficult to get in and out of quickly, and appallingly hot when the character of the trail makes it necessary to dismount and walk. On the whole, a mackintosh is to be preferred.
For bedding, a couple of blankets are all that is required in fine weather; spruce boughs make a perfect mattress. But there is much to be said in favour of a camp-bed, especially if the tent has no floor to it. With an X-bed, a sleeping-bag and a blanket any weather can be faced with equanimity, and the extra weight of the bed is not a matter of importance. It is much more necessary that the packages containing one’s personal baggage should be tightly packed, compact and easy to handle, than that they should be light. A couple of suit-cases (preferably of crushed cane) not more than 26 inches long, hold all that is wanted for a two months’ trip, and go well on each side of a pack-saddle. A chilamchi[68] of the Indian type is useful, but rather unwieldy; it is easy to get a rather smaller basin (preferably not enamelled) at the Army and Navy Stores, and have a leather case specially made for it.
4. Camping out is very extensively practised in Canada, and it is quite unnecessary to think of taking out any special luxuries from England in the way of provisions. Anything of that nature, also whisky of excellent quality, and cigars (good and cheap), can be obtained at the Hudson Bay Company’s Stores at Edmonton or Calgary. As to provisions generally, packers usually have a very good idea of what is wanted; but if one has any special preferences--e.g. for cocoa or coffee over tea--it is as well to mention them.
[Sidenote: Season.]
The season for climbing in Canada and weather conditions generally are, roughly speaking, similar to those in the Alps; but the season closes rather earlier, and the spell of fine weather which is so often met with in the Alps early in September does not seem to occur there. When well-trodden ground is left, it must be borne in mind that rivers are more likely to be troublesome early in the summer (i.e. till towards the end of July) than later on; but quite insignificant creeks may suddenly become impassable obstacles for a day or two at any time. Trails, moreover, which are not regularly used often deteriorate, and, as was remarked above, snowstorms sometimes make travel temporarily impossible even in August. The moral of all which is, that it is rash to try and work out cut-and-dried plans beforehand, so far as dates and times are concerned.
[Sidenote: The Annual Camps.]
No account of mountaineering in Canada would be complete which omitted to make mention of the Alpine Club of Canada, and the annual camps of its members in the mountains, which indeed have become the outstanding feature of mountaineering as practised by Canadians themselves. They are usually held towards the end of July, and last for eight or ten days. They are necessarily situated near one or other of the railways, but their area is sometimes extended by the formation of subsidiary camps, and parties for more distant expeditions are frequently formed when the camp breaks up. A climber intending to make a first acquaintance with the Rockies could not do so in a pleasanter and more profitable manner than by paying a visit to one of these camps, and for this and many other reasons he would be well advised to become a member of the club. The cordial welcome offered to English mountaineers generally, and to members of the Alpine Club in particular, must be experienced in order to be properly appreciated, and it is hardly necessary to point out that the camps give an unequalled opportunity of obtaining first-hand information from the most authoritative sources with regard to topography, new expeditions, methods of travel and similar matters. If a visit to the camp was not practicable, the traveller, as a member of the club, could procure advice and assistance from its officials and other members which would otherwise be unattainable.
[Sidenote: Access, Cost, etc.]
With regard to the journey from England, the following particulars were given in the invitation issued to members of the (English) Alpine Club in 1913:
“The steamer fare, first class, from Liverpool to Montreal is £18, 10s. each way (£11 by one-class boats).
“The cost of return ticket, first class, from Montreal to Laggan (C.P.R.) is £13. The extra charge for a berth in a sleeping-car is £6 for the double journey.
“The cost of return ticket, first class, from Montreal to Mount Robson Station (G.T.P.) is £14. The extra charge for a berth in a sleeping-car is about £6, 10s. for the double journey.
“The time occupied by the journey from Liverpool to Mount Robson or Laggan Stations is ten to eleven days.”
N.B.--The voyage in one-class boats takes some days longer. A berth in the sleeping-car is practically indispensable. Two persons taking a ‘compartment’ can make the journey in far greater comfort at an additional expense of £2, 3s. each. The time and fares to Jasper would be rather less than to Mount Robson. The times from Liverpool to Laggan or Mount Robson Stations are short, and involve hard and continuous travelling. Full particulars, together with pamphlets, descriptive time-tables, etc., can be obtained at the London offices of the C.P.R. and the G.T.P., both in Cockspur Street, London, within one hundred yards of each other. The only alternative route to Montreal of any importance is that via New York, as to which see Baedeker’s Canada.
FOOTNOTES:
[36] See Report of the Commission appointed to determine the Boundary between the Provinces of Alberta and British Columbia, part i. (1917). It is illustrated by numerous photographs and accompanied by many large-scale maps. A summary of it is given in the Alpine Journal, xxxii.
[37] Climbs and Exploration in the Canadian Rockies, by H. E. M. Stutfield and J. Norman Collie; _Camping in the Canadian Rockies_, by W. D. Wilcox; Appalachia, vols. viii. to xi.
[38] E.g. Mount Louis, see Canadian Alpine Journal, viii. 79, ix. 32; and Alpine Journal, xxxii. 68; Mount Norquay, ibid. viii. 134.
[39] Canadian Alpine Journal, i. No. 1, p. 85, v. 122.
[40] The name of the station has been altered to Lake Louise, but it is known as Laggan in all the books.
[41] Cf. “A Glimpse of the Rockies,” Alpine Journal, xxiv. 229; Canadian Alpine Journal, x. 6.
[42] Canadian Alpine Journal, iv. 110, 142, vii. 58, 124.
[43] See, on this point, Alpine Journal, xxix. 95.
