History for ready reference, Volume 3, Greece to Nibelungen (part 6 of 10)

History for ready reference, Volume 3, Greece to Nibelungen (part 6 of 10)

"The Bills of Exchange Act 1882 is, I believe, the first code or codifying enactment which has found its way into the English Statute Book. By a code, I mean a statement under the authority of the legislature, and on a systematic plan, of the whole of the general principles applicable to any given branch of the law. A code differs from a digest inasmuch as its language is the language of the legislature, and therefore authoritative; while the propositions of a digest merely express what is, in the opinion of an individual author, the law on any given subject. In other words the words propositions of a code are law, while the propositions of a digest may or may not be law."

M. D. Chalmers, An Experiment in Codification (Law Quarterly Review, volume 2, page 125).

COMMON LAW: A. D. 1889. Passage of Block-Indexing Act.

"The history of Land Transfer Reform in the United States is confined, almost exclusively, to matters which have occurred in the State of New York during the past ten years, and which culminated in the passage of the Block-Indexing Act for the city, of New York of 1889. In January, 1882, a report was made by a special committee of the Association of the Bar of the city of New York, which had been appointed to consider and report what changes, if any, should be made in the manner of transferring title to land in the city and State. The committee reported that by reason of the accumulated records in the offices of the county clerk and register of deeds of the city, 'searches practically could not be made in those offices,' and recommended the appointment of a State commission, which should consider and report a mode of transferring land free from the difficulties of the present system. The report was adopted by the association, and during the same year like recommendations were made by the Chamber of Commerce and by real estate and other associations of the city."

D. H. Olmstead, 13 American Bar Association Report, pages 269-270.

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Criminal Law.

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1066-1272. The Ordinary Criminal Courts.

"In a very few words the history of the ordinary courts is as follows: Before the Conquest the ordinary criminal court was the County or Hundred Court, but it was subject to the general supervision and concurrent jurisdiction of the King's Court. The Conqueror and his sons did not alter this state of things, but the supervision of the King's Court and the exercise of his concurrent jurisdiction were much increased both in stringency and in frequency, and as time went on narrowed the jurisdiction and diminished the importance of the local court. In process of time the King's Court developed itself into the Court of King's Bench and the Courts of the Justices of Assize, Oyer and Terminer and Gaol Delivery, or to use the common expression, the Assize Courts; and the County Court, so far as its criminal jurisdiction was concerned, lost the greater part of its importance. These changes took place by degrees during the reigns which followed the Conquest, and were complete at the accession of Edward I. In the reign of Edward III. the Justices of the Peace were instituted, and they, in course of time, were authorized to hold Courts for the trial of offenders, which are the Courts of Quarter Sessions. The County Court, however, still retained a separate existence, till the beginning of the reign of Edward IV., when it was virtually, though not absolutely, abolished. A vestige of its existence is still to be traced in Courts Leet."

Sir James F. Stephen, History of the Criminal Law, volume 1, pages 75-76.

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1166. Disappearance of Compurgation in Criminal Cases.

"In criminal cases in the king's courts, compurgation is thought to have disappeared in consequence of what has been called 'the implied prohibition' of the Assize of Clarendon, in 1166. But it remained long in the local and ecclesiastical courts. Palgrave preserves as the latest instances of compurgation in criminal cases that can be traced, some cases as late as 1440-1, in the Hundred Court of Winchelsea in Sussex. They are cases of felony, and the compurgation is with thirty-six neighbors. They show a mingling of the old and the new procedure."

_J. B. Thayer, The Older Modes of Trial (Harvard Law Review., volume 5, page 59)._

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1166-1215. Jury in Criminal Cases.

"It seems to have been possible, even before the decree of the Fourth Lateran Council, in … 1215, to apply the jury to criminal cases when ever the accused asked for it. … The Assize of Clarendon, in 1166, with its apparatus of an accusing jury and a trial by ordeal is thought to have done away in the king's courts with compurgation as a mode of trial for crime; and now the Lateran Council, in forbidding ecclesiastics to take part in trial by ordeal, was deemed to have forbidden that mode of trial."

_Jas. B. Thayer, The Jury and its Development (Harvard Law Review, volume 5, page 265)._

{1982}

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1176 (circa). "Eyres," and Criminal Jurisdiction.

"It is enough for me to point out that, on the circuits instituted by Henry II, and commonly distinguished as 'eyres', by way of pre-eminence, the administration of criminal justice, was treated, not as a thing by itself, but as one part, perhaps the most prominent and important part, of the general administration of the country, which was put to a considerable extent under the superintendence of the justices in eyre. Nor is this surprising when we consider that fines, amercements, and forfeitures of all sorts were items of great importance in the royal revenue. The rigorous enforcement of all the proprietary and other profitable rights of the Crown which the articles of eyre confided to the justices was naturally associated with their duties as administrators of the criminal law, in which the king was deeply interested, not only because it protected the life and property of his subjects, but also because it contributed to his revenue."

Sir J. F. Stephen, History of the Criminal Law of England, volume 1, page 102.

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1198-1199. Trial by Ordeal.

"The earliest instance of the ordeal [see ORDEAL] in our printed judicial records occurs in 1198-9, on an appeal of death, by a maimed person, where two of the defendants are adjudged to purge themselves by the hot iron. But within twenty years or so this mode of trial came to a sudden end in England, through the powerful agency of the Church,—an event which was the more remarkable because Henry II., in the Assize of Clarendon (1166) and again in that of Northampton (1176), providing a public mode of accusation in the case of the larger crimes, had fixed the ordeal as the mode of trial. The old form of trial by oath was no longer recognized in such cases in the king's courts. It was the stranger, therefore, that such quick operation should have been allowed in England to the decree, in November, 1215, of the Fourth Lateran Council at Rome. That this was recognized and accepted within about three years (1218-19) by the English crown is shown by the well-known writs of Henry III., to the judges, dealing with the puzzling question of what to do for a mode of trial, 'cum prohibitum sit per Ecclesiam Romanam judicium ignis et aquae.' I find no case of trial by ordeal in our printed records later than Trinity Term of the 15 John (1213)."

J. B. Thayer, The Older Modes of Trial (Harvard Law Review, volume 5, pages 64-65).

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1215. Two Juries in Criminal Cases.

"The ordeal was strictly a mode of trial. What may clearly bring this home to one of the present day is the well-known fact that it gave place, not long after the Assize of Clarendon, to the petit jury, when Henry III. bowed to the decree of the fourth Lateran Council (1215) abolishing the ordeal. It was at this point that our cumbrous, inherited system of two juries in criminal cases had its origin."

J. B. Thayer, Presumptions and the Law of Evidence (Harvard Law Review, volume 3, page 159, note).

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1215. Had Coroners Common Law Power as to Fires?

"Although Magna Charta took away the power of the Coroner of holding Pleas of the Crown, that is of trying the more important crimes, there was nothing to forbid him from continuing to receive accusations against all offenders. This he did, and continues to do to the present day, without challenge, in cases of sudden or unexplained deaths. Nor is it denied that he has done so and may do so in other matters, such as in treasure trove, wreck of the sea and deodands. The difficulty, of course, is to know whether the Coroner was or was not in the habit of holding inquests on fires. There is no evidence that he had not the power to do so. On the contrary, we think the extracts from the ancient writers which we have before quoted, are on the whole in favour of his having that power. Before Magna Charta he had the power to try all serious crimes; arson would unquestionably be one of them. Magna Charta only took a way his power of trying them, not of making a preliminary investigation, otherwise an inquest."

_Sherston Baker, Law Magazine & Review (London, 1886-7), 4th ser., volume 12, page 268._

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1272-1875. King's Bench. The Supreme Criminal Court.

"From the reign of Edward I, to the year 1875 it [the Court of King's Bench] continued to be the Supreme Criminal Court of the Realm, with no alterations in its powers or constitution of sufficient importance to be mentioned except that during the Commonwealth it was called the Upper Bench."

Sir J. F. Stephen, History of Criminal Law of England, volume 1, page 94.

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1276. Coroner's Jury.

"The earliest instance that occurs of any sort of preliminary inquiry into crimes with a view to subsequent proceedings is the case of the coroner's inquest. Coroners, according to Mr. Stubbs, originated in the year 1194, but the first authority of importance about their duties is to be found in Bracton. He gives an account of their duties so full as to imply that in his day their office was comparatively modern. The Statute de Officio Coronatoris (4 Edward I., st. 2, A. D. 1276) is almost a transcript of the passage in Bracton. It gives the coroner's duty very fully, and is, to this day, the foundation of the law on the subject."

Sir J. F. Stephen, History of the Criminal Law of England, volume 1, page 217.

ALSO IN: W. Forsyth, Trial by Jury, page 187.

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1285. Courts of Oyer and Terminer.

"The first express mention of them with which I am acquainted is in the statute 13 Edw. I., c. 29 (A. D. 1285), which taken in connection with some subsequent authorities throws considerable light on their nature. They were either general or special. General when they were issued to commissioners whose duty it was to hear and determine all matters of a criminal nature within certain local limits, special when the commission was confined to particular cases. Such special commissions were frequently granted at the prayer of particular individuals. They differed from commissions of gaol delivery principally in the circumstance that the commission of Oyer and Terminer was 'ad inquirendum, audiendum, et terminandum,' whereas that of gaol delivery is 'ad gaolam nostram castri nostri de C. de prisonibus in ea existentibus hac vice deliberandum,' the interpretation put upon which was that justices of Oyer and Terminer could proceed only upon indictments taken before themselves, whereas justices of gaol delivery had to try everyone found in the prison which they were to deliver. On the other hand, a prisoner on bail could not be tried before a justice of gaol delivery, because he would not be in the gaol, whereas if he appeared before justices of Oyer and Terminer he might be both indicted and tried."

Sir J. F. Stephen, History of the Criminal Law of England, volume 1, page 106.

{1983}

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1305. Challenging Jury for Cause.

"The prisoner was allowed to challenge peremptorily, i. e. without showing cause, any number of jurors less than thirty-five, or three whole juries. When or why he acquired this right it is difficult to say. Neither Bracton nor Britton mention it, and it is hard to reconcile it with the fact that the jurors were witnesses. A man who might challenge peremptorily thirty-five witnesses could always secure impunity. It probably arose at a period when the separation between the duties of the jury and the witnesses was coming to be recognized. The earliest statute on the subject, 33 Edw. I, st. 4 (A. D. 1305), enacts 'that from henceforth, notwithstanding it be alleged by them that sue for the king that the jurors of those inquests, or some of them, be not indifferent for the king, yet such inquests shall not remain untaken for that cause, but if they that sue for the king will challenge any of those jurors, they shall assign of the challenge a cause certain.'"

Sir J. F. Stephen, History of the Criminal Law of England, volume 1, pages 301-302.

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1344. Justices of the Peace.

"In 1344 (18 Edw. Ill, st. 2, c. 2) it was enacted that 'two or three of the best of reputation in the counties shall be assigned keepers of the peace by the King's Commission, … to hear and determine felonies and trespasses done against the peace in the same counties, and to inflict punishment reasonably.' This was the first act by which the Conservators of the Peace obtained judicial power."

Sir J. F. Stephen, History of the Criminal Law of England, volume 1, page 113.

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1506. Insanity as a Defence.

The earliest adjudication upon the legal responsibility of an insane person occurred in the Year Book of the 21 Henry VII.

American Law Review, volume 15, page 717.

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1547. Two Lawful Witnesses required to Convict.

"In all cases of treason and misprision of treason,—by statutes l Edw. VI. c. 12; 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 11, and 7 & 8 Will. III. c. 3,—two lawful witnesses are required to convict a prisoner; unless he shall willingly and without violence confess the same. And, by the last-mentioned statute, it is declared, that both of such witnesses must be to the same overt act of treason; or one to one overt act, and the other to another overt act of the same species of treason, and not of distinct heads or kinds: and that no evidence shall be admitted to prove any overt act, not expressly laid in the indictment."

Sir J. F. Stephen, Commentaries, volume 4, page 425 (8th edition).

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1592. Criminal Trials under Elizabeth.

"In prosecutions by the State, every barrier which the law has ever attempted to erect for the protection of innocence was ruthlessly cast down. Men were arrested without the order of a magistrate, on the mere warrant of a secretary of state or privy councillor, and thrown into prison at the pleasure of the minister. In confinement they were subjected to torture, for the rack rarely stood idle while Elizabeth was on the throne. If brought to trial, they were denied the aid of a counsel and the evidence of witnesses in their behalf. Nor were they confronted with the witnesses against them, but written depositions, taken out of court and in the absence of the prisoner, were read to the jury, or rather such portions of them as the prosecution considered advantageous to its side. On the bench sat a judge holding office at the pleasure of the crown, and in the jury-box twelve men, picked out by the sheriff, who themselves were punished if they gave a verdict of acquittal."

D. Campbell, The Puritan in Holland, England and America, volume 1, page 367.

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1600 (circa). Capital Punishment.

"Sir James Fitz James Stephen, in his History of Criminal Law, estimates that at the end of the sixteenth century there were about 800 executions per year in England (volume 1, 468). Another sentence in vogue in England before that time was to be hanged, to have the bowels burned, and to be quartered. Beccaria describes the scene where 'amid clouds of writhing smoke the groans of human victims, the crackling of their bones, and the flying of their still panting bowels were a pleasing spectacle and agreeable harmony to the frantic multitude.' (chapter 39.) As late as the reign of Elizabeth, … the sentence of death in England was to be hung, drawn and quartered. Campian, the Jesuit, was tortured before trial until his limbs were dislocated on the rack, and was carried helpless into Westminster Hall for trial before the Chief Justice of England, unable to raise an arm in order to plead not guilty. He was sentenced to be hung, drawn and quartered, which meant legally, that upon being hung he was to be cut down while yet living, and dragged at the tail of a horse, and then before death should release him, to be hewn in pieces, which were to be sent dispersed to the places where the offense was committed or known, to be exhibited in attestation of the punishment, the head being displayed in the most important place, as the chief object of interest. In the process of hanging, drawing and quartering, Froude says that due precautions were taken to prolong the agony. Campian's case is specially interesting, as showing the intervention of a more humane spirit to mitigate the barbarity of the law. As they were about to cut him down alive from the gibbet, the voice of some one in authority cried out: Hold, till the man is dead.' This innovation was the precursor of the change in the law so as to require the sentence to be that he be hanged by the neck until he is dead. It is not generally known that the words 'until he is dead' are words of mercy inserted to protect the victim from the torture and mutilation which the public had gathered to enjoy."

_Austin Abbott, Address before New York Society of Medicine Journal (The Advocate, Minn., 1889, volume 1, page 71)._

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1641-1662. No Man shall be compelled to Criminate himself.