[44] Canadian Alpine Journal, v. 34, vii. 33, 48, ix. 17; Palmer, Mountaineering and Exploration in the Selkirks, ch. xx.
[45] Canadian Alpine Journal, iii. 26. See also Geographical Journal, xxxvii. 589, 601. Mr. Wheeler’s promised map does not seem to have materialized.
[46] Canadian Alpine Journal, iii. 14, 26, 147, iv. 98, vi. 103, 112, vii. 12, viii. 17, 43.
[47] Ibid. vii. 5, 67, viii. 34.
[48] Ibid. iv. 140, viii. 121.
[49] Climbing in the Himalaya and other Mountain Ranges, p. 144. The whole of this chapter on the Rockies is still well worth reading.
[50] Op. cit. pp. 15-16.
[51] Mr. Eaton made some new ascents in the Freshfield Range, a subdivision of group 2, in 1910. Canadian Alpine Journal, iii. 1.
[52] The Canadian Rockies, New and Old Trails. A delightful book.
[53] Op. cit., chapters xxvii.-xxix. See Canadian Alpine Journal, v. 84, 87.
[54] Alpine Journal, xxviii. 355; Canadian Alpine Journal, vi. 74, 84, vii. 63.
[55] Much new information as to the country round Jasper is contained in an article by Mr. M. P. Bridgland in the Canadian Alpine Journal, x. 70; and the recently published Guide to Jasper Park (see ibid. 105) would probably be found very useful.
[56] As to Mount Hector, see p. 576.
[57] See his map and book, chapters xvii., xxi. and xxvi.
[58] Canadian Alpine Journal, iv. 92; Old Indian Trails, by Mrs. Schæffer.
[59] Coleman, op. cit., chapters xxx.-xli.; Geographical Journal, xxxvi. 57, xxxix. 223; Alpine Journal, xxv. 293, xxvi. 5, 382, xxvii. 329, xxx. 358 (summary of the expeditions of 1913); Canadian Alpine Journal, ii. part i. 1, part ii. 1, 21 (ascent of G. B. Kinney and D. Phillips), iv. 1, vi. 11-73 (the expeditions of 1913).
[60] Canadian Alpine Journal, vii. 63, viii. 30, 133.
[61] Alpine Journal, xxvi. 404; Canadian Alpine Journal, iv.
[62] See his map, Geographical Journal, xxxix. 312.
[63] Canadian Alpine Journal, vi. 178, 186.
[64] Ibid. vi. 170, 188, vii. 82, ix. 79.
[65] See Dr. Collie’s map and papers, Alpine Journal, xxvi, 5; Geographical Journal, xxxix. 223.
[66] The whole caravan--men, horses, baggage, etc.--is generally compendiously referred to as an ‘outfit.’
[67] A large Indian tent in which a fire can be kept going.
[68] Metal basin in a leather case.
INDEX
Accidents, mountaineering, causes of, 149, 256
-- -- how to deal with, 264-7
-- -- prevention of, 256-78
-- -- their effect on others, 264
Afanasief’s 100 Kaukasus Gipfel cited, 509, 510
Ailments, 9
Alpine Club of Canada, annual camps of the, 590
-- Ski-ing, Calendar for, 402, 403, 456-70
Alps, the Dolomites of the Eastern, 47
-- the Eastern, 201
-- the High, hints for winter equipment for, 444-6
-- -- in spring, 456-68
-- -- in winter, 442-56
-- -- snow conditions in the, 446
-- the Southern, 47
Amateur mountaineer, the, 108, 109, 134, 135, 136
-- -- improvement in his skill, 105, 106
Anchor, the, 220, 223
Anchoring on a descent, 191, 192
Andorra, 559, 560
Aneroid, 98, 445
-- the Watkin, 535
Angle of lie of snow, the, 325, 326, 328, 329
-- -- reconnoitring, 375, 376
-- of rock, 387, 388
Ankle, part played by the, in climbing, 158, 159, 289, 303
Anticipation in climbing, importance of, 157, 158
Arctic mountaineering, 497-505
Arms, use of the, in climbing, 161, 162
Association among climbers, 150
Automatic actions and adjustments in climbing, 69, 70
Autumn ski-ing, 468, 469
Avalanche ground, tactics on, 439-42
Avalanche, liability of snow to, 328
Avalanches, 273-5
-- classification of, 427, 428
-- conditions for their production, 273, 423-7
-- dangers of, 424, 425, 426, 430, 432, 433-8
-- dry powder, 428, 429
-- ground, 423, 427, 435
-- in Norway, 545
-- new wet snow, 429-31
-- old wet snow, 435-8
-- power of, 274, 428, 435, 436
-- rock, 271
-- summer snow, 438, 439
-- wind slab, 431-4
Axe, the, 91, 92
-- as an extra hand, 206, 207
-- as a third leg, 178, 207, 292
-- in descent, 208
-- on rocks, 204-8
-- on snow, 336, 337
Baedeker’s Canada cited, 574, 577
-- Norway cited, 536
-- S. W. France cited, 570
Balaitous, the, 557
Balance climbing, 144-8, 156, 157
-- factors involved in, 28-32, 140, 149, 156, 157
Barometer. See Aneroid
Bath, the hot, 5
-- in tropics, 479
-- morning, cold, 4
Bathing, 12, 13, 524, 532
Bed, portable, 99
Beginner, the, 113-6, 118
-- his choice of trainer, 114, 115
Beginners, initial practice for, 148, 152, 153; and see under Rope
Behind, the rope, 215
Belay, the direct, 220, 221
-- the indirect, 221, 222
Belays, 219-25
Belloc’s Pyrenees cited, 570
Benightment, 52, 53, 74, 75
Bergschrund, 317, 337
Bhutan, 527
Bise, the, 446
Bivouac, outfit for, 99
-- selection of a, 53
Blindness, snow, 11, 343
Blistering from sun, 11, 12, 90, 97
Blizzards, danger of, 276
Body brake, the, 196
Boils, 484, 485
Boots, 4, 80, 81, 82, 153-5
-- canvas, 155
-- care of, 81, 82
-- for the Himalaya, 534
-- for ski-ing, 402
-- nailing, 82, 83, 154, 155
-- rubber, 89
Boracic powder for the feet, 5
Boredom, 15, 16
-- of tramps over snow, 332
Bouldering, 153, 171, 183
Boum, the, 562
Brakes, 195, 196
-- for glissading, 358, 359
Breeches, 87, 88
Breithorn, ski-ing on the Zermatt, 397
Bridges, ice, 337, 338
Bridgland’s Guide to Jasper Park, etc., cited, 583 n.
Britain, mist and cloud in, 389, 390
-- rocks in, 388, 389
-- snow in, 342
Bruce’s Kulu and Lahoul cited, 529
Bucket steps, 297
Calendar for Alpine Ski-ing, 402, 403, 456-70
Camera, the folding, 471
-- the hand, 471, 472
-- the Verascope, 478
Canadian Pacific Railway District, the, 574-81
Canteen for tropics, 487, 488
Canvas boots, 155
Capo al Dente, the, 519
Carriers in tropics, 495
Casque, the, 560
Caucasus, the, climate of, 506
-- forests of, 508
-- literature of, 509, 510
-- maps of, 515, 516
-- modes of travel in, 511, 512, 514, 515
-- mountain system of, 508
-- mountaineering in, 506-16
-- -- centres for, 512
Caucasus, mountaineering in, commissariat for, 513, 514
-- -- cost of, 516
-- -- equipment for, 512, 513
-- records of, 508
-- routes of access to, 510
-- topography and structure of, 506-9
Caulfield’s How to Ski cited, 398 n.
‘Chair,’ the, 196, 197
Chalk, its peculiarities and risks, 180
Chamois, as a danger, 271
-- in relation to avalanches, 441
Chamonix Aiguilles, the, 46, 47, 277
-- granite, 146
Check, easing of a, 258-60
Checking on the rope, 259, 260
Chill, avoidance of, 85
-- risk of, 5, 6, 7, 13
Chimney climbing, 167-9
Chimneys, descent of, 191
Chocolate, 6, 445
Christiania turn, the, 401
Claws, 96, 97, 287-94
-- in glissading, 365, 366
-- in mountain ski-ing, 402, 419
-- their value, 286, 294, 513
-- theory of their use, 288, 289
-- types of, 287, 288
Cliffs, sea, 181, 182
Climbing down, 184-99
-- in combination, 209-55
Closti turn, the, 401
Clothing, 5, 11, 84-90
-- for the tropics, 488, 489
-- for women, 89, 90
-- for the Himalaya, 534
Clouds as weather portents, 57-9
-- cirrus, 58
-- cumulus, 58
-- ‘fish’, 59
-- ‘mare’s-tails,’ 58
-- stratus, 58
-- thunder, 59
Coat, the, 84, 85, 86, 87, 90
Col du Lion, the, 57
-- Theodule, the, 57
Cold, effect of, on endurance, 10, 11
Coleman’s The Canadian Rockies, New and Old Trails, etc., cited, 581 n., 582, 583, 584, 586
Collective confidence of party, 17, 18, 240
-- rhythm, 209, 211
Colour photography, 477
Combination, climbing in, 209-55
-- the secret of time-saving, 76
Comolo Forno, the, 559
Compass, 98
-- the radium, 52
Confidence, danger of over-, 24, 25
-- necessity of self-, for leader, 17, 238
Confusing effects of weather when on snow, 342-5
Conjunctivitis, 483
Constipation, 480, 481, 482
Continuous going, 76-8
Cooking apparatus, 98
Cornices, snow, 338-40
-- -- double, 380
-- -- reconnoitring, 377-80
Cornwall, cliff climbing in, 181
Corsica, literature of, 520
-- modes of access to, 518
-- mountaineering in, 517-21
-- -- centres for, 518, 519
-- -- cost of, 518 n.