"What … is the history of this rule? … Briefly, these things appear: 1st. That it is not a common law rule at all, but is wholly statutory in its authority. 2d. That the object of the rule, until a comparatively late period of its existence, was not to protect from answers in the king's court of justice, but to prevent a usurpation of jurisdiction on the part of the Court Christian (or ecclesiastical tribunals). 3d. That even as thus enforced the rule was but partial and limited in its application. 4th. That by gradual perversion of function the rule assumed its present form, but not earlier than the latter half of the seventeenth century. … But nothing can be clearer than that it was a statutory rule. … {1984} The first of these were 16 Car. I., c. 2 (1641) and provided that no one should impose any penalty in ecclesiastical matters, nor should 'tender … to any … person whatsoever any corporal oath whereby he shall be obliged to confess or accuse himself of any crime or any … thing whereby he shall be exposed to any censure or penalty whatever.' This probably applied to ecclesiastical courts alone. The second (13 Car. II., c. 12, 1662) is more general, providing that 'no one shall administer to any person whatsoever the oath usually called ex officio, or any other oath, whereby such persons may be charged or compelled to confess any criminal matter.' … The Statute of 13 Car. II. is cited in Scurr's Case, but otherwise neither of them seems to have been mentioned; nor do the text-books, as a rule, take any notice of them. Henceforward, however, no question arises in the courts as to the validity of the privilege against self-crimination, and the statutory exemption is recognized as applying in common-law courts us well as in others. … This maxim, or rather the abuse of it in the ecclesiastical courts, helps in part to explain the shape which the general privilege now has taken. … We notice that most of the church's religious investigations, … were conducted by means of commissions or inquisitions, not by ordinary trials upon proper presentment; and thus the very rule of the canon law itself was continually broken, and persons unsuspected and unbetrayed 'per famam' were compelled, 'seipsum prodere,' to become their own accusers. This, for a time, was the burden of the complaint. … Furthermore, in rebelling against this abuse of the canon-law rule, men were obliged to formulate their reasons for objecting to answer the articles of inquisitions. … They professed to be willing to answer ordinary questions, but not to betray themselves to disgrace and ruin, especially as where the crimes charged were, as a rule, religious offences and not those which men generally regard as offences against social order. In this way the rule began to be formulated and limited, as applying to the disclosure of forfeitures and penal offences. In the course of the struggle the aid of the civil courts was invoked, … and towards the end of the seventeenth century, … it found a lodgement in the practice of the Exchequer, of Chancery, and of the other courts. There had never been in the civil courts any complaint based on the same lines, or any demand for such a privilege. … But the momentum of this right, wrested from the ecclesiastical courts after a century of continual struggle, fairly carried it over and fixed it firmly in the common-law practice also."

John H. Wigmore, Nemo Tenetur seipsum Prodere (Harvard Law Review, volume 5, pages 71-88).

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1660-1820. 187 Capital Offenses added to Criminal Code in England.

"From the Restoration to the death of George III.,—a period of 160 years,—no less than 187 capital offenses were added to the criminal code. The legislature was able, every year, to discover more than one heinous crime deserving of death. In the reign of George II. thirty-three Acts were passed creating capital offenses; in the first fifty years of George III., no less than sixty-three. In such a multiplication of offenses all principle was ignored; offenses wholly different in character and degree were confounded in the indiscriminating penalty of death. Whenever an offense was found to be increasing, some busy senator called for new rigor, until murder became in the eye of the law no greater crime than picking a pocket, purloining a ribbon from a shop, or pilfering a pewter-pot. Such law-makers were as ignorant as they were cruel. … Dr. Johnson,—no squeamish moralist,—exposed them; Sir W. Blackstone, in whom admiration of our jurisprudence was almost a foible, denounced them. Beccaria, Montesquieu, and Bentham demonstrated that certainty of punishment was more effectual in the repression of crime, than severity; but law-givers were still inexorable."

T. E. May, Constitutional History of England (Widdleton's edition), volume 2, pages 553-554.

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1695. Counsel allowed to Persons indicted for High Treason.

"Holland, following the early example of Spain, always permitted a prisoner the services of a counsel; and if he was too poor to defray the cost, one was furnished at the public charge. In England, until after the fall of the Stuarts, this right, except for the purposes of arguing mere questions of law, was denied to every one placed on trial for his life. In 1695, it was finally accorded to persons indicted for high treason. Even then it is doubtful, says Lord Campbell, whether a bill for this purpose would have passed if Lord Ashley, afterwards Earl of Shaftesbury and author of the 'Characteristics,' had not broken down while delivering in the House of Commons a set speech upon it, and, being called upon to go on, had not electrified the House by observing: 'If I, sir, who rise only to give my opinion upon a bill now pending, in the fate of which I have no personal interest, am so confounded that I am unable to express the least of what I propose to say, what must the condition of that man be, who, without any assistance, is called to plead for his life, his honor, and for his posterity?'"

D. Campbell, The Puritan in Holland, England and America, volume 2, page 446.

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1708. Torture.

The fact that judicial torture, though not a common law power of the courts, was used in England by command of Mary, Elizabeth, James I and Charles I, is familiar to all. It was sanctioned by Lord Coke and Lord Bacon, and Coke himself conducted examinations by it. It was first made illegal in Scotland in 1708; in Bavaria and Wurtemburg in 1806; in Baden in 1831.

_Austin Abbott, Address before New York Society of Medicine Journal, (The Advocate, Minn., 1889, volume 1, page 71)._

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1725. Knowledge of Right and Wrong the test of Responsibility.

The case of Edward Arnold, in 1725, who was indicted for shooting at Lord Onslow, seems to be the earliest case in which the knowledge of right and wrong becomes the test of responsibility.

American Law Review, volume 15, pages 720-722.

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1770. Criminal Law of Libel.

"In this case [Case of the North Briton Junius' Letter to the King, tried before Lord Mansfield and a special jury on the 2nd June 1770] two doctrines were maintained which excepted libels from the general principles of the Criminal Law—firstly, that a publisher was criminally responsible for the acts of his servants, unless he was proved to be neither privy nor to have assented to the publication of a libel; secondly, that it was the province of the Court alone to judge of the criminality of the publication complained of. The first rule was rigidly observed in the Courts until the passing of Lord Campbell's Libel Act in 1843 (6 and 7 Vict., c. 96). The second prevailed only until 1792, when Fox's Libel Act (32 Geo. III, c. 60) declared it to be contrary to the Law of England. … {1985} A century's experience has proved that the law, as declared by the Legislature in 1792, has worked well, falsifying the forebodings of the Judges of the period, who predicted 'the confusion and destruction of the Law of England' as the result of a change which they regarded as the subversion of a fundamental and important principle of English Jurisprudence. Fox's Libel Act did not complete the emancipation of the Press. Liberty of discussion continued to be restrained by merciless persecution. The case of Sir Francis Burdett, in 1820, deserves notice. Sir Francis had written, on the subject of the 'Peterloo Massacre' in Manchester, a letter which was published in a London newspaper. He was fined £2,000 and sentenced to imprisonment for three months. The proceedings on a motion for a new trial are of importance because of the Judicial interpretation of the Libel Act of 1792. The view was then stated by Best, J. (afterwards Lord Wynford), and was adopted unanimously by the Court, that the statute of George III. had not made the question of libel one of fact. If it had, instead of removing an anomaly, it would have created one. Libel, said Best, J., is a question of law, and the judge is the judge of the law in libel as in all other cases, the jury having the power of acting agreeably to his statement of the law or not. All that the statute does is to prevent the question from being left to the jury in the narrow way in which it was left before that time. The jury were then only to find the fact of the publication and the truth of the innuendoes, for the judges used to tell them that the intent was an inference of law to be drawn from the paper, with which the jury had nothing to do. The legislature have said that this is not so, but that the whole case is for the jury (4 B. and A. 95). The law relating to Political Libel has not been developed or altered in any way since the case of R. v. Burdett. If it should ever be revived, which does not at present appear probable, it will be found, says Sir James Stephen, to have been insensibly modified by the law as to defamatory libels on private persons, which has been the subject of a great number of highly important judicial decisions. The effect of these is, amongst other things, to give a right to everyone to criticise fairly—that is, honestly, even if mistakenly—the public conduct of public men, and to comment honestly, even if mistakenly, upon the proceedings of Parliament and the Courts of Justice. (History of the Criminal Law, II., 376.) The unsuccessful prosecution of Cobbett for an article in the 'Political Register,' in 1831, nearly brought to a close the long series of contests between the Executive and the Press. From the period of the Reform Act of 1832, the utmost latitude has been permitted to public writings, and Press prosecutions for political libels, like the Censorship, have lapsed."

_J. W. Ross Brown, Law Magazine & Review, 4th ser., volume 17, page 197._

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1791. Criminals allowed Counsel.

"When the American States adopted their first constitutions, five of them contained a provision that every person accused of crime was to be allowed counsel for his defence. The same right was, in 1791, granted for all America in the first amendments to the Constitution of the United States. This would seem to be an elementary principle of justice, but it was not adopted in England until nearly half a century later, and then only after a bitter struggle."

D. Campbell, The Puritan in Holland, England and America, volume 1, page 70.

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1818. Last Trial by Battle.

"The last appeal of murder brought in England was the case of Ashford v. Thornton in 1818. In that case, after Thornton had been tried and acquitted of the murder of Mary Ashford at the Warwick Assizes her brother charged him in the court of king's bench with her murder, according to the forms of the ancient procedure. The court admitted the legality of the proceedings, and recognized the appellee's right to wage his body; but as the appellant was not prepared to fight, the case ended upon a plea of autrefois acquit interposed by Thornton when arraigned on the appeal. This proceeding led to the statute of 59 Geo. III., c. 46, by which all appeals in criminal cases were finally abolished."

Hannis Taylor, Origin and Growth of the English Constitution, part 1, page 311.

See, also, WAGER OF BATTLE.

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D: 1819. Severity of the former Criminal Law of England.

"Sir James Mackintosh in 1819, in moving in Parliament for a committee to inquire into the conditions of the criminal law, stated that there were then 'two hundred capital felonies on the statute book.' Undoubtedly this apparent severity, for the reasons stated by Sir James Stephen, is greater than the real severity, since many of the offenses made capital were of infrequent occurrence; and juries, moreover, often refused to convict, and persons capitally convicted for offenses of minor degrees of guilt were usually pardoned on condition of transportation to the American and afterwards to the Australian colonies. But this learned author admits that, 'after making all deductions on these grounds there can be no doubt that the legislation of the eighteenth century in criminal matters was severe to the highest degree, and destitute of any sort of principle or system.'"

J. F. Dillon, Laws and Jurisprudence of England and America, page 366.

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1825. "Ticket-of-leave" system established.

"The 'ticket-of-leave' system [was] established under the English laws of penal servitude. It originated under the authority of the governors of the penal colonies, and was the first sanctioned by Parliament, so far as the committee are aware, by an Act 5 Geo. IV., chapter 34. Subsequently, when transportation for crime was abolished by the Acts 16, 17 Vict., chapter 99 (A. D. 1853) and 20, 21 Vict., chapter 3, and system of home prisons established, the 'license' or ticket-of-leave system was adopted by Parliament, in those acts, as a method of rewarding convicts for good conduct during imprisonment. By further acts passed in 1864, 1871 and 1879, the system has been brought gradually into its present efficacy."

Report of Committee on Judicial Administration, and Remedial Procedure (9 American Bar Association Report, 317).

{1986}

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1832-1860. Revision of Criminal Code in England.

"With the reform period commenced a new era in criminal legislation. Ministers and law officers now vied with philanthropists, in undoing the unhallowed work of many generations. In 1832, Lord Auckland, Master of the Mint, secured the abolition of capital punishment for offences connected with coinage; Mr. Attorney-general Denman exempted forgery from the same penalty in all but two cases, to which the Lords would not assent; and Mr. Ewart obtained the like remission for sheep-stealing, and other similar offences. In 1833, the Criminal Law Commission was appointed, to revise the entire code. … The commissioners recommended numerous other remissions, which were promptly carried into effect by Lord John Russell in 1837. Even these remissions, however, fell short of public opinion, which found expression in an amendment of Mr. Ewart, for limiting the punishment of death to the single crime of murder. This proposal was then lost by a majority of one; but has since, by successive measures, been accepted by the legislature;—murder alone, and the exceptional crime of treason, having been reserved for the last penalty of the law. Great indeed, and rapid, was this reformation of the criminal code. It was computed that, from 1810 to 1845, upwards of 1,400 persons had suffered death for crimes, which had since ceased to be capital."

T. E. May, Constitutional History of England (Widdleton's edition), volume 2, pages 557-558.

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1843. Lord Campbell's Libel Act, and Publisher's Liability.

"In the 'Morning Advertiser' of the 19th of December, 1769, appeared Junius's celebrated letter to the king. Inflammatory and seditious, it could not be overlooked; and as the author was unknown, informations were immediately filed against the printers and publishers of the letter. But before they were brought to trial, Almon, the bookseller, was tried for selling the 'London Museum,' in which the libel was reprinted. His connection with the publication proved to be so slight that he escaped with a nominal punishment. Two doctrines, however, were maintained in this case, which excepted libels from the general principles of the criminal law. By the first, a publisher was held criminally answerable for the acts of his servants, unless proved to be neither privy nor assenting to the publication of a libel. So long as exculpatory evidence was admitted, this doctrine was defensible; but judges afterwards refused to admit such evidence, holding that the publication of a libel by a publisher's servant was proof of his criminality. And this monstrous rule of law prevailed until 1843, when it was condemned by Lord Campbell's Libel Act."

T. E. May, Constitutional History of England (Widdleton's edition), volume 2, pages 113-114.

"And be it enacted, that whensoever, upon the trial of any indictment or information for the publication of a libel, under the plea of not guilty, evidence shall have been given which shall establish a presumptive case of publication against the defendant by the act of any other person by his authority, it shall be competent to such defendant to prove that such publication was made without his authority, consent, or knowledge, and that the said publication did not arise from want of due care or caution on his part."

Statute 6 & 7 Vic., c. 96, s. 7.

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1848. The English Court of Criminal Appeal.

"England has not yet got her court of Criminal Appeal, although the Council of Judges, in their belated scheme of legal reform, recommend the legislature to create one. Questions whether an action should be dismissed as 'frivolous or vexatious,' disputes about' security for costs,' and the 'sufficiency of interrogatories' or 'particulars,' and all manner of trivial causes affecting property or status, are deemed by the law of England sufficiently important to entitle the parties to them, if dissatisfied with the finding of a court of first instance, to submit it to the touchstone of an appeal. But the lives and liberties of British subjects charged with the commission of criminal offences are in general disposed of irrevocably by the verdict of a jury, guided by the directions of a trial judge. To this rule, however, there are two leading exceptions. In the first place, any convicted prisoner may petition the sovereign for a pardon, or for the commutation of his sentence; and the royal prerogative of mercy is exercised through, and on the advice of the Secretary of State for the Home Department. In the second place, the English machine juridical notwithstanding its lack of a properly constituted Court of Criminal Appeal, is furnished with a kind of 'mechanical equivalent' therefor, in the 'Court for Crown Cases Reserved,' which was established by act of Parliament in 1848 (11 & 12 Vict. c. 78)."

_The English Court of Criminal Appeal (The Green Bag, volume 5, page 345)._

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1854. Conflict between United States Constitution and a Treaty.

"About 1854, M. Dillon, French consul at San Francisco, refused to appear and testify in a criminal case. The Constitution of the United States (Amendment VI.), in criminal cases grants accused persons compulsory process for obtaining witnesses, while our treaties of 1853, with France (Art. II.) says that consuls 'shall never be compelled to appear as witnesses before the courts.' Thus there was a conflict between the Constitution and the treaty, and it was held that the treaty was void. After a long correspondence the French Consuls were directed to obey a subpoena in future."

Theodore D. Woolsey, Introduction to the Study of International Law [6th edition], page 157, note.

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1877. "Indeterminate Sentences."

"This practice, so far as the committee can ascertain, has been adopted in the states of New York and Ohio only. … The Ohio statute has been taken mainly from that which was adopted in New York, April 12, 1877."

_Report of Committee on Judicial Administrations, and Remedial Procedure (9 American Bar Association Report, page 313)._

CRIMINAL LAW: A. D. 1893. Criminal Jurisdiction of Federal Courts.

"The Supreme Court of the United States, in United States v. Rodgers, … 150 U. S., … in declaring that the term 'high seas' in the criminal law of the United States is applicable as well to the open waters of the great lakes as to the open waters of the ocean, may be said, in a just sense, not to have changed the law, but to have asserted the law to be in force upon a vast domain over which its jurisdiction was heretofore in doubt. The opinion of Justice Field will take its place in our jurisprudence in company with the great cases of the Genesee Chief, 12 How. (U. S.), 443, and its successors, and with them marks the self adapting capacity of the judicial power to meet the great exigencies of justice and good government."

University Law Review, volume 1, page 2.

----------CRIMINAL LAW: End----------

----------ECCLESIASTICAL LAW: Start--------

{1987}

ECCLESIASTICAL LAW: A. D. 449-1066. No distinction between Lay and Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction.