-- -- equipment for, 517, 518
-- -- season for, 517
-- nature of climbing in, 520
-- topography and maps of, 518-21
Coughs and colds, 482
Couloirs, 268, 272
-- glissading on claws in, 365
-- reconnoitring, 382-4
-- snow in, 340-2
-- the plunging step in, 364, 365
Courage, the measure of, 261, 262
Courmayeur, weather in, 56
Cover for the axe, use of a, 349
Crabioules, the, 561
Cracks, climbing, 165, 166
-- descent of, 191
Crampons. See Claws
Crevasses, 316-21, 452, 455
-- hidden, 315-22, 449
-- marginal, 309, 450
-- reconnoitring, 381, 382
-- scimitar, 310
-- systems of, 309-11
Crust, snow, 301, 331
-- effect of Föhn on, 413
-- -- -- frost on, 414
-- -- -- sun on, 415
-- -- film, 414
-- -- forms of, 410, 411
-- -- marble, 411, 414
-- -- perforated, 414
-- -- soft breakable, 410
-- -- trap, 410
-- -- unbreakable, 410, 411
Cups, drinking, 98
Cushion, rubber, 99
Cuts and scratches, 485
Cutting. See under Steps
Cylindre, the, 560
Damp, risks of, 5
Dancing, as training, 4, 66, 156
-- movements analogous to those of climbing, 156, 157, 208
Danger, 26, 27, 72, 149, 152, 237, 260, 261
De Déchy’s Kaukasus Reisen und Forschungen cited, 509
Descent, 42, 184-99
Detached rock, 176, 177
Diarrhœa, 481
Direction, the sense of, 345-7
Disappointment, 24
Discipline of parties, 2, 3
District, the choice of, 43-8
Dogtooth Range, the, 580
Dollfuss in May, 461
Dom, the, 459
Doubled rope, the, in descent, 192-5
-- on glaciers, 317-21
Down, climbing, 184-99
Drinks, 7, 8
Dru, the, 47, 152
Dunagiri, 529
Dysentery, 481, 482
Earth glissade, 182
Earthquakes, 277, 278
Ebnefluh, ski-work on the, 398, 459, 468
Eckenstein, Mr., crampons designed by, 92, 96, 288
-- ice-axe designed by, 92
-- on knots for Alpine ropes, 94, 95
-- on nails for boots, 83
-- on ropes for Alpine work, 93, 94, 95
Elbrus, 509
End man, dangers of his fall, 260
Equipment, for Alps, 80-8
-- for Arctic mountaineering, 498, 499
-- for Caucasus, 512-4
-- for Corsica, 517, 518
-- for Himalaya, 532-5
-- for mountain ski-ing, 402
-- for Norway, 539, 540
-- for Pyrenees, 566-9
-- for rock climbing in Britain, 88, 89
-- for Rocky Mountains, 588-90
Ewige Schnee, 330
Exceptional ascents, 120-2, 149
Excitement, dangers of over-, 16
Exercise, forms of preliminary, 4, 156, 158, 159, 181
Exhaustion, 26, 27
Experts, guide and amateur as, 111, 112, 118, 119
Eyes, right use of the, in climbing, 146, 147, 166, 184, 185, 186, 187, 192, 312, 313, 321, 370-396
Face-inward position in descent, 190, 191
---- in glissading, 363, 364
Face-outward position in descent, 188, 189
Face-sideways position in descent, 189, 190
Fall, 256
-- after a, 262-4
Fallibility, human, 256, 257
Fatigue, temper as a sign of, 20
Fear, 26, 27
Feet, care of the, 4, 5, 83
Fell climbers, 142
Fellowship, necessity of good, 3
Fencing as training, 4, 66
Fiescherhorn, the, 468
Finsteraarhorn, the, 442
Finsteraarjoch Pass, in winter, 397
Firn, 285, 330
First man on the rope, duty of the, 237-9
Flysch, 425
Fog. See Mist
Föhn, the, 59, 60, 61, 417-22
-- effects of, on snow, 326, 328, 377, 380, 412, 413
-- in spring, 421, 422, 436
-- in winter, 418-21
-- the dry, 418, 430
-- the wet, 413, 418, 429, 430
Folgefond, the, 542
Following and leading, 217, 218
Food, the choice of, 6
-- -- for tropics, 486, 487
Foot brake, the, 195
Footing, the right, for guide and climber, 125-9
Footwork, 140, 141, 153-8, 161, 176
-- for balance climbing, 282-4
Forbes, Prof. J. D., his Norway and its Glaciers cited, 536
Fourcanade, the, 556, 562, 563
Freak climbs, 182, 183
Freshfield’s Round Kangchenjunga cited, 527
Freshfield and Sella’s The Exploration of the Caucasus cited, 509, 515
Front, the rope in, 214, 215
Frost-bite, precautions against, 5, 288 n.
-- remedies for, 10
Frostisen, 544
Fruit ice, 8
Funicula, 254, 255
Furka, the, 464
Gabbro, 542, 543
Gabiétou, the, 560
Gaiters, 84
Galdhöpiggen, 544
Galenstock, the, 463, 464
Galmihorn, the, 459
Garhwal, 528
Gauli Hut, the, 457
Géant, the Dent du, 152, 201, 278
Geology, value of knowledge of, 425, 426
Giddiness, 9, 28-31, 182
Gjækkevarre, the, 542
Glacier falls, 311, 314
-- mills, 310
Glaciers, 279-81, 285, 308-24
-- in the Himalaya, 531
-- in New Zealand, 554
-- in Norway, 545, 546
-- in the Pyrenees, 556-62
-- in the Rocky Mountains, 586
-- in Spitsbergen, 503, 504
-- practice in ice work on, 285, 286
-- ski-ing on, in winter, 448-56
-- snow-covered, 314-22
Glacier work, 308-24
Glasses, field, 97, 98
-- for prevention of snow-blindness, 11, 97, 321, 322, 534
-- for reconnoitring, 395
Glazed rock, risks of, 170, 171, 193
Glissading, 348-69
-- alternate, 362, 363
-- arrest of, 352
-- face-inward, 363, 364
-- jumping while, 357, 358
-- on claws, 365, 366
-- -- in couloirs, 365
-- on earth, 182
-- on grass, 368, 369
-- on heather, 368, 369
-- on ice, 349-52
-- -- position for, 349-52
-- on sand, 366
-- on scree, 366-8
-- on snow, 353-66
-- on volcanic ash, 366
-- -- braking, 354, 355, 358, 359, 360
-- positions for, 353-61
-- -- steering, 355-7
-- stone tests for, 361
-- the axe brake for, 354, 358, 359
-- the foot brake for, 358, 359
-- the rope in, 361, 362
Glittertind, 544
Gloves, 10, 86, 89, 195, 258