"In the time of our Saxon ancestors, there was no sort of distinction between the lay and the ecclesiastical jurisdiction: the county court was as much a spiritual as a temporal tribunal; the rights of the church were ascertained and asserted at the same time, and by the same judges, as the rights of the laity. For this purpose the bishop of the diocese, and the alderman, or, in his absence, the sheriff of the county, used to sit together in the county court, and had there the cognizance of all causes, as well ecclesiastical as civil: a superior deference being paid to the bishop's opinion in spiritual matters, and to that of the lay judges in temporal.

W. Blackstone, Commentaries, book 3, page 61.

ECCLESIASTICAL LAW: A. D. 1066-1087. Separation of Ecclesiastical from Civil Courts.

"William I. (whose title was warmly espoused by the monasteries, which he liberally endowed, and by the foreign clergy whom he brought over in shoals from France and Italy, and planted in the best preferments of the English church), was at length prevailed upon to … separate the ecclesiastical court from the civil: whether actuated by principles of bigotry, or by those of a more refined policy, in order to discountenance the laws of King Edward, abounding with the spirit of Saxon liberty, is not altogether certain. But the latter, if not the cause, was undoubtedly the consequence, of this separation: for the Saxon laws were soon overborne by the Norman justiciaries, when the county court fell into disregard by the bishop's withdrawing his presence, in obedience to the charter of the conqueror; which prohibited any spiritual cause from being tried in the secular courts, and commanded the suitors to appear before the bishop only, whose decisions were directed to conform to the canon law."

W. Blackstone, Commentaries, book 3, pages 62-63.

"The most important ecclesiastical measure of the reign, the separation of the church jurisdiction from the secular business of the courts of law, is unfortunately, like all other charters of the time, undated. Its contents however show the influence of the ideas which under the genius of Hildebrand were forming the character of the continental churches. From henceforth the bishops and archdeacons are no longer to hold ecclesiastical pleas in the hundred-court, but to have courts of their own; to try causes by canonical, not by customary law, and allow no spiritual questions to come before laymen as judges. In case of contumacy the offender may be excommunicated and the king and sheriff will enforce the punishment. In the same way laymen are forbidden to interfere in spiritual causes. The reform is one which might very naturally recommend itself to a man like Lanfranc."

W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, volume 1, section 101.

ECCLESIASTICAL LAW: A. D. 1100. Reunion of Civil and Ecclesiastical Courts.

"King Henry the First, at his accession, among other restorations of the laws of King Edward the Confessor, revived this of the union of the civil and ecclesiastical courts. … This, however, was ill-relished by the popish clergy,… and, therefore, in their synod at Westminster, 3 Hen. I., they ordained that no bishop should attend the discussion of temporal causes; which soon dissolved this newly effected union."

_W. Blackstone, Commentaries, book 3, page 63._

ECCLESIASTICAL LAW: A. D. 1135. Final Separation of Civil and Ecclesiastical Courts.

"And when, upon the death of King Henry the First, the usurper Stephen was brought in and supported by the clergy, we find one article of the oath which they imposed upon him was, that ecclesiastical persons and ecclesiastical causes should be subject only to the bishop's jurisdiction. And as it was about that time that the contest and emulation began between the laws of England and those of Rome, the temporal courts adhering to the former, and the spiritual adopting the latter as their rule of proceeding, this widened the breach between them, and made a coalition afterwards impracticable; which probably would else have been effected at the general reformation of the church."

W. Blackstone, Commentaries, book 3, page 64.

ECCLESIASTICAL LAW: A. D. 1285. Temporal Courts assume Jurisdiction of Defamation.

"To the Spiritual Court appears also to have belonged the punishment of defamation until the rise of actions on the case, when the temporal courts assumed jurisdiction, though not, it seems, to the exclusion of punishment by the church. The punishment of usurers, cleric and lay, also belonged to the ecclesiastical judges, though their movables were confiscated to the king, unless the usurer 'vita comite digne poenituerit, et testamento condito quae legare decreverit a se prorsus alienaverit.' That is, it seems, the personal punishment was inflicted by the Ecclesiastical Court, but the confiscation of goods (when proper) was decreed by the King's Court."

Melville M. Bigelow, History of Procedure, page 51.

ECCLESIASTICAL LAW: A. D. 1857-1859. Ecclesiastical Courts deprived of Matrimonial and Testamentary Causes.

"Matrimonial causes, or injuries respecting the rights of marriage, are another … branch of the ecclesiastical jurisdiction. Though, if we consider marriages in the light of mere civil contracts, they do not seem to be properly of spiritual cognizance. But the Romanists having very early converted this contract into a holy sacramental ordinance, the church of course took it under her protection,' upon the division of the two jurisdictions. … One might … wonder, that the same authority, which enjoined the strictest celibacy to the priesthood, should think them the proper judges in causes between man and wife. These causes, indeed, partly from the nature of the injuries complained of, and partly from the clerical method of treating them, soon became too gross for the modesty of a lay tribunal. … Spiritual jurisdiction of testamentary causes is a peculiar constitution of this island; for in almost all other (even in popish) countries all matters testamentary are under the jurisdiction of the civil magistrate. And that this privilege is enjoyed by the clergy in England, not as a matter of ecclesiastical right, but by the special favor and indulgence of the municipal law, and as it should seem by some public act of the great council, is freely acknowledged by Lindewode, the ablest canonist of the fifteenth century. Testamentary causes, he observes, belong to the ecclesiastical courts 'de consuetudine Angliae, et super consensu regio et suorum procerum in talibus ab antiquo concesso.'"

W. Blackstone, Commentaries, book 3, pages 91-95.

{1988}

Jurisdiction in testamentary causes was taken away from the ecclesiastical courts by Statutes 20 and 21 Vic., c. 77 and 21 and 22 Vic., chapters 56 and 95, and was transferred to the court of Probate. Jurisdiction in matrimonial causes was transferred to the Divorce Court by Statute 20 and 21 Vic., 85.

----------ECCLESIASTICAL LAW: End--------

----------EQUITY: Start--------

Equity.

EQUITY: A. D. 449-1066. Early Masters in Chancery.

"As we approach the era of the Conquest, we find distinct traces of the Masters in Chancery, who, though in sacred orders, were well trained in jurisprudence, and assisted the chancellor in preparing writs and grants, as well as in the service of the royal chapel. They formed a sort of college of justice, of which he was the head. They all sate in the Wittenagemote, and, as 'Law Lords', are supposed to have had great weight in the deliberations of that assembly."

Lord Campbell, Lives of the Chancellors, volume 1, page 53.

EQUITY: A. D. 596. Chancellor, Keeper of the Great Seal.

"From the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity by the preaching of St. Augustine, the King always had near his person a priest, to whom was entrusted the care of his chapel, and who was his confessor. This person, selected from the most learned and able of his order, and greatly superior in accomplishments to the unlettered laymen attending the Court, soon acted as private secretary to the King, and gained his confidence in affairs of state. The present demarcation between civil and ecclesiastical employments was then little regarded, and to this same person was assigned the business of superintending writs and grants, with the custody of the great seal."

Lord Campbell, Lives of the Chancellors, volume 1, page 27.

EQUITY: A. D. 1066. Master of the Rolls.

"The office of master, formerly called the Clerk or Keeper of the Rolls, is recognized at this early period, though at this time he appears to have been the Chancellor's deputy, not an independent officer."

Geo. Spence, Equity Jurisdiction of the Court of Chancery, volume 1, page 100.

EQUITY: A. D. 1066-1154. Chancellor as Secretary of State.

Under the Norman Kings, the Chancellor was a kind of secretary of state. His functions were political rather than judicial. He attended to the royal correspondence, kept the royal accounts, and drew up writs for the administration of justice. He was also the keeper of the seal.

Montague's Elements of Constitutional History of England, page 27.

See, also, CHANCELLOR.

A. D. 1067. First Lord Chancellor.

"The first keeper of the seals who was endowed with the title of Lord Chancellor was Maurice, who received the great seal in 1067. The incumbents of the office were for a long period ecclesiastics; and they usually enjoyed episcopal or archiepiscopal rank, and lived in the London palaces attached to their sees or provinces. The first Keeper of the seals of England was Fitzgilbert, appointed by Queen Matilda soon after her coronation, and there was no other layman appointed until the reign of Edward III."

L. J. Bigelow, Bench and Bar, page 23.

EQUITY: A. D. 1169. Uses and Trusts.

"According to the law of England, trusts may be created 'inter vivos' as well as by testament, and their history is a curious one, beginning, like that of the Roman 'fidei commissa,' with an attempt to evade the law. The Statutes of Mortmain, passed to prevent the alienation of lands to religious houses, led to the introduction of 'uses,' by which the grantor alienated his land to a friend to hold 'to the use' of a monastery, the clerical chancellors giving legal validity to the wish thus expressed. Although this particular device was put a stop to by 15 Ric. II. c. 5, 'uses' continued to be employed for other purposes, having been found more malleable than what was called, by way of contrast, 'the legal estate.' They offered indeed so many modes of escaping the rigour of the law, that, after several other statutes had been passed with a view of curtailing their advantages, the 27 Hen. VIII. c. 10 enacted that, where anyone was seised to a use, the legal estate should be deemed to be in him to whose use he was seised. The statute did not apply to trusts of personal property, nor to trusts of land where any active duty was cast upon the trustee, nor where a use was limited 'upon a use,' i. e. where the person in whose favour a use was created was himself to hold the estate to the use of some one else. There continued therefore to be a number of cases in which, in spite of the 'Statute of Uses,' the Court of Chancery was able to carry out its policy of enforcing what had otherwise been merely moral duties. The system thus arising has grown to enormous dimensions, and trusts, which, according to the definition of Lord Hardwicke, are 'such a confidence between parties that no action at law will lie, but there is merely a case for the consideration of courts of equity,' are inserted not only in wills, but also in marriage settlements, arrangements with creditors, and numberless other instruments necessary for the comfort of families and the development of commerce."

T. E. Holland, Elements of Jurisprudence, 5th edition, page 217.

EQUITY: A. D. 1253. A Lady Keeper of the Seals.

"Having occasion to cross the sea and visit Gascony, A. D. 1253, Henry III. made her [Queen Eleanor] keeper of the seal during his absence, and in that character she in her own person presided in the 'Aula Regia,' hearing causes, and, it is to be feared, forming her decisions less in accordance with justice than her own private interests. Never did judge set law and equity more fearfully at naught."

L. J. Bigelow, Bench and Bar, page 28.

EQUITY: A. D. 1258. No Writs except De Cursu.

"In the year 1258 the Provisions of Oxford were promulgated; two separate clauses of which bound the chancellor to issue no more writs except writs 'of course' without command of the King and his Council present with him. This, with the growing independence of the judiciary on the one hand, and the settlement of legal process on the other, terminated the right to issue special writs, and at last fixed the common writs in unchangeable form; most of which had by this time become developed into the final form in which for six centuries they were treated as precedents of declaration."

M. M. Bigelow, History of Procedure, page 197.

EQUITY: A. D. 1272-1307. The Chancellor's functions.

"In the reign of Edward I. the Chancellor begins to appear in the three characters in which we now know him; as a great political officer, as the head of a department for the issue of writs and the custody of documents in which the King's interest is concerned, as the administrator of the King's grace."

Sir William H. Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, part 2, page 146.

{1989}

EQUITY: A. D. 1330. Chancery stationary at Westminster.

"There was likewise introduced about this time a great improvement in the administration of justice, by rendering the Court of Chancery stationary at Westminster. The ancient kings of England were constantly migrating,—one principal reason for which was, that the same part of the country, even with the aid of purveyance and pre-emption, could not long support the court and all the royal retainers, and render in kind due to the King could be best consumed on the spot. Therefore, if he kept Christmas at Westminster, he would keep Easter at Winchester, and Pentecost at Gloucester, visiting his many palaces and manors in rotation. The Aula Regis, and afterwards the courts into which it was partitioned, were ambulatory along with him—to the great vexation of the suitors. This grievance was partly corrected by Magna Charta, which enacted that the Court of Common Pleas should be held 'in a certain place,'—a corner of Westminster Hall being fixed upon for that purpose. In point of law, the Court of King's Bench and the Court of Chancery may still be held in any county of England,—'wheresoever in England the King or the Chancellor may be.' Down to the commencement of the reign of Edward III., the King's Bench and the Chancery actually had continued to follow the King's person, the Chancellor and his officers being entitled to part of the purveyance made for the royal household. By 28 Edw. 1., c. 5, the Lord Chancellor and the Justices of the King's Bench were ordered to follow the King, so that he might have at all times near him sages of the law able to order all matters which should come to the Court. But the two Courts were now by the King's command fixed in the places where, unless on a few extraordinary occasions, they continued to be held down to our own times, at the upper end of Westminster Hall, the King's Bench on the left hand, and the Chancery on the right, both remaining open to the Hall, and a bar erected to keep off the multitude from pressing on the judges."

Lord Campbell, Lives of the Chancellors, volume 1, page 181.

EQUITY: A. D. 1348. "Matters of Grace" committed to the Chancellor.

"In the 22nd year of Edward III, matters which were of grace were definitely committed to the Chancellor for decision, and from this point there begins to develop that body of rules—supplementing the deficiencies or correcting the harshness of the Common Law—which we call Equity."

Sir W. R. Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, part 2, page 147.

ALSO IN: Kerly's History of the Court of Chancery, page 31.

EQUITY: A. D. 1383. Early Instance of Subpoena.

"It is said that John Waltham, Bishop of Salisbury, who was Keeper of the Rolls about the 5th of Richard II., considerably enlarged this new jurisdiction; that, to give efficacy to it, he invented, or more properly, was the first who adopted in that court, the writ of subpoena, a process which had before been used by the council, and is very plainly alluded to in the statutes of the last reign, though not under that name. This writ summoned the party to appear under a penalty, and answer such things as should be objected against him; upon this a petition was lodged, containing the articles of complaint to which he was then compelled to answer. These articles used to contain suggestions of injuries suffered, for which no remedy was to be had in the courts of common law, and therefore the complainant prayed advice and relief of the chancellor."

J. Reeves, History English Law (Finlason's edition), volume 3, page 384.

EQUITY: A. D. 1394. Chancery with its own Mode of Procedure.

"From the time of passing the stat. 17 Richard II. we may consider that the Court of Chancery was established as a distinct and permanent court, having separate jurisdiction, with its own peculiar mode of procedure similar to that which had prevailed in the Council, though perhaps it was not wholly yet separated from the Council."

George Spence, Equity Jurisdiction of the Court of Chancery, volume 1, page 345.

EQUITY: A. D. 1422. Chancery Cases appear in Year Books.

"It is beyond a doubt that this [chancery] court had begun to exercise its judicial authority in the reigns of Richard II., Henry IV. and V. … But we do not find in our books any report of cases there determined till 37 Henry VI., except only on the subject of uses; which, as has been before remarked, might give rise to the opinion, that the first equitable judicature was concerned in the support of uses."

J. Reeves, History English Law (Finlason's edition), volume 3, page 553.

EQUITY: A. D. 1443. No distinction between Examination and Answer.

The earliest record of written answers is in 21 Henry VI. Before that time little, if any, distinction was made between the examination and the answer.

Kerly, History of Courts of Chancery, page 51.

EQUITY: A. D. 1461-1483. Distinction between Proceeding by Bill and by Petition.

"A written statement of the grievance being required to be filed before the issuing of the subpoena, with security to pay damages and costs,—bills now acquired form, and the distinction arose between the proceeding by bill and by petition. The same regularity was observed in the subsequent stages of the suit. Whereas formerly the defendant was generally examined viva voce when he appeared in obedience to the subpoena, the practice now was to put in a written answer, commencing with a protestation against the truth or sufficiency of the matters contained in the bill, stating the facts relied upon by the defendant, and concluding with a prayer that he may be dismissed, with his costs. There were likewise, for the purpose of introducing new facts, special replications and rejoinders, which continued till the reign of Elizabeth, but which have been rendered unnecessary by the modern practice of amending the bill and answer. Pleas and demurrers now appear. Although the pleadings were in English, the decrees on the bill continued to be in Latin down to the reign of Henry VIII. Bills to perpetuate testimony, to set out metes and bounds, and for injunctions against proceedings at law, and to stay waste, became frequent."