Goats as a danger, 271
Grand Trunk Pacific Railway, the, 582-4
Grease on the face, 11, 90, 97
Gredetschthal, the, 459
Grépon, the, 47, 152, 385
Grimsel region, the, 425, 463
Grip climbing, 142, 143, 145, 174, 176
Gritstone, 180
Grove’s The Frosty Caucasus cited, 509
Grundlawinen. See Avalanches, ground
Gspaltenhorn, the, 447
Guide as mountaineer, the ideal, 107, 108
-- companionship of amateur and, 128, 129, 136, 137
-- nature, 123-37
Guides, Alpine, changed conditions of, 103, 104
-- as experts, 111, 112, 119
-- care for their comfort, 126, 127
-- estimation of their qualities, 53-5
-- management of, 123-37
-- misconceptions of their function, 101-3
-- question of engaging, 118-22
-- traditional idea of, 102
Guides’ books, hints as to writing up, 53-5
Gullies, 141, 142, 268
-- glissading in winter, 368
Gurla Mandhata, 528, 529
‘Half step’ trick, the, 37
Halts, 40, 77, 78, 332
-- the rope during, 251, 252
Handholds, to cut, in ice, 298
Hands, use of the, 161-7
Hat, the, 85, 89
Headaches, 9
Health, importance of, 3, 4
Heart, training and development of the, 67, 68
Height, advantages of, 71
-- the psychological effect of, 31, 32, 293
Helmet, woollen, 86
Hill-shock. See Hysteria
Himalaya, the, climbing conditions in, 523, 525, 526
-- configuration of, 522, 523
-- glaciers of, 529
-- management of expedition to, 523-525
-- mountaineering in, 522-35
-- -- clothing for, 534
-- -- cost of, 531, 532
-- -- equipment for, 528, 532, 533, 535
-- -- food for, 533
-- -- hints for, 533, 534
-- -- instruments for, 535
-- -- season for, 526
-- -- use of claws in, 288 n.
-- topography of, 527-9
Hindu Khush, the, 530, 531
Hochgebirgskalk, 425
Holding the rope, 225-7
Holds, anatomical, 244
-- cling, 161-2
-- finger, 161
-- friction, 160, 161, 169
-- on rock and ice, practice of, 69
-- over, 162
-- press, 163, 164, 179
-- pull, 174, 177, 179
-- push, 163
-- side, 162
-- under, 162
Humours, preventable, 14-7
Hurry, the blunder of, 38, 39, 40, 76, 77, 332
Hut usages, 48-50
Hysteria, or hill-shock, 26-8
Ice, black, 285, 288, 294, 374
-- blue, 284
-- glacier, 284
-- grainy, 284
-- -- hard, 290, 291, 545
-- honeycombed, 374
-- -- rotten, 290, 294
-- -- soft, 290
-- snow, 285
Ice axe. See Axe
Ice claws. See under Claws
-- climbing in relation to rock climbing, 282-4
-- craft, 282-324
-- fragments, danger from falling, 275, 276
-- sky, the, 393, 394
Imitation, in collective climbing, 211-3
Incudine, the, 520
Infection of leader by party, 25, 26
Injured man, a danger to his party, 260, 261
Instruments, 57, 535
Ireland, cliff climbing in, 181, 182, 391
Joanne’s Pyrénées cited, 570
Jungfrau, first winter ascent of, 397
Justedals-brae, the, 545, 546
Kamet, 529
Kasbek, 512
Kashmir and Karakoram, 530
Kellas, Dr., on Sikkim, cited, 527, 528
Kletterschuhe, 96, and see Soles
Knee, right use of the, in climbing, 146, 160
Knickerbockers, 85
Knots for ropes for mountaineering, 94, 95, 96, 255
-- tests of, 96
Knutshultind, 544
Kumaon, 528
Lakes, the, 140, 152
-- snowcraft in, 342
Lantern, folding, 52, 98
Lava, old, 180
Leader, duties of the, 1, 6, 8, 9, 10, 13, 18, 23, 39, 43, 44, 48-55, 125, 150, 151, 237-9, 323, 332
-- guide or amateur as, 109, 111
-- qualifications for, 1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 14, 15, 16, 19, 20, 21, 25, 33, 56, 150, 151, 237, 238, 239, 321
-- responsibilities of, 2, 6, 9, 10, 16, 17, 27, 32, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 111, 133, 134, 150, 151, 153, 227, 237-9, 260, 261, 263
Le Blonde’s, Mrs., Mountaineering in the Land of the Midnight Sun cited, 536
Leeches, 484
Lens, 471, 473
Light, to procure a, 52
Lillienfeld ski, 398
-- system, 399, 401
Limestone, 180, 181
Loads, risks of unnecessary, 22, 75, 76
Long rope, the, 198, 199
Longstaff, Dr., on the Purcell Range, cited, 579
Loops in ropes for glacier work, 320
Lumière autochrome, the, 477
Lungs, training and development of the, 67, 68
Lunn’s Cross Country Ski-ing cited, 398 n., 402
Lyskamm, the, 4
Malaria, 480
Maps, 98
Marble, 180
-- crust, 411, 414
Marboré, the, 557
Mascot, uses of a, 34
Matterhorn, the, 57, 112, 113, 201, 271, 272, 381, 386
Maupas, the, 562
May in the High Alps, 456-61, 463, 464
Medicine chest for tropics, 485, 486
Medicines, 100
Merzbacher’s Aus den Hochregionen des Kaukasus cited, 509, 515
Mind, influence of, on the body, 14, 129, 240
Mist and cloud, uses of, 389, 390
-- dangers of, 277, 343, 346
Moine, the, 152
Mont Perdu, the, 559, 560, 561
Monte Cinto, 520
-- Corona, 519
-- d’Oro, 519
-- Padro, 519
-- Renosa, 519
-- Rosa, 446, 457, 468, 469
-- -- ski-ing on, 397
Moraines, 178, 208, 292
Mosquitoes, 480, 540
Moods, abnormal, 23-8
Mount Assiniboine, 575
-- Ball, 575
-- Beaver, 579
-- Cook, 551, 553
-- Duncan, 579
-- Edith Cavell, 575, 583
-- Fitzwilliam, 583
-- Hector, 576
-- Moloch, 577
-- Robson, 584, 585
-- Sir Sandford, 579
-- Torlesse, 553
Mountain photography, 471-8
-- sickness, 9, 10
Mountaineer, the amateur, contrasted with the guide, 103-8
-- the composite, 106
-- the moderate, 116-8
-- the true, 280
Mountaineering in winter, 397
Muffler, 86
Mumm’s Five Months in the Himalaya cited, 528 n.