Lord Campbell, Lives of the Chancellors, volume 1, page 309.

{1990}

EQUITY: A. D. 1461-1483. Jurisdiction of Chancery over Trusts.

"The equitable jurisdiction of the Court of Chancery may be considered as making its greatest advances in this reign [Edw. IV.]. The point was now settled, that there being a feoffment to uses, the 'cestui que' use, or person beneficially entitled, could maintain no action at law, the Judges saying that he had neither 'jus in re' nor 'jus ad rem,' and that their forms could not be moulded so as to afford him any effectual relief, either as to the land or the profits. The Chancellors, therefore, with general applause, declared that they would proceed by subpoena against the feoffee to compel him to perform a duty which in conscience was binding upon him, and gradually extended the remedy against his heir and against his alienee with notice of the trust, although they held, as their successors have done, that the purchaser of the legal estate for valuable consideration without notice might retain the land for his own benefit. They therefore now freely made decrees requiring the trustee to convey according to the directions of the 'cestui que trust,' or person beneficially interested; and the most important branch of the equitable jurisdiction of the Court over trusts was firmly and irrevocably established."

Lord Campbell, Lives of the Chancellors, volume 1, page 309.

EQUITY: A. D. 1538. Lord Keeper of the Great Seal.

"Between the death, resignation, or removal of one chancellor, and the appointment of another, the Great Seal, instead of remaining in the personal custody of the Sovereign, was sometimes entrusted to a temporal keeper, either with limited authority (as only to seal writs), or with all the powers, though not with the rank of Chancellor. At last the practice grew up of occasionally appointing a person to hold the Great Seal with the title of 'Keeper,' where it was meant that he should permanently hold it in his own right and discharge all the duties belonging to it. Queen Elizabeth, ever sparing in the conferring of dignities, having given the Great Seal with the title of 'Keeper' to Sir Nicholas Bacon, objections were made to the legality of some of his acts,—and to obviate these, a statute was passed declaring that 'the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal for the time being shall have the same place, pre-eminence, and jurisdiction as the Lord Chancellor of England.' Since then there never have been a Chancellor and Keeper of the Great Seal concurrently, and the only difference between the two titles is, that the one is more sounding than the other, and is regarded as a higher mark of royal favor."

Lord Campbell, Lives of the Chancellors, volume 1, page 40.

ALSO IN: Sir W. R. Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, volume 2, page 150.

EQUITY: A. D. 1558. Increase of Business in the Court of Chancery.

"The business of the Court of Chancery had now so much increased that to dispose of it satisfactorily required a Judge regularly trained to the profession of the law, and willing to devote to it all his energy and industry. The Statute of Wills, the Statute of Uses, the new modes of conveyancing introduced for avoiding transmutation of possession, the questions which arose respecting the property of the dissolved monasteries, and the great increase of commerce and wealth in the nation, brought such a number of important suits into the Court of Chancery, that the holder of the Great Seal could no longer satisfy the public by occasionally stealing a few hours from his political occupations, to dispose of bills and petitions, and not only was his daily attendance demanded in Westminster Hall during term time, but it was necessary that he should sit, for a portion of each vacation, either at his own house, or in some convenient place appointed by him for clearing off his arrears."

Lord Campbell, Lives of the Chancellors, volume 2, page 95.

EQUITY: A. D. 1567-1632. Actions of Assumpsit in Equity.

"The late development of the implied contract to pay 'quantum meruit,' and to indemnify a surety, would be the more surprising, but for the fact that Equity gave relief to tailors and the like, and to sureties long before the common law held them. Spence, although at a loss to account for the jurisdiction, mentions a suit brought in Chancery, in 1567, by a tailor, to recover the amount due for clothes furnished. The suit was referred to the Queen's tailor, to ascertain the amount due, and upon his report a decree was made. The learned writer adds that 'there were suits for wages and many others of like nature.' A surety who had no counter-bond filed a bill against his principal in 1632, in a case which would seem to have been one of the earliest of the kind, for the reporter, after stating that there was a decree for the plaintiff, adds 'quod nota.'"

J. B. Ames, History of Assumpsit (Harvard Law Review, volume 2, pages 59-60).

EQUITY: A. D. 1592. All Chancellors, save one, Lawyers.

"No regular judicial system at that time prevailed in the court; but the suitor when he thought himself aggrieved, found a desultory and uncertain remedy, according to the private opinion of the chancellor, who was generally an ecclesiastic, or sometimes (though rarely) a statesman: no lawyer having sat in the court of chancery from the times of the chief justices Thorpe and Knyvet, successively chancellors to King Edward III. in 1372 and 1373, to the promotion of Sir Thomas More by King Henry VIII., in 1530. After which the great seal was indiscriminately committed to the custody of lawyers or courtiers, or churchmen, according as the convenience of the times and the disposition of the prince required, till Sargeant Puckering was made lord keeper in 1592; from which time to the present the court of chancery has always been filled by a lawyer, excepting the interval from 1621 to 1625, when the seal was entrusted to Dr. Williams, then dean of Westminster, but afterwards bishop of Lincoln; who had been chaplain to Lord Ellesmere when chancellor."

W. Blackstone, Commentaries, book 3, chapter 4.

EQUITY: A. D. 1595. Injunctions against Suits at Law. Opposition of common law courts.

"The strongest inclination was shown to maintain this opposition to the court of equity, not only by the courts, but by the legislature. The stat. 27 Elizabeth, c, l., which, in very general words, restrains all application to other jurisdictions to impeach or impede the execution of judgments given in the king's courts, under penalty of a praemunire, has been interpreted, as well as stat. Richard II., c. 5, not only as imposing a restraint upon popish claims of judicature, but also of the equitable jurisdiction in Chancery; and in the thirty-first and thirty-second years of this reign, a counsellor-at-law was indicted in the King's Bench on the statute of praemunire, for exhibiting a bill in Chancery after judgment had gone against his client in the King's Bench. Under this and the like control, the Court of Chancery still continued to extend its authority, supported, in some degree, by the momentum it acquired in the time of Cardinal Wolsey."

J. Reeves, History English Law (Finlason's edition.), volume 5, pages 386-387.

{1991}

EQUITY: A. D. 1596. Lord Ellesmere and his Decisions.

Kerly says the earliest chancellors' decisions that have come down to us are those of Lord Ellesmere. He was the first chancellor to establish equity upon the basis of precedents. But compare Reeves (Finlason's), History English Law, volume 3, page 553, who mentions decisions in the Year Books.

Kerly, History of the Court of Chancery, page 98.

EQUITY: A. D. 1601. Cy Pres Doctrine.

"There is no trace of the doctrine being put into practice in England before the Reformation, although in the earliest reported cases where it has been applied it is treated as a well recognized rule, and as one owing its origin to the traditional favour with which charities had always been regarded. Much of the obscurity which covers the introduction of the doctrine into our Law may perhaps be explained by the fact that, in the earliest times, purely charitable gifts, as they would now be understood, were almost unknown. The piety of donors was most generally displayed in gifts to religious houses, and the application of the subject matter of such gifts was exclusively in the Superiors of the different Orders, and entirely exempt from secular control. From the religious houses the administration of charitable gifts passed to the Chancellor, as keeper of the King's conscience, the latter having as 'parens patriae' the general superintendence of all infants, idiots, lunatics and charities. And it was not until some time later that this jurisdiction became gradually merged, and then only in cases where trusts were interposed, in the general jurisdiction of the Chancery Courts. It is not necessary to go into the long vexed question as to when that actually took place. It is enough to say that it is now pretty conclusively established that the jurisdiction of the Chancery Courts over charitable trusts existed anterior to, and independently of, the Statute of Charitable Uses, 43 Eliz., c. 4. As charitable gifts generally involved the existence of a trust reposed in some one, it was natural that the Chancery Court, which assumed jurisdiction over trusts, should have gradually extended that jurisdiction over charities generally; but the origin of the power, that it was one delegated by the Crown to the Chancellor, must not be lost sight of, as in this way, probably, can be best explained the curious distinct jurisdictions vested in the Crown and the Chancery Courts respectively to apply gifts Cy pres, the limits of which, though long uncertain, were finally determined by Lord Eldon in the celebrated case of Moggridge v. Thackwell, 7 ves. 69. If we remember that the original jurisdiction in all charitable matters was in the Crown, and that even after the Chancery Courts acquired a jurisdiction over trusts, there was still a class of cases untouched by such jurisdiction, we shall better understand how the prerogative of the Crown still remained in a certain class of cases, as we shall see hereafter. However this may be, there is no doubt that when the Chancery Courts obtained the jurisdiction over the charities, which they have never lost, the liberal principles of the Civil or Canon Law as to the carrying out of such gifts were the sources and inspirations of their decisions. And hence the Cy pres doctrine became gradually well recognised, though the mode of its application has varied from time to time. Perhaps the most striking instances of this liberal construction are to be found in the series of cases which, by a very strained interpretation of the Statute of Elizabeth with regard to charitable uses, decided that gifts to such uses in favour of corporations, which could not take by devise under the old Wills Act, 32 Hen. VIII., c. 1, were good as operating in the nature of an appointment of the trust in equity, and that the intendment of the statute being in favour of charitable gifts, all deficiencies of assurance were to be supplied by the Courts. Although, historically, there may be no connection between the power of the King over the administration of charities, and the dispensing power reserved to him by the earlier Mortmain Acts, the one being, as we have seen, a right of Prerogative, the other a Feudal right in his capacity as ultimate Lord of the fee, it is perhaps not wholly out of place to allude shortly to the latter, particularly as the two appear not to have been kept distinct in later times. By the earlier Mortmain Acts, the dispensing power of the King, as Lord Paramount, to waive forfeitures under these Acts was recognised, and gifts of land to religious or charitable corporations were made not 'ipso facto' void, but only voidable at the instance of the immediate Lord, or, on his default, of the King and after the statute 'quia emptores,' which practically abolished mesne seignories, the Royal license became in most cases sufficient to secure the validity of the gift. The power of suspending statutes being declared illegal at the Revolution, it was deemed prudent, seeing that the grant of licenses in Mortmain imported an exercise of such suspending power, to give these licenses a Parliamentary sanction; and accordingly, by 7 and 8 William III., c. 37, it was declared that the King might grant licenses to aliens in Mortmain, and also to purchase, acquire, and hold lands in Mortmain in perpetuity without pain of forfeiture. The right of the mesne lord was thus passed over, and the dispensing power of the Crown, from being originally a Feudal right, became converted practically into one of Prerogative. The celebrated Statute of 1 Edward VI., c. 14, against superstitious uses, which is perhaps the earliest statutory recognition of the Cy pres doctrine, points also strongly to the original jurisdiction in these matters being in the King." The author proceeds to trace at some length the subsequent developments of the doctrine both judicial and statutory. The doctrine is not generally recognised in the United States.

H. L. Manby in Law Magazine & Review, 4th ser., volume 15 (London, 1889-90), page 203.

EQUITY: A. D. 1603-1625. Equity and the Construction of Wills.

"After a violent struggle between Lord Coke and Lord Ellesmere, the jurisdiction of the Court of Chancery to stay by injunction execution on judgments at law was finally established. In this reign [James I.] the Court made another attempt,—which was speedily abandoned,—to determine upon the validity of wills,—and it has been long settled that the validity of wills of real property shall be referred to courts of law, and the validity of wills of personal property to the Ecclesiastical Courts,—equity only putting a construction upon them when their validity has been established."

Lord Campbell, Lives of the Chancellors, volume 2, page 386.

EQUITY: A. D. 1612. Right of Redemption.

The right to redeem after the day dates from the reign of James I. From the time of Edward IV. (1461-83) a mortgagor could redeem after the day if accident, or a collateral agreement, or fraud by mortgagee, prevented payment.

Kerly, History of the Court of Chancery, page 143.

{1992}

EQUITY: A. D. 1616. Contest between Equity and Common-Law Courts.

"In the time of Lord Ellesmere (A. D. 1616) arose that notable dispute between the courts of law and equity, set on foot by Sir Edward Coke, then chief justice of the court of king's bench; whether a court of equity could give relief after or against a judgment at the common law? This contest was so warmly carried on, that indictments were preferred against the suitors, the solicitors, the counsel, and even a master in chancery, for having incurred a 'praemunire,' by questioning in a court of equity a judgment in the court of king's bench, obtained by a gross fraud and imposition. This matter being brought before the king, was by him referred to his learned counsel for their advice and opinion; who reported so strongly in favor of the courts of equity, that his majesty gave judgment in their behalf."

W. Blackstone, Commentaries, book 3, page 54.

EQUITY: A. D. 1616. Relief against judgments at law.

"This was in 1616, the year of the memorable contest between Lord Coke and Lord Ellesmere as to the power of equity to restrain the execution of common-law judgment obtained by fraud. … The right of equity to enforce specific performance, where damages at law would be an inadequate remedy, has never since been questioned."

_J. B. Ames, Specific Performance of Contracts (The Green Bag, volume 1, page 27)._

EQUITY: A. D. 1671. The Doctrine of Tacking established.

"It is the established doctrine in the English law, that if there be three mortgages in succession, and all duly registered, or a mortgage, and then a judgment, and then a second mortgage upon the estate, the junior mortgagee may purchase in the first mortgage, and tack it to his mortgage, and by that contrivance 'squeeze out' the middle mortgage, and gain preference over it. The same rule would apply if the first, as well as the second incumbrance, was a judgment; but the incumbrancer who tacks must always be a mortgagee, for he stands in the light of a bona fide purchaser, parting with his money upon the security of the mortgage. … In the English law, the rule is under some reasonable qualification. The last mortgagee cannot tack, if, when he took his mortgage, he had notice in fact … of the intervening incumbrance. … The English doctrine of tacking was first solemnly established in Marsh v. Lee [2 Vent. 337], under the assistance of Sir Matthew Hale, who compared the operation to a plank in shipwreck gained by the last mortgagee; and the subject was afterwards very fully and accurately expounded by the Master of the Rolls, in Brace v. Duchess of Marlborough [2 P. Wms. 491]."

J. Kent, Commentaries, part 6, lecture 58.

EQUITY: A. D. 1702-1714. Equitable conversion.

"He [Lord Harcourt] first established the important doctrine, that if money is directed either by deed or will to be laid out in land, the money shall be taken to be land, even as to collateral heirs."

Lord Campbell, Lives of the Chancellors, volume 4, page 374.

EQUITY: A. D. 1736-1756. Lord Hardwicke developed System of Precedents.

It was under Lord Hardwicke that the jurisdiction of Equity was fully developed. During the twenty years of his chancellorship the great branches of equitable jurisdiction were laid out, and his decisions were regularly cited as authority until after Lord Eldon's time.

Kerly, History of the Court of Chancery, pages 175-177.

EQUITY: A. D. 1742. Control of Corporations.

"That the directors of a corporation shall manage its affairs honestly and carefully is primarily a right of the corporation itself rather than of the individual stockholders. … The only authority before the present century is the case of the Charitable Corporation v. Sutton, decided by Lord Hardwicke [2 Atk. 400]. But this case is the basis … of all subsequent decisions on the point, and it is still quoted as containing an accurate exposition of the law. The corporation was charitable only in name, being a joint-stock corporation for lending money on pledges. By the fraud of some of the directors … , and by the negligence of the rest, loans were made without proper security. The bill was against the directors and other officers, 'to have a satisfaction for a breach of trust, fraud, and mismanagement.' Lord Hardwicke granted the relief prayed, and a part of his decision is well worth quoting. He says: 'Committee-men are most properly agents to those who employ them in this trust, and who empower them to direct and superintend the affairs of the corporation. In this respect they may be guilty of acts of commission or omission, of malfeasance or nonfeasance. … Nor will I ever determine that a court of equity cannot lay hold of every breach of trust, let the person be guilty of it either in a private or public capacity.'"

S. Williston, History of the Law of Business (Harvard Law Review, volume 2, page 158-159).

EQUITY: A. D. 1782. Demurrer to Bill of Discovery.

"Originally, it appears not to have been contemplated that a demurrer or plea would lie to a bill for discovery, unless it were a demurrer or plea to the nature of the discovery sought or to the jurisdiction of the court, e. g., a plea of purchase for value; and, though it was a result of this doctrine that plaintiffs might compel discovery to which they were not entitled, it seems to have been supposed that they were not likely to do so to any injurious effect, since they must do it at their own expense. But this view was afterwards abandoned, and in 1782 it was decided that, if a bill of discovery in aid of an action at law stated no good cause of action against the defendant, it might be demurred to on that ground, i. e., that it showed on its face no right to relief at law, and, therefore, no right to discovery in equity. Three years later in Hindman v. Taylor, the question was raised whether a defendant could protect himself for answering a bill for discovery by setting up an affirmative defence by plea; and, though Lord Thurlow decided the question in the negative, his decision has since been overruled; and it is now fully settled that any defence may be set up to a bill for discovery by demurrer or plea, the same as to a bill for relief; and, if successful, it will protect the defendant from answering."

C. C. Langdell, Summary of Equity Pleading, pages 204-205.

{1993}

EQUITY: A. D. 1786. Injunction after Decree to pay Proceeds of Estate into Court.

"As soon as a decree is made … , under which the executor will be required to pay the proceeds of the whole estate into court, an injunction ought to be granted against the enforcement of any claim against the estate by an action at law; and accordingly such has been the established rule for more than a hundred years. … The first injunction that was granted expressly upon the ground above explained was that granted by Lord Thurlow, in 1782, in the case of Brooks v. Reynolds. … In the subsequent case of Kenyon v. Worthington, … an application to Lord Thurlow for an injunction was resisted by counsel of the greatest eminence. The resistance, however, was unsuccessful, and the injunction was granted. This was in 1786; and from that time the question was regarded as settled."

C. C. Langdell, Equity Jurisdiction (Harvard Law Review, volume 5, pages 122-123).

EQUITY: A. D. 1792. Negative Pleas.

"In Gun v. Prior, Forrest, 88, note, 1 Cox, 197, 2 Dickens, 657, Cas. in Eq. Pl. 47, a negative plea was overruled by Lord Thurlow after a full argument. This was in 1785. Two years later, the question came before the same judge again, and, after another full argument, was decided the same way. Newman v. Wallis, 2 Bro. C. C. 143, Cas. in Eq. Pl. 52. But in 1792, in the case of Hall v. Noyes, 3 Bro. C. C. 483, 489, Cas. in Eq. Pl. 223, 227, Lord Thurlow took occasion to say that he had changed his opinion upon the subject of negative pleas, and that his former decisions were wrong; and since then the right to plead a negative plea has not been questioned."

C. C. Langdell, Summary of Equity Pleading, p. 114, note.

EQUITY: A. D. 1801-1827. Lord Eldon settled Rules of Equity.

"'The doctrine of this Court,' he [Lord Eldon] said himself, 'ought to be as well settled and as uniform, almost, as those of the common law, laying down fixed principles, but taking care that they are to be applied according to the circumstances of each case. I cannot agree that the doctrines of this Court are to be changed by every succeeding judge. Nothing would inflict on me greater pain than the recollection that I had done any thing to justify the reproach that the Equity of this Court varies like the Chancellor's foot.' Certainly the reproach he dreaded cannot justly be inflicted upon his memory. … From his time onward the development of equity was effected ostensibly, and, in the great majority of cases, actually, by strict deduction from the principles to be discovered in decided cases, and the work of subsequent Chancery judges has been, for the most part, confined, as Lord Eldon's was, to tracing out these principles into detail, and to rationalising them by repeated review and definition."

D. M. Kerly, History Court Chancery, page 182.

EQUITY: A. D. 1812. Judge Story.

"We are next to regard Story during his thirty-five years of judicial service. He performed an amount of judicial labor almost without parallel, either in quality or quantity, in the history of jurisprudence. His judgments in the Circuit Court comprehended thirteen volumes. His opinions in the Supreme Court are found in thirty-five volumes. Most of these decisions are on matters of grave difficulty, and many of them of first impression. Story absolutely created a vast amount of law for our country. Indeed, he was essentially a builder. When he came to the bench, the law of admiralty was quite vague and unformed; his genius formed it as exclusively as Stowell's did in England. He also did much toward building up the equity system which has become part of our jurisprudence. In questions of international and constitutional law, the breadth and variety of his legal learning enabled him to shine with peculiar brilliancy. It is sufficient to say that there is scarcely any branch of the law which he has not greatly illustrated and enlarged,—prize, constitutional, admiralty, patent, copyright, insurance, real estate, commercial law so called, and equity,—all were gracefully familiar to him. The most celebrated of his judgments are De Lovio v. Boit, in which be investigates the jurisdiction of the Admiralty; Martin v. Hunter's Lessee, which examines the appellate jurisdiction of the United States Supreme Court; Dartmouth College v. Woodward, in which the question was, whether the charter of a college was a contract within the meaning of the constitutional provision prohibiting the enactment, by any State, of laws impairing the obligations of contracts; his dissenting opinion in Charles River Bridge Company v. The Warren Bridge; involving substantially the same question as the last case; and the opinion in the Girard will case. These are the most celebrated, but are scarcely superior to scores of his opinions in cases never heard of beyond the legal profession. His biographer is perhaps warranted in saying of his father's judicial opinions: 'For closeness of texture and compact logic, they are equal to the best judgments of Marshall; for luminousness and method, they stand beside those of Mansfield; in elegance of style, they yield the palm only to the prize cases of Lord Stowell, but in fullness of illustration and wealth and variety of learning, they stand alone."

Irving Browne, Short Studies of Great Lawyers, pages 293-295.

EQUITY: A. D. 1814-1823. Chancellor Kent.

"In February, 1814, he was appointed chancellor. The powers and jurisdiction of the court of chancery were not clearly defined. There were scarcely any precedents of its decisions, to which reference could be made in case of doubt. Without any other guide, he felt at liberty to exercise such powers of the English chancery as he deemed applicable under the Constitution and laws of the State, subject to the correction of the Court of Errors, on appeal. … On the 31st of July, 1823, having attained the age of sixty years, the period limited by the Constitution for the tenure of his office, he retired from the court, after hearing and deciding every case that had been brought before him. On this occasion the members of the bar residing in the City of New York, presented him an address. After speaking of the inestimable benefits conferred on the community by his judicial labors for five and twenty years they say: 'During this long course of services, so useful and honorable, and which will form the most brilliant period in our judicial history, you have, by a series of decisions in law and equity, distinguished alike for practical wisdom, profound learning, deep research and accurate discrimination, contributed to establish the fabric of our jurisprudence on those sound principles that have been sanctioned by the experience of mankind, and expounded by the enlightened and venerable sages of the law. Though others may hereafter enlarge and adorn the edifice whose deep and solid foundations were laid by the wise and patriotic framers of our government, in that common law which they claimed for the people as their noblest inheritance, your labors on this magnificent structure will forever remain eminently conspicuous, command the applause of the present generation, and exciting the admiration and gratitude of future ages.'"

Charles B. Waite, James Kent (Chicago Law Times, volume 3, pages 339-341).

{1994}

EQUITY: A. D. 1821. Negative Pleas to be supported by an Answer.

"The principle of negative pleas was first established by the introduction of anomalous pleas; but it was not perceived at first that anomalous pleas involved the admission of pure negative pleas. It would often happen, however, that a defendant would have no affirmative defence to a bill, and yet the bill could not be supported because of the falsity of some material allegation contained in it; and, if the defendant could deny this false allegation by a negative plea, he would thereby avoid giving discovery as to all other parts of the bill. At length, therefore, the experiment of setting up such a plea was tried; and, though unsuccessful at first, it prevailed in the end, and negative pleas became fully established. If they had been well understood, they might have proved a moderate success, although they were wholly foreign to the system into which they were incorporated; but, as it was, their introduction was attended with infinite mischief and trouble, and they did much to bring the system into disrepute. For example, it was not clearly understood for a long time that a pure negative plea required the support of an answer; and there was no direct decision to that effect until the case of Sanders v. King, 6 Madd. 61, Cas. in Eq. Pl. 74, decided in 1821."

C. C. Langdell, Summary of Equity Pleading, pages 113-114.

EQUITY: A. D. 1834. First Statute of Limitations in Equity.

"None of the English statutes of limitation, prior to 3 & 4 Wm. IV., c. 27, had any application to suits in equity. Indeed, they contained no general terms embracing all actions at law, but named specifically all actions to which they applied; and they made no mention whatever of suits in equity. If a plaintiff sued in equity, when he might have brought an action at law, and the time for bringing the action was limited by statute, the statute might in a certain sense be pleaded to the suit in equity; for the defendant might say that, if the plaintiff had sued at law, his action would have been barred; that the declared policy of the law therefore, was against the plaintiff's recovering; and hence the cause was not one of which a court of equity ought to take cognizance. In strictness, however, the plea in such a case would be to the jurisdiction of the court."

C. C. Langdell, Summary of Equity Pleading, pages 149-150.

EQUITY: A. D. 1836. Personal Character of Shares of Stock first established in England.

"The most accurate definition of the nature of the property acquired by the purchase of a share of stock in a corporation is that it is a fraction of all the rights and duties of the stockholders composing the corporation. Such does not seem to have been the clearly recognized view till after the beginning of the present century. The old idea was rather that the corporation held all its property strictly as a trustee, and that the shareholders were, strictly speaking, 'cestuis que trust,' being in equity co-owners of the corporate property. … It was not until the decision of Bligh v. Brent [Y. & C. 268], in 1836, that the modern view was established in England."

S. Williston, History of the Law of Business Corporations before 1800 (Harvard Law Review, volume 2, pages 149-151).

EQUITY: A. D. 1875. Patents, Copyrights and Trade-Marks.

"In modern times the inventor of a new process obtains from the State, by way of recompense for the benefit he has conferred upon society, and in order to encourage others to follow his example, not only an exclusive privilege of using the new process for a fixed term of years, but also the right of letting or selling his privilege to another. Such an indulgence is called a patent-right, and a very similar favour, known as copy-right, is granted to the authors of books, and to painters, engravers, and sculptors, in the productions of their genius. It has been a somewhat vexed question whether a 'trade-mark' is to be added to the list of intangible objects of ownership. It was at any rate so treated in a series of judgments by Lord Westbury, which, it seems, are still good law. He says, for instance, 'Imposition on the public is indeed necessary for the plaintiff's title, but in this way only, that it is the test of the invasion by the defendant of the plaintiff's right of property.' [Citing 33 L. J. Ch. 204; cf. 35 Ch. D. Oakley v. Dalton.] It was also so described in the 'Trade Marks Registration Act,' 1875 [sections 3, 4, 5], as it was in the French law of 1857 relating to 'Marques de fabrique et de commerce.' The extension of the idea of ownership to these three rights is of comparatively recent date. Patent-right in England is older than the Statute of Monopolies, 21 Jac. I. C. 3, and copy-right is obscurely traceable previously to the Act of 8 Anne, C. 19, but trade-marks were first protected in the present century."

T. E. Holland, Elements of Jurisprudence, 5th edition, page 183.

ALSO IN: _E. S. Drone, Treatise on the Law of Property in Intellectual Productions._

----------EQUITY: End--------

Topics of law treated under other heads are indicated by the following references:

Agrarian Laws.

See AGRARIAN.

Assize of Jerusalem.

See ASSIZE.

Brehon Laws.

See BREHON.

Canuleian Laws.

See ROME: B. C. 445.

Code Napoleon.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1801-1804.

Common Law.

See COMMON LAW.

Constitutional Laws.

See CONSTITUTION.

Debt and Debtors.

See DEBT.

Dioklesian Laws.

See DIOKLES.

Dooms of Ihne.

See DOOMS.

Draconian Laws.

See ATHENS: B. C. 624.

Factory Laws.

See FACTORY.

Hortensian Laws.

See ROME: B. C. 286.

Institutes and Pandects of Justinian.

See CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS.

Licinian Laws.

See ROME: B. C. 376.

Lycurgan Laws.

See SPARTA.

Laws of Manu.

See MANU.

Navigation Laws.

See NAVIGATION LAWS.

Ogulnian Law.

See ROME: B. C. 300.

Laws of Oleron.

See OLERON.

Poor Laws.

See POOR LAWS.

Publilian Laws.

See ROME: B. C. 472-471, and 340.

Salic Laws.

See SALIC.

Slave Codes.

See SLAVERY.

Solonian Laws.

See ATHENS: B. C. 594.

Tariff Legislation.

See TARIFF.

Terentilian Law.

See ROME: B. C. 451-449.

The Twelve Tables.

See ROME: B. C. 451-449.

Valerian Law.

See ROME: B. C. 509.

Valero-Horatian Law.

See ROME: B. C. 449.

{1995}

LAWFELD, Battle of (1747).

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1746-1747.

LAWRENCE, Captain James: In the War of 1812.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1812-1813.

LAWRENCE, Lord, the Indian Administration of.

See INDIA: A. D. 1845-1849; 1857 (JUNE-SEPTEMBER); and 1862-1876.

LAWRENCE, Kansas: A. D. 1863. Sacking of the town by Quantrell's guerrillas.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (AUGUST: MISSOURI-KANSAS).

LAYBACH, Congress of.

See VERONA, CONGRESS OF.

LAZARISTS, The.

"The Priests of the Missions, or the Lazarists ['sometimes called the Vincentian Congregation'], … have not unfrequently done very essential service to Christianity." Their Society was founded in 1624 by St. Vincent de Paul, "at the so-called Priory of St. Lazarus in Paris, whence the name Lazarists. … Besides their mission-labours, they took complete charge, in many instances, of ecclesiastical seminaries, which, in obedience to the instruction of the Council of Trent, had been established in the various dioceses, and even at this day many of these institutions are under their direction. In the year 1642 these devoted priests were to be seen in Italy, and not long after were sent to Algiers, to Tunis, to Madagascar, and to Poland."

J. Alzog Manual of Universal Church History, volume 3, pages 463-465.

ALSO IN: H. L. S. Lear, Priestly Life in France, chapter 5.

LAZICA. LAZIC WAR.

"Lazica, the ancient Colchis and the modern Mingrelia and Imeritia, bordered upon the Black Sea." From A. D. 522 to 541 the little kingdom was a dependency of Rome, its king, having accepted Christianity, acknowledging himself a vassal of the Roman or Byzantine emperor. But the Romans provoked a revolt by their encroachments. "They seized and fortified a strong post, called Petra, upon the coast, appointed a commandant who claimed an authority as great as that of the Lazic king, and established a commercial monopoly which pressed with great severity upon the poorer classes of the Lazi." The Persians were accordingly invited in to drive the Romans out, and did so, reducing Lazica, for the time being, to the state of a Persian province. But, in their turn, the Persians became obnoxious, and the Lazi, making their peace with Rome, were taken by the Emperor Justinian under his protection. "The Lazic war, which commenced in consequence of this act of Justinian's, continued almost without intermission for nine years—from A. D. 549 to 557. Its details are related at great length by Procopius and Agathias, who view the struggle as one which vitally concerned the interests of their country. According to them, Chosroës [the Persian king] was bent upon holding Lazica in order to construct at the mouth of the Phasis a great naval station and arsenal, from which his fleets might issue to command the commerce or ravage the shores of the Black Sea." The Persians in the end withdrew from Lazica, but the Romans, by treaty, paid them an annual tribute for their possession of the country.