Mummery’s My Climbs in the Alps and Caucasus cited, 509
Mürren, 469
Muscular fitness, 9, 65, 66
Nails, special, for climbing boots, 82, 83, 154
Nanda Devi, 529
Napes ridges, the, 152
Natives, management of, 494, 495
Nepal, 528
Nerve, 70
-- exhaustion, 9, 26, 27
Nerves, 68, 69
Névé, 285, 330, 335, 448, 465, 470
Neve’s Picturesque Kashmir cited, 530 n.
New Zealand, flora and fauna of, 553, 554
-- glaciers in, 554
-- guides for the Alps of, 549
-- mountains of, 550, 551, 555
-- routes to, 548, 549
-- the Southern Alps of, 548-55
-- topography and structure of, 551-3
-- weather of, 550
Night dangers. See Benightment
Night, hints for walking at, 51-3
Norway, glaciers of, 540, 541, 542, 543
-- guide books and literature, 536, 537
-- local conditions in, 544-7
-- mountaineering in, 536-47
-- -- equipment for, 539, 540
-- -- expense of, 538, 539
-- -- guides for, 540, 541, 542
-- -- season for, 537
-- mountains of, 542-4
-- routes of access to, 538
-- topography and structure of, 542-4
Norway and Sweden, wind-swept snow in, 408
Numbers suitable for parties, 34, 35
Oberaarjoch, the, 463, 464
Oberland, the, crossed on ski, 397
-- its opportunities and characteristics, 45, 46
-- weather in the, 57
Obstinacy, hysterical, 28
Old age, climbing in, 73
Oppenheim’s New Climbs in Norway cited, 536
Order, the, on the rope, 227-36
-- of moving on the rope, the, 236, 237; and see under Rope
Outfit for the Alps, 91-100
Outram’s In the Heart of the Canadian Rockies cited, 574, 581
Overhang, in descent, 194, 195
Pace, adjustment of, to the task, 74-9
-- setting the, 37
Packe’s Guide to the Pyrénées cited, 570
Paglia Orba, 521
Palmer’s Mountaineering and Exploration in the Selkirks cited, 578 n., 579
Panic, 27, 272
Parasites, body, 484
Passing ahead, 37, 38
Paulcke, 397
Pegs and aids, 96, 200-3
Pennines, characteristics of the, 46
Perdighero, 561
Persistence in uncertain weather, 63, 64
Perversity, mountain, 267-72
Photography, mountain, 471-8
-- -- choice of subjects, 475-7
-- -- equipment for, 471-5
-- -- in colour, 477
-- -- stereoscopic, 477-8
Pic d’Albe, 562
-- d’Astazou, 560
-- de Bécibéri, 559
-- d’Enfer, 557
-- Long, 559, 561
-- du Midi d’Ossau, 556, 557
-- Moulières, 562
-- du Munia, 561
-- de Néthou, 559, 562
-- de la Pique, 562
-- de Pinède, 561
-- du Port d’Oo, 561
-- des Posets, 559, 562
-- de Salenques, 562
Pitons. See under Pegs
Port de Venasque, 562
Positions in descent, 187-91
Powder snow, 326, 327, 405-11
-- -- effect of sun on, 408-11
-- -- -- wind on, 407, 408
-- -- the ideal ski-ing surface, 406
-- -- reconnoitring, 374
-- -- in spring, 412-7, 430
-- -- in winter, 411, 412
Preparations, psychological, for ascent, 129, 130
Punta di Capella, 520
Purcell Range, the, 579-80
Putties, 89, 125, 289
Pyramid Peak, 586
Pyrenees, the, 556-71
-- centres for climbing, 560
-- huts and inns, 566
-- literature of the, 570
-- maps of, 564-6
-- mountaineering in, 556, 557, 563
-- -- cost of, 569
-- -- equipment for, 566-9
-- -- guides for, 563, 564
-- topography and structure of, 557-563
Quairat, the, 561
Quarries, scrambling in, for practice, 181
Quartz, its peculiarities and risks, 179, 180
Rabot’s Au Cap Nord cited, 542
Reach, advantages of, in climbing, 71
Reconnoitring, 370-96
-- angle on snow, 375-7
-- couloirs, 382-4
-- glaciers, 311-4, 381, 382
-- the half-seen, 390, 391
-- ice, 374, 381, 382
-- importance of, 370-3
-- ridges, 386, 387
-- rock, 384
-- rock faces, 384-6
-- rocks in Britain, 388-90
-- slabs, 387, 388
-- snow cornices, 377-80
-- snow surface conditions, 374, 375
-- the unseen, 391-6
-- wind and snow signs, 380, 381
Réquin, the, 152
Rescue parties, 266, 267
Rhone Valley, the upper, 424
Rhythm, balance, 144, 156, 157
-- collective, 209-11
-- of movement, importance of, 140, 141, 143, 145, 148, 156, 157
-- of step, importance of, 39, 40, 41, 76, 77, 78, 79, 145, 148
Rib riding, 169
Ring, use of the, 193
-- risks of the, 194, 198
Ringworm, 484
Ripple mark, 407
Roche Miette, the, 587
Rock avalanche, 271
Rock climber, the good, 138, 146-9, 171
Rock climbing, 138-208
-- -- in relation to ice climbing, 282-4
-- -- development of, 138-44
Rock sky, the, 393
Rocks, knowledge of structure of, 138
-- in Britain, 388, 389