G. Rawlinson, Seventh Great Monarchy, chapter 20.

ALSO IN: J. Bury, Later Roman Empire, book 4, chapter 9 (volume 1).

See, also, PERSIA: A. D. 226-627.

LAZZI, The.

See LÆTI.

LEAGUE, The Achaian.

See GREECE: B.C. 280-146.

LEAGUE, The Anti-Corn-Law.

See TARIFF LEGISLATION (ENGLAND): A. D. 1836-1839; and 1845-1846.

LEAGUE, The Borromean or Golden.

See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1579-1630.

LEAGUE, The Catholic, in France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1576-1585, and after.

LEAGUE, The first Catholic, in Germany.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1530-1531.

LEAGUE, The second Catholic, in Germany.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1608-1618.

LEAGUE, The Cobblers'.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1524-1525.

LEAGUE, The Delian.

See GREECE: B. C. 478-477.

LEAGUE, The Hanseatic.

See HANSA TOWNS.

LEAGUE, The Holy, of the Catholic party in the Religious Wars of France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1576-1585, to 1593-1598.

LEAGUE, The Holy, of German Catholic princes.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1533-1546.

LEAGUE, The Holy, of Pope Clement VII. against Charles V.

See ITALY: A. D. 1523-1527.

LEAGUE, The Holy, of Pope Innocent XI., the Emperor, Venice, Poland and Russia against the Turks.

See TURKS: A. D. 1684-1696.

LEAGUE, The Holy, of Pope Julius II. against Louis XII. of France.

See ITALY: A. D. 1510-1513.

LEAGUE, The Holy, of Spain, Venice and the Pope against the Turks.

See TURKS: A. D. 1566-1571.

LEAGUE, The Irish Land.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1873-1879; and 1881-1882.

LEAGUE, The Swabian.

See LANDFRIEDE, &c.

LEAGUE, The Union.

See UNION LEAGUE.

LEAGUE AND COVENANT, The solemn.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1643 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).

LEAGUE OF AUGSBURG.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1686.

LEAGUE OF CAMBRAI.

See VENICE: A. D. 1508-1509.

LEAGUE OF LOMBARDY.

See ITALY: A. D. 1166-1167.

LEAGUE OF POOR CONRAD, The.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1524-1525.

LEAGUE OF RATISBON.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1522-1525.

LEAGUE OF SMALKALDE, The.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1530-1532.

LEAGUE OF THE GUEUX.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1562-1566.

LEAGUE OF THE PRINCES.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1485-1487.

LEAGUE OF THE PUBLIC WEAL.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1461-1468; also, 1453-1461.

LEAGUE OF THE RHINE.

See RHINE LEAGUE.

LEAGUE OF TORGAU.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1525-1529.

LEAGUES, The Grey.

See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1396-1499.

LE BOURGET, Sortie of (1870).

See FRANCE: A. D.1870-1871.

LECHFELD, OR BATTLE ON THE LECH (A. D. 955).

See HUNGARIANS: A. D. 935-955.

{1996}

LECHFELD, OR BATTLE ON THE LECH (1632.)

See GERMANY: A. D. 1631-1632.

LECOMPTON CONSTITUTION, The.

See KANSAS: A. D. 1854-1859.

LEE, General Charles, and the War of the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775 (MAY-AUGUST); 1776 (JUNE), (AUGUST); and 1778 (JUNE).

LEE, General Henry ("Light Horse Harry"), and the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: 1780-1781.

LEE, Richard Henry, And the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776 (JANUARY-JUNE), (JULY).

LEE, Richard Henry, Opposition to the Federal Constitution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1787-1789.

LEE, General Robert E. Campaign in West Virginia.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (AUGUST-DECEMBER: WEST VIRGINIA).

LEE, General Robert E., Command on the Peninsula.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JUNE: VIRGINIA), and (JULY-AUGUST: VIRGINIA).

LEE, General Robert E. Campaign against Pope.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JULY-AUGUST: VIRGINIA); (AUGUST: VIRGINIA); and (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER: VIRGINIA).

LEE, General Robert E. First invasion of Maryland.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (SEPTEMBER: MARYLAND).

LEE, General Robert E. Defeat of Hooker.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (APRIL-MAY: VIRGINIA).

LEE, General Robert E. The second movement of invasion. Gettysburg and after.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (JUNE: VIRGINIA), and (JUNE-JULY: PENNSYLVANIA); also (JULY-NOVEMBER: VIRGINIA).

LEE, General Robert E. Last Campaigns.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (MAY: VIRGINIA), to 1865 (APRIL: VIRGINIA).

LEEDS, Battle at (1643).

Leeds, occupied by the Royalists, under Sir William Savile, was taken by Sir Thomas Fairfax, after hard fighting, on the 23d of January, 1643.

C. R. Markham, Life of the Great Lord Fairfax, chapter 9.

LEESBURG, OR BALL'S BLUFF, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (OCTOBER: VIRGINIA).

LEEWARD ISLANDS, The.

See WEST INDIES.

LEFÈVRE, Jacques, and the Reformation in France.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1521-1535.

LEFT, The. Left Center, The.

See RIGHT, &c.

LEGATE.

This was the title given to the lieutenant-general or associate chosen by a Roman commander or provincial governor to be his second-in-authority.

W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman Antiquity, chapter 12.

LEGES JULIÆ, LEGES SEMPRONIÆ, &c.

See JULIAN LAWS; SEMPRONIAN LAWS, &c.

LEGION, The Roman.

"The original order of a Roman army was, as it seems, similar to the phalanx: but the long unbroken line had been divided into smaller detachments since, and perhaps by Camillus. The long wars in the Samnite mountains naturally caused the Romans to retain and to perfect this organisation, which made their army more movable and pliable, without preventing the separate bodies quickly combining and forming in one line. The legion now [at the time of the war with Pyrrhus, B. C. 280] consisted of thirty companies (called 'manipuli') of the average strength of a hundred men, which were arranged in three lines of ten manipuli each, like the black squares on a chessboard. The manipuli of the first line consisted of the youngest troops, called 'hastati'; those of the second line, called 'principes,' were men in the full vigour of life; those of the third, the 'triarii,' formed a reserve of older soldiers, and were numerically only half as strong as the other two lines. The tactic order of the manipuli enabled the general to move the 'principes' forward into the intervals of the 'hastati,' or to withdraw the 'hastati' back into the intervals of the 'principes,' the 'triarii' being kept as a reserve. … The light troops were armed with javelins, and retired behind the solid mass of the manipuli as soon as they had discharged their weapons in front of the line, at the beginning of the combat."

W. Ihne, History of Rome, book 3, chapter 16 (volume 1).

"The legions, as they are described by Polybius, in the time of the Punic wars, differed very materially from those which achieved the victories of Cæsar, or defended the monarchy of Hadrian and the Antonines. The constitution of the Imperial legion may be described in a few words. The heavy-armed infantry, which composed its principal strength, was divided into ten cohorts, and fifty-five companies, under the orders of a correspondent number of tribunes and centurions. The first cohort, which always claimed the post of honour and the custody of the eagle, was formed of 1,105 soldiers, the most approved for valour and fidelity. The remaining nine cohorts consisted each of 555; and the whole body of legionary infantry amounted to 6,100 men. … The legion was usually drawn up eight deep, and the regular distance of three feet was left between the files as well as ranks. … The cavalry, without which the force of the legion would have remained imperfect, was divided into ten troops or squadrons; the first, as the companion of the first cohort, consisted of 132 men; whilst each of the other nine amounted only to 66."

E. Gibbon Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 1.

ALSO IN: W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman Antiquity, chapter 12.

LEGION OF HONOR, Institution of the.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1801-1803.

LEGITIMISTS AND ORLEANISTS.

The partisans of Bourbon monarchy in France became divided into two factions by the revolution of 1830, which deposed Charles X. and raised Louis Philippe to the throne. Charles X., brother of Louis XVI. and Louis XVIII., was in the direct line of royal descent, from Louis XIV. Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, who displaced him, belonged to a younger branch of the Bourbon family, descending from the brother of Louis XIV., Philippe, Duke of Orleans, father of the Regent Orleans. Louis Philippe, in his turn, was expelled from the throne in 1848, and the crown, after that event, became an object of claim in both families. The claim supported by the Legitimists was extinguished in 1883 by the death of the childless Comte de Chambord, grandson of Charles X. The Orleanist claim is still maintained (1894) by the Comte de Paris, grandson of Louis Philippe.

LEGNANO, Battle of (1176).

See ITALY: A. D. 1174-1183.

LEICESTER, The Earl of, in the Netherlands.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1585-1586; and 1587-1588.

LEINSTER TRIBUTE, The.

See BOARIAN TRIBUTE.

{1997}

----------LEIPSIC: Start----------

LEIPSIC: A. D. 1631. Battle of Breitenfeld, before the city.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1631.

LEIPSIC: A. D. 1642. Second Battle of Breitenfeld. Surrender of the city to the Swedes.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1640-1645.

LEIPSIC: A. D. 1813. Occupied by the Prussians and Russians. Regained by the French. The great "Battle of the Nations."

See GERMANY: A. D. 1812-1813; 1813 (APRIL-MAY), (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER), and (OCTOBER).

----------LEIPSIC: End----------

LEIPSIC, University of.

See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL: GERMANY.

LEISLER'S REVOLUTION.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1689-1691.

LEITH, The Concordat of.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1572.

LEKHS, The.

See LYGIANS.

LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: AMERICA: A. D. 1884-1891.

LELANTIAN FIELDS. LELANTIAN FEUD.

See CHALCIS AND ERETRIA; and EUBŒA.

LELEGES, The.

"The Greeks beyond the sea [Ionian Greeks of Asia Minor] were however not merely designated in groups, according to the countries out of which they came, but certain collective names existed for them—such as that of Javan in the East. … Among all these names the most widely spread was that of the Leleges, which the ancients themselves designated as that of a mixed people. In Lycia, in Miletus, and in the Troad these Leleges had their home; in other words, on the whole extent of coast in which we have recognized the primitive seats of the people of Ionic Greeks."

E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 1, chapter 2.

See, also, DORIANS AND IONIANS.

LELIAERDS.

In the mediæval annals of the Flemish people, the partisans of the French are called "Leliaerds," from "lelie," the Flemish for lily.

J. Hutton, James and Philip van Arteveld, page 32, foot-note.

LE MANS: Defeat of the Vendéans.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JULY-DECEMBER).

LE MANS, Battle of (1871).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870-1871.

LEMNOS.

One of the larger islands in the northern part of the Ægean Sea, lying opposite the Trojan coast. It was anciently associated with Samothrace and Imbros in the mysterious worship of the Cabeiri.

LEMOVICES, The.

The Lemovices were a tribe of Gauls who occupied, in Cæsar's time, the territory afterwards known as the Limousin —department of Upper Vienne and parts adjoining.

Napoleon III., History of Cæsar, book 3, chapter 2, foot-note.

The city of Limoges derived its existence and its name from the Lemovices.

LEMOVII, The.

A tribe in ancient Germany whose territory, on the Baltic coast, probably in the neighborhood of Danzig, bordered on that of the Gothones.

_Church and Brodribb, Geographical Notes to the Germany of Tacitus._

LENAPE, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: DELAWARES.

LENS, Siege and battle (1647-1648).

See NETHERLANDS (SPANISH PROVINCES): A. D. 1647-1648.

LENTIENSES, The.

See ALEMANNI: A. D. 213.

LEO I., Roman Emperor (Eastern), A. D. 457-474.

Leo II., Pope, 682-683.

Leo II., Roman Emperor (Eastern), 474.

Leo III., Pope, 795-816.

Leo III. (called The Isaurian), Emperor in the East (Byzantine, or Greek),717-741.

Leo IV., Pope, 847-855.

Leo IV., Emperor in the East (Byzantine, or Greek), 775-780.

Leo V., Pope, 903, October to December.

Leo V., Emperor in the East (Byzantine, or Greek), 813-820.

Leo VI., Pope, 928-929.

Leo VI., Emperor in the East (Byzantine, or Greek), 886-911.

Leo VII., Pope, 936-939.

Leo VIII., Anti-pope, 963-965.

Leo IX., Pope, 1049-1054.

Leo X., Pope, 1513-1521.

Leo XI., Pope, 1605, April 2-27.

Leo XII., Pope, 1823-1829.

Leo XIII., Pope, 1878.

LEOBEN, Preliminary treaty of (1797).

See FRANCE: A.D. 1796-1797 (OCTOBER-APRIL).

LEODIS (WEREGILD).

See GRAF.

LEON, Ponce de, and his quest.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1512.

----------LEON: Start--------

LEON, Origin of the name of the city and kingdom.

"This name Legio or Leon, so long borne by a province and by its chief city in Spain, is derived from the old Roman 'Regnum Legionis' (Kingdom of the Legion)."

H. Coppée, Conquest of Spain by the Arab-Moors, book 5, chapter 1 (volume 1).

LEON: Origin of the kingdom.

See SPAIN: A. D. 713-910.

LEON: Union of the kingdom with Castile.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1026-1230; and 1212-1238.

----------LEON: End--------

LEONIDAS AT THERMOPYLÆ.

See GREECE: B. C. 480; and ATHENS: B. C. 480-479.

LEONINE CITY, The

See VATICAN.

LEONTINI. The Leontine War.

See SYRACUSE: B. C. 415-413.

LEONTIUS, Roman Emperor (Eastern), A. D. 695-698.

LEOPOLD I., Germanic Emperor, A. D. 1658-1705; King of Hungary, 1655-1705: King of Bohemia, 1657-1705.

Leopold I., King of Belgium, 1831-1865.

Leopold II., Germanic Emperor, and King of Hungary and Bohemia, 1790-1792.

Leopold II., King of Belgium, 1865.

LEPANTO, Naval Battle of (1571).

See TURKS: A. D. 1566-1571.

LEPERS AND JEWS, Persecution of.

See JEWS: A. D. 1321.

LIPIDUS, Revolutionary attempt of.

See ROME: B. C. 78-68.

LEPTA.

See TALENT.

LEPTIS MAGNA.

"The city of Leptis Magna, originally a Phœnician colony, was the capital of this part of the province [the tract of north-African coast between the Lesser and the Greater Syrtes], and held much the same prominent position as that of Tripoli at the present day. The only other towns in the region of the Syrtes, as it was sometimes called, were Œa, on the site of the modern Tripoli, and Sabrata, the ruins of which are still visible at a place called Tripoli Vecchio. The three together gave the name of the Tripolis of Africa to this region, as distinguished from the Pentapolis of Cyrenaïca. Hence the modern appellation."

E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography, chapter 20, section 1, footnote (volume 2).

See, also, CARTHAGE, THE DOMINION OF.

{1998}

LERIDA: B. C. 49. Cæsar's success against the Pompeians.

See ROME: B. C. 49.

LERIDA: A. D. 1644-1646, Sieges and battle.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1644-1646.

LERIDA: A. D. 1707. Stormed and sacked by the French and Spaniards.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1707.

----------LESBOS: Start--------

LESBOS.

The largest of the islands of the Ægean, lying south of the Troad, great part of which it once controlled, was particularly distinguished in the early literary history of ancient Greece, having produced what is called "the Æolian school" of lyric poetry. Alcæus, Sappho, Terpander and Arion were poets who sprang from Lesbos. The island was one of the important colonies of what was known as the Æolic migration, but became subject to Athens after the Persian War. In the fourth year of the Peloponnesian War its chief city, Mitylene (which afterwards gave its name to the entire island), seized the opportunity to revolt. The siege and reduction of Mytilene by the Athenians was one of the exciting incidents of that struggle.

Thucydides, History, book 3.

ALSO IN: G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapters 14 and 50.

See, also, ASIA MINOR: THE GREEK COLONIES; and GREECE: B. C. 429-427.

LESBOS: B. C. 412. Revolt from Athens.

See GREECE: B. C. 413-412.

----------LESBOS: End--------

LESCHE, The.