Rocky Mountains, access to the, 574, 591
-- -- literature of the, 574, 586
-- -- maps of the, 576, 579, 581, 585, 586
-- -- minor ranges of the, 580
-- -- modes and cost of travel in the, 587-8
-- -- mountaineering in the, 572-91
-- -- -- guides and equipment for, 578, 588-90
-- -- topography of the, 572-87
Rope, best handgrip on the, 225
-- carrying the, 253
-- choice of the, 93-4
-- coiling the, 246, 252, 253
-- in collective climbing, 213-7
-- danger of abuse of the, 216, 217
-- drying the, 253
-- first man on the, 237-9
-- frequent examination of the, necessity for, 253
-- on ice, 305-8
-- kinks in the, 253
-- length of the, 253, 254
-- management of the, 246-55
-- order of moving on the, 236-7
-- order on the, 227-36
-- -- on difficult or new ascents and descents, 228
-- -- on direct ascents and descents, 227, 228
-- -- on easy ascents and descents, 228
-- -- on traverses, 229-32
-- -- with beginners, 233-6
-- right use of the, in descent, 191-9
-- -- on snow, 335-7
-- second man on the, 239-45
-- third man on the, 245-6; and see under Doubled, Knots, Long, Funicula, and Halts
“Rope-riding,” 217
Rosenlaui, 461
Ross’s A Climber in New Zealand cited, 554
Rubber soles, 155, 182
Rucksack, the, 5, 91
Rulten, 545
Running as training, 4
Russell’s Grandes Ascensions des Pyrénées cited, 570
-- Souvenirs d’un Montagnard cited, 570
Safety-pins, 85, 86
Sandstone, risks and peculiarities of, 180
Sark, the island of, cliff climbing on, 181
Schaeffer, Mrs., her Old Indian Trails cited, 584 n.
Schneebrett. See Wind slab
Schrader, M., on the Pyrenees, quoted, 557
Scotland, cliff climbing in, 181, 182
Scottish mountains, snow craft on, 342
Scree, 178, 179
-- glissading on, 366, 368
-- in relation to ski-ing, 426
Sea cliffs, 181, 182
Sealskins for ski-ing, 402, 449
Season, habit of the, 62, 63
Second man on the rope, the, duty of the, 239-45
-- -- -- in case of accident, 262, 263
Selkirk mountains, the, 577-9
Séracs, 275, 301, 313, 335
Shirts, 85, 88
Signals, code of rescue, 51, 266
Sikkim, 527
Silence, dangers of, 18, 20, 51, 238
-- uses of, 23, 240
Simla Hill States, the, 529
Sitting glissading, 360, 361
Skagastölstind, 542, 544
Skating movements, analogous to those of climbing, 156
Skavla, 408
Ski, mountaineering on, 397-470
-- Lillienfeld, 398
-- for mountain work, 402
-- for summer work, 64, 397, 469, 470
Ski-ing in the High Alps, 399, 400
-- Lillienfeld system of, 399, 401
-- Norwegian style of, 399
-- technique of, 398-401
-- turns, 400, 401
-- Zdarsky’s system of, 398
Skin diseases, 483
Skipping as training, 4, 66
Sky, ice as affecting its tint, 393, 394
-- rock as affecting its tint, 393
-- snow as affecting its tint, 392, 393
Skye, climbing in, 152
Slab climbing, 142, 143, 166, 167, 387, 388
Slate, its peculiarities and risks, 179
Sleeping sack, 99, 498, 499, 513, 532, 567, 589
Sleeplessness, 483
Slides, photographic, 473, 474
Sling for axe, 93, 298
Slings, rope, 193, 194
Slingsby’s Norway the Northern Playground cited, 536
Slips, how to accept, 41, 42
Smoking, 89
Snake-bite, 484
Snow a bar to starting, 63, 64
-- avalanches, 423-42
-- bridges, 337
-- cornices, 338
-- craft, 16, 325-46
-- -- for ski-ing, 403, 404
-- crusted, 331
-- -- reconnoitring, 374
-- granular, 416
-- in couloirs, 340-2
-- new, risks of, 327
-- pink, 546
-- powdery, 326, 327; and see under Powder snow
-- the rope and axe on, 335-7
-- sky, the, 392, 393
-- slides, danger of, 273-5
-- slopes, reconnoitring, 375-7
-- -- security of, 329, 333-5
-- soft, its risks and difficulties, 330-332
-- spring, for ski-ing, 412-7
-- steps, 333, 334
-- summer, for ski-ing, 422, 423
-- travail, 330-3
-- winter, for ski-ing, 411, 412
Snow-blindness, 11, 343
Snow-line, the, 459
Snow-water, its supposed danger, 8
Social composition of a party, 32-6, 109, 110, 150
Socks, 4, 5, 10, 83, 87, 88, 89, 155, 156
Soles, hard, 153, 154
-- rubber, 155, 182
-- soft, 154, 155, 171, 179, 284
Solitary climbing, 151, 152
-- -- unjustifiable on snow or ice, 315
Soum de Raymond, 560
Spectacles. See under Glasses
Spender and Llewellyn Smith’s Through the High Pyrenees cited, 570
Spitsbergen, coast of, 500-2
-- glaciers of, 501, 502, 503, 504
-- interior of, 502-4
-- modes of access to, 497, 498