The clubs of Sparta and Athens formed an important feature of the life of Greece. In every Grecian community there was a place of resort called the Lesche. In Sparta it was peculiarly the resort of old men, who assembled round a blazing fire in winter, and were listened to with profound respect by their juniors. These retreats were numerous in Athens.

C. O. Müller, History and Antiquities of the Doric race, volume 2, page 396.

"The proper home of the Spartan art of speech, the original source of so many Spartan jokes current over all Greece, was the Lesche, the place of meeting for men at leisure, near the public drilling-grounds, where they met in small bands, and exchanged merry talk."

E. Curtius, History of Greece, volume 1, page 220 (American edition).

LESCO V., Duke of Poland, A. D. 1194-1227.

Lesco VI., Duke of Poland, 1279-1289.

LESE-MAJESTY.

A term in English law signifying treason, borrowed from the Romans. The contriving, or counselling or consenting to the king's death, or sedition against the king, are included in the crime of "lese-majesty."

W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, chapter 21, section 786.

LE TELLIER, and the suppression of Port Royal.

See PORT ROYAL AND THE JANSENISTS: A. D. 1702-1715.

LETTER OF MAJESTY, The.

See BOHEMIA. A. D. 1611-1618.

LETTERS OF MARQUE.

See PRIVATEERS.

LETTRE DE CACHET.

"In French history, a letter or order under seal; a private letter of state: a name given especially to a written order proceeding from and signed by the king, and countersigned by a secretary of state, and used at first as an occasional means of delaying the course of justice, but later, in the 17th and 18th centuries, as a warrant for the imprisonment without trial of a person obnoxious for any reason to the government, often for life or for a long period, and on frivolous pretexts. Lettres de cachet were abolished at the Revolution."

Century Dictionary.

"The minister used to give generously blank lettres-de-cachet to the intendants, the bishops, and people in the administration. Saint-Florentin, alone, gave away as many as 50,000. Never had man's dearest treasure, liberty, been more lavishly squandered. These letters were the object of a profitable traffic; they were sold to fathers who wanted to get rid of their sons, and given to pretty women who were inconvenienced by their husbands. This last cause of imprisonment was one of the most prominent. And all through good-nature. The king [Louis XV.] was too good to refuse a lettre-de-cachet to a great lord. The intendant was too good-natured not to grant one at a lady's request. The government clerks, the mistresses of the clerks, and the friends of these mistresses, through good-nature, civility, or mere politeness, obtained, gave, or lent, those terrible orders by which a man was buried alive. Buried;—for such was the carelessness and levity of those amiable clerks,—almost all nobles, fashionable men, all occupied with their pleasures,—that they never had the time, when once the poor fellow was shut up, to think of his position."

J. Michelet, Historical View of the French Revolution, introduction, part 2, section 9.

LETTS.

See LITHUANIANS.

LEUCADIA, LEUCAS.

Originally a peninsula of Acarnania, on the western coast of Greece, but converted into an island by the Corinthians, who cut a canal across its narrow neck. Its chief town, of the same name, was at one time the meeting place of the Acarnanian League. The high promontory at the south-western extremity of the island was celebrated for the temple of Apollo which crowned it, and as being the scene of the story of Sappho's suicidal leap from the Leucadian rock.

LEUCÆ, Battle of.

The kingdom of Pergamum having been bequeathed to the Romans by its last king, Attalus, a certain Aristonicus attempted to resist their possession of it, and Crassus, one of the consuls of B. C. 131 was sent against him. But Crassus had no success and was finally defeated and slain, near Leucæ. Aristonicus surrendered soon afterwards to M. Perperna and the war in Pergamum was ended.

G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, volume 1, chapter 14.

LEUCATE, Siege and Battle (1637).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1637-1640.

LEUCI, The.

A tribe in Belgic Gaul which occupied the southern part of the modern department of the Meuse, the greater part of the Meurthe, and the department of the Vosges.

Napoleon III., History of Cæsar, book 3, chapter 2, footnote (volume 2).

LEUCTRA, Battle of (B. C. 371).

See GREECE: B. C. 379-371.

LEUD, OR LIDUS, The.

See SLAVERY, MEDIÆVAL: GERMANY.

LEUDES.

"The Frankish warriors, but particularly the leaders, were called 'leudes,' from the Teutonic word 'leude,' 'liude,' 'leute,' people, as some think (Thierry, Lettres sur l'Hist. de Franc, p. 130). In the Scandinavian dialects, 'lide' means a warrior … ; and in the Kymric also 'lwydd' means an army or war-band. … It was not a title of dignity, as every free fighter among the Franks was a leud, but in process of time the term seems to have been restricted to the most prominent and powerful warriors alone."

P. Godwin, History of France: Ancient Gaul, book 3, chapter 12, foot-note.

{1999}

LEUGA, The.

"The roads in the whole Roman empire were measured and marked according to the unit of the Roman mile (1.48 kilometer), and up to the end of the second century this applied also to those [the Gallic] provinces. But from Severus onward its place was taken in the three Gauls and the two Germanies by a mile correlated no doubt to the Roman, but yet different and with a Gallic name, the 'leuga' (2.222 kilomètres), equal to one and a half Roman miles. … The double 'leuga,' the German 'rasta,' … corresponds to the French 'lieue.'"

T. Mommsen, History of the Romans, book 8, chapter 3.

LEUKAS.

See KORKYRA.

LEUKOPETRA, Battle of (B. C. 146).

See GREECE: B. C. 280-146.

LEUTHEN, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1757 (JULY-DECEMBER).

LEVELLERS, The.

"Especially popular among the soldiers [of the Parliamentary Army, England, A. D. 1647-48], and keeping up their excitement more particularly against the House of Lords, were the pamphlets that came from John Lilburne, and an associate of his named Richard Overton. … These were the pamphlets … which … were popular with the common soldiers of the Parliamentary Army, and nursed that especial form of the democratic passion among them which longed to sweep away the House of Lords and see England governed by a single Representative House. Baxter, who reports this growth of democratic opinion in the Army from his own observation, distinctly recognises in it the beginnings of that rough ultra-Republican party which afterwards became formidable under the name of The Levellers."

D. Masson, Life of John Milton, volume 3, book 4, chapter 1.

"They [the Levellers] had a vision of a pure and patriotic Parliament, accurately representing the people, yet carrying out a political programme incomprehensible to nine-tenths of the nation. This Parliament was to represent all legitimate varieties of thought, and was yet to act together as one man. The necessity for a Council of State they therefore entirely denied; and they denounced it as a new tyranny. The excise they condemned as an obstruction to trade. They would have no man compelled to fight, unless he felt free in his own conscience to do so. They appealed to the law of nature, and found their interpretation of it carrying them further and further away from English traditions and habits, whether of Church or State." A mutiny of the Levellers in the army, which broke out in April and May, 1640, was put down with stern vigor by Cromwell and Fairfax, several of the leaders being executed.

J. A. Picton, Oliver Cromwell, chapter 17.

LEWES, Battle of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1216-1274.

LEWIS AND CLARK'S EXPEDITION.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1804-1801.

LEXINGTON, Massachusetts: A. D. 1775. The beginning of the War of the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775 (APRIL).

----------LEXINGTON: Start--------

LEXINGTON, MISSOURI, Siege of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (JULY-SEPTEMBER: MISSOURI).

LEXINGTON, MISSOURI: Battle at.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (MARCH-OCTOBER: ARKANSAS-MISSOURI).

----------LEXINGTON: End--------

LEXOVII, The.

The Lexovii were one of the tribes of northwestern Gaul, in the time of Cæsar. Their position is indicated and their name, in a modified form, preserved by the town of Lisieux between Caen and Evreux.

G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, volume 4, chapter 6.

----------LEYDEN: Start--------

LEYDEN: A. D. 1574. Siege by the Spaniards. Relief by the flooding of the land. The founding of the University.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1573-1574; and EDUCATION, RENAISSANCE: NETHERLANDS.

LEYDEN: A. D. 1609-1620. The Sojourn of the Pilgrim Fathers.

See INDEPENDENTS: A. D. 1604-1617.

----------LEYDEN: End--------

LHASSA, the seat of the Grand Lama.

See LAMAS.

LIA-FAIL, The.

"The Tuatha-de-Danaan [the people who preceded the Milesians in colonizing Ireland, according to the fabulous Irish histories] brought with them from Scandinavia, among other extraordinary things, three marvellous treasures, the Lia-Fail, or Stone of Destiny, the Sorcerer's Spear, and the Magic Caldron, all celebrated in the old Irish romances. The Lia-Fail possessed the remarkable property of making a strange noise and becoming wonderfully disturbed, whenever a monarch of Ireland of pure blood was crowned, and a prophecy was attached to it, that whatever country possessed it should be ruled over by a king of Irish descent, and enjoy uninterrupted success and prosperity. It was preserved at Cashel, where the kings of Munster were crowned upon it. According to some writers it was afterwards kept at the Hill of Tara, where it remained until it was carried to Scotland by an Irish prince, who succeeded to the crown of that country. There it was preserved at Scone, until Edward I. carried it away into England, and placed it under the seat of the coronation chair of our kings, where it still remains. … It seems to be the opinion of some modern antiquarians that a pillar stone still remaining at the Hill of Tara is the true Lia-Fail, which in that case was not carried to Scotland."

T. Wright, History of Ireland, book 1, chapter 2, and foot-note.

See, also, SCOTLAND: 8TH-9TH CENTURIES.

LIBBY PRISON.

See PRISONS AND PRISON-PENS, CONFEDERATE.

LIBERAL ARTS, The Seven.

See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL: SCHOLASTICISM,

LIBERAL REPUBLICAN PARTY.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1872.

LIBERAL UNIONISTS.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1885-1886.

LIBERI HOMINES.

See SLAVERY, MEDIÆVAL: ENGLAND.

LIBERIA, The founding of the Republic of.

See SLAVERY, NEGRO: A. D. 1816-1847.

LIBERTINES OF GENEVA, The.

The party which opposed Calvin's austere and arbitrary rule in Geneva were called Libertines.

F. P. Guizot, John Calvin, chapter 9-16.

LIBERTINI.

See INGENUI.

LIBERTY BELL, The.

See INDEPENDENCE HALL.

{2000}

LIBERTY BOYS.

The name by which the Sons of Liberty of the American Revolution were familiarly known.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1765; NEW YORK: A. D. 1773-1774; and LIBERTY TREE.

LIBERTY CAP.

"This emblem, like many similar ones received by the revolutions from the hand of chance, was a mystery even to those who wore it. It had been adopted [at Paris] for the first time on the day of the triumph of the soldiers of Châteauvieux [April 15, 1792, when 41 Swiss soldiers of the regiment of Châteauvieux, condemned to the galleys for participation in a dangerous mutiny of the garrison at Nancy in 1790, but liberated in compliance with the demands of the mob, were fêted as heroes by the Jacobins of Paris]. Some said it was the coiffure of the galley-slaves, once infamous, but glorious since it had covered the brows of these martyrs of the insurrection; and they added that the people wished to purify this head-dress from every stain by wearing it themselves. Others only saw in it the Phrygian bonnet, a symbol of freedom for slaves. The 'bonnet rouge' had from its first appearance been the subject of dispute and dissension amongst the Jacobins; the 'exaltés' wore it, whilst the 'modérés' yet abstained from adopting it." Robespierre and his immediate followers opposed the "frivolity" of the "bonnet rouge," and momentarily suppressed it in the Assembly. "But even the voice of Robespierre, and the resolutions of the Jacobins, could not arrest the outbreak of enthusiasm that had placed the sign of 'avenging equality' ('l'égalité vengeresse') on every head; and the evening of the day on which it was repudiated at the Jacobins' saw it inaugurated at all the theatres. The bust of Voltaire, the destroyer of prejudice, was adorned with the Phrygian cap of liberty, amidst the shouts of the spectators, whilst the cap and pike became the uniform and weapon of the citizen soldier."

A. de Lamartine, History of the Girondists, book 13 (volume 1).

ALSO IN: H. M. Stephens, History of the French Revolution, volume 2, chapter 2.

LIBERTY GAP, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (JUNE-JULY: TENNESSEE).

LIBERTY PARTY AND LIBERTY LEAGUE.

See SLAVERY, NEGRO: A. D. 1840-1847.

LIBERTY TREE AND LIBERTY HALL.

"Lafayette said, when in Boston, 'The world should never forget the spot where once stood Liberty Tree, so famous in your annals.' … The open space at the four corners of Washington, Essex, and Boylston streets was once known as Hanover Square, from the royal house of Hanover, and sometimes as the Elm Neighborhood, from the magnificent elms with which it was environed. It was one of the finest of these that obtained the name of Liberty Tree, from its being used on the first occasion of resistance to the obnoxious Stamp Act. … At daybreak on the 14th August, 1765, nearly ten years before active hostilities broke out, an effigy of Mr. Oliver, the Stamp officer, and a boot, with the Devil peeping out of it,—an allusion to Lord Bute,—was discovered hanging from Liberty Tree. The images remained hanging all day, and were visited by great numbers of people, both from the town and the neighboring country. Business was almost suspended. Lieutenant-Governor Hutchinson ordered the sheriff to take the figures down, but he was obliged to admit that he dared not do so. As the day closed in the effigies were taken down, placed upon a bier, and, followed by several thousand people of every class and condition," were borne through the city and then burned, after which much riotous conduct on the part of the crowd occurred. In 1766, when the repeal of the Stamp Act took place, a large copper plate was fastened to the tree, inscribed in golden characters:—'This tree was planted in the year 1646, and pruned by order of the Sons of Liberty, February 14th, 1766.' … The ground immediately about Liberty Tree was popularly known as Liberty Hall. In August, 1767, a flagstaff had been erected, which went through and extended above its highest branches. A flag hoisted upon this staff was the signal for the assembling of the Sons of Liberty. … In August, 1775, the name of Liberty having become offensive to the Tories and their British allies, the tree was cut down by a party led by one Job Williams."

S. A. Drake, Old Landmarks of Boston, chapter 14.

LIBERUM VETO, The.

See POLAND: A. D. 1578-1652.

LIBRA, The Roman.

The ancient Roman unit of weight was the libra, or pondus, from which the modern names of the livre and pound are derived. Its weight was equal to 5,015 Troy gr. or 325 grams, and it was identical with the Greek-Asiatic mina."

H. W. Chisholm, Science of Weighing and Measuring, chapter 2.

See, also, AS.

----------LIBRARIES: Start--------

LIBRARIES: Ancient, Babylonia and Assyria.

"The Babylonians were … essentially a reading and writing people. … Books were numerous and students were many. The books were for the most part written upon clay [tablets] with a wooden reed or metal stylus, for clay was cheap and plentiful, and easily impressed with the wedge-shaped lines of which the characters were composed. But besides clay, papyrus and possibly also parchment were employed as writing materials; at all events the papyrus is referred to in the texts."

A. H. Sayce, Social Life among the Assyrians and Babylonians, page 30.

"We must speak of the manner in which the tablet was formed. Fine clay was selected, kneaded, and moulded into the shape of the required tablet. One side was flat, and the other rounded. The writing was then inscribed on both sides, holes were pricked in the clay, and then it was baked. The holes allowed the steam which was generated during the process of baking to escape. It is thought that the clay used in some of the tablets was not only well kneaded, but ground in some kind of mill, for the texture of the clay is as fine as some of our best modern pottery. The wedges appear to have been impressed by a square headed instrument."

E. A. W. Budge, Babylonian Life and History, p. 105.

{2001}

Assurbanipal, the Sardanapalus of the Greeks, was the greatest and most celebrated of Assyrian monarchs. He was the principal patron of Assyrian literature, and the greater part of the grand library at Nineveh was written during his reign."