-- mountaineering in, 497-505
-- -- cost of, 505
-- mountains of, 502-4
Spring in the High Alps, 456-68
-- snow for ski-ing, 412-7
-- Time-table for ski-ing, the, 466-8
Springing the rope, 197, 198
Stances, on rock, 218, 219, 223-7, 246, 247
-- on snow, 336, 337
-- on ice, 298, 306, 307
Stedtind, 544
Stemming turn, the, 400, 401
Step-cutting practice, 182
Steps, cutting, 294-302
-- using, 302-5
Stereoscopic photography, 477, 478
Stick, use of the, in ski-ing, 399, 400, 401, 442, 450, 454
Stimulants, their use, 7, 8
-- -- in the tropics, 487
Stockings, 83, 86, 155
Stomach, care of the, 4, 5, 86, 479, 480, 482
Stones, dangers of falling, 250, 251, 268-73
-- reconnoitring couloirs for, 382-4
-- -- faces for, 386
Storm Mountain, 575
Strahlegg Pass, crossing in winter, 397
Strandaatind, 543
Strata, rock, importance of acquaintance with, 383-5, 388, 425, 426
Stutfield and Collie’s Climbs and Explorations in the Canadian Rockies, cited, 575 n., 580 n., 581
Subconsciousness, sphere of, in mountaineering, 69
Sulitelma, 544
Summer ski. See under Ski
Sun, dangers of, 11
Sunburn, 90, 97
Sunstroke, 12, 482
Sutherlandshire, cliff climbing in, 181
Sweater, 86, 88
Sweet-stuffs, value of, 6, 7
Swimming as training, 66
Taillon, the, 557, 560
Teeth, care of the, 479, 480, 482, 483
Tehri Garhwal, 529
Telemark turn, the, 400, 401
Temper of mountaineering party, the, 19-23
Tennis as training, 4
Tents, 99, 513; and see Equipment
-- for tropics, 491-3
-- Mummery, 492, 499, 533
-- teepee, 588
-- Whymper, 491, 532
Thawing of snow, the, 409, 415, 416
Thigh brake, the, 195, 196
Third man on the rope, duty of the, 245-6
Thirst, 7, 8
Thunderstorms, danger of, 276
Tirich Mir, 531
Tour de Marboré, 560
Tourist, the mountaineer, 112, 113, 118
Trade goods for tropics, 494, 495
Training, 65-73
Trap crust, 410
Tricouni nails for boots, 82, 83
Tripod for camera, 472, 474
Tropical diseases, 480, 481
-- mountaineering, 479-96
-- -- equipment for, 486-93
-- -- health in, 479-86
-- -- management of expedition for, 493-6
Tryfan, the buttresses of, 152
U.H.U. Stollen nails for boots, 82
Underwear, 88, and see Equipment
Unsound rock, 173-9
Unusual rock 179-83
Urbachthal, 424, 457
Val d’Evoléna, 46
Vanesta packing-case, the, 493, 494, 532
Verascope camera, the, 478
Vertigo, 28-31
Vignemale, the, 557, 561
Waistcoat, the, 85
Wales, cliffs in, 142, 152, 181, 182, 391
-- North, snowcraft in, 342
Walking as training, 4
-- manners, 36-41
-- notes on hill-, 41-3
Warmth, the conservation of, 5
Warning, to give, 257, 258
Water-bottles, 98
Waterproof cape, 86
Weather, the, 56-64
-- alternating, 44, 45
-- confusing, 342-5
-- evil, 276, 277
-- signs, 60-2
Weight handicaps, 75, 76
Wet rock, risks of, 169, 170
Wetterhorn, the, 456, 457
-- -- first winter ascent of, 397
Wheeler’s Selkirk Range, etc., cited, 577
White’s Sikkim and Bhutan cited, 527
Wilcox’s Camping in the Canadian Rockies cited, 575 n.
Will, function of, in climbing, 68
Wind, an enemy, 11, 258, 276, 343
-- a friend, 277, 380, 381
-- as weather portent, 59-60
-- effect of, on snow, 326
-- protection against, 5
Windboard, 407, 408, 432
Wind ‘signs,’ 380, 381
Wind slab, 432, 433
Wine, 7
Winter conditions in the High Alps, 442-56
-- mountaineering, 397
-- snow for ski-ing, 411, 412
Woman mountaineers, dress for, 89, 90
Wood-chopping as training, 4
Young climbers, care of, 13, 14
Zermatt, weather at, 56, 381
Zinal Rothhorn, 446, 447, 462
PRINTED BY MORRISON AND GIBB LIMITED EDINBURGH
Transcriber’s Notes
Obvious errors or omissions in punctuation have been corrected.
Page 78: “when the deterioriation” changed to “when the deterioration”
Page 159: “changing but steelly arch” changed to “changing but steely arch”
Page 333-334: “possibility of the i consumption” changed to “possibility of the consumption”
Page 425: “The hard ‘Hochgebirgsalk,’” changed to “The hard ‘Hochgebirgskalk,’”
Page 564: “Ministère de l’Interieur” changed to “Ministère de l’Intérieur”
Page 580: The footnote 2 Ibid. v. 20, 44, 82. was removed from the page because it has no corresponding marker in the text.
Page 589: “ordinary’s day’s travel” changed to “ordinary day’s travel”
In the index, “d’Astazon” changed to “d’Astazou”