G. Smith, Assyrian Discoveries, chapter 18.

"Assurbanipal is fond of old books, particularly of the old sacred works. He collects the scattered specimens from the chief cities of his empire, and even employs scribes in Chaldea, Ourouk, Barsippa, and Babylon to copy for him the tablets deposited in the temples. His principal library is at Nineveh, in the palace which he built for himself upon the banks of the Tigris, and which he has just finished decorating. It contains more than thirty thousand tablets, methodically classified and arranged in several rooms, with detailed catalogues for convenient reference. Many of the works are continued from tablet to tablet and form a series, each bearing the first words of the text as its title. The account of the creation, which begins with the phrase: 'Formerly, that which is above was not yet called the heaven,' was entitled: 'Formerly, that which is above, No.1;' 'Formerly, that which is above, No.2;' and so on to the end. Assurbanipal is not less proud of his love of letters than of his political activity, and he is anxious that posterity should know how much he has done for literature. His name is inscribed upon every work in his library, ancient and modern. 'The palace of Assurbanipal, king of legions, king of multitudes, king of Assyria, to whom the god Nebo and the goddess Tasmetu have granted attentive ears and open eyes to discover the writings of the scribes of my kingdom, whom the kings my predecessors, have employed. In my respect for Nebo, the god of intelligence, I have collected these tablets; I have had them copied, I have marked them with my name, and I have deposited them in my palace.' The library at Dur-Sarginu, although not so rich as the one in Nineveh, is still fairly well supplied."

G. Maspéro, Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria, chapter 16.

Collections of inscribed tablets had been made by Tiglath-Pileser II., king of Assyria, B. C. 745, who had copied some historical inscriptions of his predecessors. Sargon, the founder of the dynasty to which Assur-bani-pal belonged, B. C. 722, had increased this library by adding a collection of astrological and similar texts, and Sennacherib, B. C. 705, had composed copies of the Assyrian canon, short histories, and miscellaneous inscriptions, to add to the collection. Sennacherib also moved the library from Calah, its original seat, to Nineveh, the capital. Esarhaddon, B. C. 681, added numerous historical and mythological texts. All the inscriptions of the former kings were, however, nothing compared to those written during the reign of Assur-bani-pal. Thousands of inscribed tablets from all places, and on every variety of subject, were collected, and copied, and stored in the library of the palace at Nineveh during his reign; and by his statements they appear to have been intended for the inspection of the people, and to spread learning among the Assyrians. Among these tablets one class consisted of historical texts, some the histories of the former kings of Assyria, and others copies of royal inscriptions from various other places. Similar to these were the copies of treaties, despatches, and orders from the king to his generals and ministers, a large number of which formed part of the library. There was a large collection of letters of all sorts, from despatches to the king on the one hand, down to private notes on the other. Geography found a place among the sciences, and was represented by lists of countries, towns, rivers, and mountains, notices of the position, products, and character of districts, &c., &c. There were tables giving accounts of the law and legal decisions, and tablets with contracts, loans, deeds of sale and barter, &c. There were lists of tribute and taxes, accounts of property in the various cities, forming some approach to a census and general account of the empire. One large and important section of the library was devoted to legends of various sorts, many of which were borrowed from other countries. Among these were the legends of the hero Izdubar, perhaps the Nimrod of the Bible. One of these legends gives the Chaldean account of the flood, others of this description give various fables and stories of evil spirits. The mythological part of the library embraced lists of the gods, their titles, attributes, temples, &c., hymns in praise of various deities, prayers to be used by different classes of men to different gods, and under various circumstances, as during eclipses or calamities, on setting out for a campaign, &c., &e. Astronomy was represented by various tablets and works on the appearance and motions of the heavens, and the various celestial phenomena. Astrology was closely connected with Astronomy, and formed a numerous class of subjects and inscriptions. An interesting division was formed by the works on natural history; these consisted of lists of animals, birds, reptiles, trees, grasses, stones, &c., &c., arranged in classes, according to their character and affinities as then understood, lists of minerals and their uses, lists of foods, &c., &c. Mathematics and arithmetic were found, including square and cube root, the working out of problems, &c., &c. Much of the learning on these tablets was borrowed from the Chaldeans and the people of Babylon, and had originally been written in a different language and style of writing, hence it was necessary to have translations and explanations of many of these; and in order to make their meaning clear, grammars, dictionaries, and lexicons were prepared, embracing the principal features of the two languages involved, and enabling the Assyrians to study the older inscriptions. Such are some of the principal features of the grand Assyrian library, which Assur-bani-pal established at Nineveh, and which probably numbered over 10,000 clay documents."

George Smith, Ancient History from the Monuments: Assyria, pages 188-191.

"It is now [1882] more than thirty years since Sir Henry Layard, passing through one of the doorways of the partially explored palace in the mound of Konyunjik, guarded by sculptured fish gods, stood for the first time in the double chambers containing a large portion of the remains of the immense library collected by Assurbannipal, King of Nineveh. … Since that time, with but slight intermissions, this treasure-house of a forgotten past has been turned over again and again, notably in the expeditions of the late Mr. George Smith, and still the supply of its cuneiform literature is not exhausted. Until last year [1881] this discovery remained unique; but the perseverance of the British Museum authorities and the patient labour of Mr. Rassam were then rewarded by the exhumation of what is apparently the library chamber of the temple or palace at Sippara, with all its 10,000 tablets, resting undisturbed, arranged in their position on the shelves, just as placed in order by the librarian twenty-five centuries ago. … {2002} From what Berosus tells us with regard to Sippara, or Pantibiblon (the town of books), the very city, one of whose libraries has just been brought to light, … it may be inferred that this was certainly one of the first towns that collected a library. … It is possible that the mound at Mugheir enshrines the oldest library of all, for here are the remains of the city of Ur (probably the Biblical Ur of the Chaldees). From this spot came the earliest known royal brick inscription, as follows:—'Urukh, King of Ur, who Bit Nanur built.' Although there are several texts from Mugheir, such as that of Dungi, son of Urukh, yet, unless by means of copies made for later libraries in Assyria, we cannot be said to know much of its library. Strange to say, however, the British Museum possesses the signet cylinder of one of the librarians of Ur, who is the earliest known person holding such an office. … Its inscription is given thus by Smith:—'Emuq-sin, the powerful hero, the King of Ur, King of the four regions; Amil Anu, the tablet-keeper, son of Gatu his servant.' … Erech, the modern Warka, is a city at which we know there must have been one or more libraries, for it was from thence Assurbannipal copied the famous Isdubar series of legends in twelve tablets, one of which contained the account of the Deluge. Hence also came the wonderful work on magic in more than one hundred tablets: for, as we have it, it is nothing more than a facsimile by Assurbannipal's scribes of a treatise which had formed part of the collection of the school of the priests at Erech. … Larsa, now named Senkereh, was the seat of a tablet collection that seems to have been largely a mathematical one; for in the remains we possess of it are tablets containing tables of squares and cube roots and others, giving the characters for fractions. There are from here also, however, fragments with lists of the gods, a portion of a geographical dictionary, lists of temples, &c. … To a library at Cutha we owe the remnants of a tablet work containing an account of the creation and the wars of the gods, and, among others, a very ancient terra-cotta tablet bearing a copy of an inscription engraved in the temple of the god Dup Lan at Cutha, by Dungi, King of Ur. The number of tablets and cylinders found by M. de Sarzec at Zirgulla show that there too the habit of committing so much to writing was as rife as in other cities of whose literary character we know more."

The Libraries of Babylonia and Assyria (Knowledge, November 24, 1882, and March 2, 1883).

"One of the most important results of Sir A. H. Layard's explorations at Nineveh was the discovery of the ruined library of the ancient city, now buried under the mounds of Kouyunjik. The broken clay tablets belonging to this library not only furnished the student with an immense mass of literary matter, but also with direct aids towards a knowledge of the Assyrian syllabary and language. Among the literature represented in the library of Kouyunjik were lists of characters, with their various phonetic and ideographic meanings, tables of synonymes, and catalogues of the names of plants and animals. This, however, was not all. The inventors of the cuneiform system of writing had been a people who preceded the Semites in the occupation of Babylonia, and who spoke an agglutinative language utterly different from that of their Semitic successors. These Accadians, as they are usually termed, left behind them a considerable amount of literature, which was highly prized by the Semitic Babylonians and Assyrians. A large portion of the Ninevite tablets, accordingly, consists of interlinear or parallel translations from Accadian into Assyrian, as well as of reading books, dictionaries, and grammars, in which the Accadian original is placed by the side of its Assyrian equivalent."

A. H. Sayce, Fresh Light from the Ancient Monuments, chapter 1.

LIBRARIES: Greece.

"Pisistratus the tyrant is said to have been the first who supplied books of the liberal sciences at Athens for public use. Afterwards the Athenians themselves, with great care and pains, increased their number; but all this multitude of books, Xerxes, when he obtained possession of Athens, and burned the whole of the city except the citadel, seized and carried away to Persia. But king Seleucus, who was called Nicanor, many years afterwards, was careful that all of them should be again carried back to Athens." "That Pisistratus was the first who collected books, seems generally allowed by ancient writers. … In Greece were several famous libraries. Clearchus, who was a follower of Plato, founded a magnificent one in Heraclea. There was one in the island of Cnidos. The books of Athens were by Sylla removed to Rome. The public libraries of the Romans were filled with books, not of miscellaneous literature, but were rather political and sacred collections, consisting of what regarded their laws and the ceremonies of their religion."

Aulus Gellius, The Attic Nights, book 6, chapter 17 (volume 2), with foot-note by W. Beloe.

"If the libraries of the Greeks at all resembled in form and dimensions those found at Pompeii, they were by no means spacious; neither, in fact, was a great deal of room necessary, as the manuscripts of the ancients stowed away much closer than our modern books, and were sometimes kept in circular boxes, of elegant form, with covers of turned wood. The volumes consisted of rolls of parchment, sometimes purple at the back, or papyrus, about twelve or fourteen inches in breadth, and as many feet long as the subject required. The pages formed a number of transverse compartments, commencing at the left, and proceeding in order to the other extremity, and the reader, holding in either hand one end of the manuscript, unrolled and rolled it up as he read. Occasionally these books were placed on shelves, in piles, with the ends outwards, adorned with golden bosses, the titles of the various treatises being written on pendant labels."

J. A. St. John, The Hellenes, volume 2, page 84.

"The learned reader need not be reminded how wide is the difference between the ancient 'volumen,' or roll, and the 'volume' of the modern book-trade, and how much smaller the amount of literary matter which the former may represent. Any single 'book' or 'part' of a treatise would anciently have been called 'volumen,' and would reckon as such in the enumeration of a collection of books. The Iliad of Homer, which in a modern library may form but a single volume, would have counted as twenty-four 'volumina' at Alexandria. {2003} We read of authors leaving behind them works reckoned, not by volumes or tens of volumes, but by hundreds. … It will at once be understood that … the very largest assemblage of 'volumina' assigned as the total of the greatest of the ancient collections would fall far short, in its real literary contents, of the second-rate, or even third-rate collections of the present day."

_Libraries, Ancient and Modern (Edinburgh Review, January, 1874)._

LIBRARIES: Alexandria.

"The first of the Ptolemies, Lagus, not only endeavoured to render Alexandria one of the most beautiful and most commercial of cities, he likewise wished her to become the cradle of science and philosophy. By the advice of an Athenian emigrant, Demetrius of Phaleros, this prince established a society of learned and scientific men, the prototype of our academies and modern institutions. He caused that celebrated museum to be raised, that became an ornament to the Bruchion; and here was deposited the noble library, 'a collection,' says Titus Livius, 'at once a proof of the magnificence of those kings, and of their love of science.' Philadelphos, the successor of Lagus, finding that the library of the Bruchion already numbered 400,000 volumes, and either thinking that the edifice could not well make room for any more, or being desirous, from motives of jealousy, to render his name equally famous by the construction of a similar monument, founded a second library in the temple of Serapis, called the Serapeum, situated at some distance from the Bruchion, in another part of the town. These two libraries were denominated, for a length of time, the Mother and the Daughter. During the war with Egypt, Cæsar, having set fire to the king's fleet, which happened to be anchored in the great port, it communicated with the Bruchion; the parent library was consumed, and, if any remains were rescued from the flames, they were, in all probability, conveyed to the Serapeum. Consequently, ever after, there can be no question but of the latter. Euergetes and the other Ptolemies enlarged it successively; and Cleopatra added 200,000 manuscripts at once from the library of King Pergamos, given her by Mark Antony. … Aulus Gellius and Ammianus Marcellus seem to insinuate that the whole of the Alexandrian library had been destroyed by fire in the time of Cæsar. … But both are mistaken on this point. Ammianus, in the rest of his narrative, evidently confounds Serapeum and Bruchion. … Suetonius (in his life of Domitian) mentions that this emperor sent some amanuenses to Alexandria, for the purpose of copying a quantity of books that were wanting in his library; consequently a library existed in Alexandria a long while after Cæsar. Besides, we know that the Serapeum was only destroyed A. D. 301, by the order of Theodosius. Doubtless the library suffered considerably on this last-mentioned occasion; but that it still partly existed is beyond a doubt, according to the testimony of Oroses, who, twenty-four years later, made a voyage to Alexandria, and assures us that he 'saw, in several temples, presses full of books,' the remains of ancient libraries. … The trustworthy Oroses, in 415, is the last witness we have of the existence of a library at Alexandria. The numerous Christian writers of the fifth and sixth centuries, who have handed down to us so many trifling facts, have not said a word upon this important subject. We, therefore, have no certain documents upon the fate of our library from 415 to 636, or, according to others, 640, when the Arabs took possession of Alexandria—a period of ignorance and barbarism, of war and revolutions, and vain disputes between a hundred different sects. Now, towards A. D. 636, or 640, the troops of the caliph, Omar, headed by his lieutenant, Amrou, took possession of Alexandria. For more than six centuries, nobody in Europe took the trouble of ascertaining what had become of the library of Alexandria. At length, in the year 1660, a learned Oxford scholar, Edward Pococke, who had been twice to the East, and had brought back a number of Arabian manuscripts, first introduced the Oriental history of the physician Abulfarage to the learned world, in a Latin translation. In it we read the following passage:—'In those days flourished John of Alexandria, whom we have surnamed the Grammarian, and who adopted the tenets of the Christian Jacobites. … He lived to the time when Amrou Ebno'l-As took Alexandria. He went to visit the conqueror; and Amrou, who was aware of the height of learning and science that John had attained, treated him with every distinction, and listened eagerly, to his lectures on philosophy, which were quite new to the Arabians. Amrou was himself a man of intellect and discernment, and very clear-headed. He retained the learned man about his person. John one day said to him, "You have visited all the stores of Alexandria, and you have put your seal on all the different things you found there. I say nothing about those treasures which have any value for you; but, in good sooth, you might leave us those of which you make no use." "What then is it that you want?" interrupted Amrou. "The books of philosophy that are to be found in the royal treasury," answered John. "I can dispose of nothing," Amrou then said, "without the permission of the lord of all true believers, Omar Ebno'l-Chattab." He therefore wrote to Omar, informing him of John's request. He received an answer from Omar in these words. "As to the books you mention, either, they agree with God's holy book, and then God's book is all-sufficient without them; or they disagree with God's book, in which case they ought not to be preserved." And, in consequence, Amrou Ebno'l-As caused them to be distributed amongst the different baths of the city, to serve as fuel. In this manner they were consumed in half-a-year.' When this account of Abulfarage's was made known in Europe, it was at once admitted as a fact, without the least question. … Since Pococke, another Arab historian, likewise a physician, was discovered, who gave pretty nearly the same account. This was Abdollatif, who wrote towards 1200, and consequently prior to Abulfarage. … Abdollatif does not relate any of the circumstances accessory to the destruction of the library. But what faith can we put in a writer who tells us that he has actually seen what could no longer have been in existence in his time? 'I have seen;' says he, 'the portico and the college that Alexander the Great caused to be built, and which contained the splendid library,' &c. Now, these buildings were situated within the Bruchion; and since the reign of Aurelian, who had destroyed it—that is to say, at least nine hundred years before Abdollatif—the Bruchion was a deserted spot, covered with ruins and rubbish. {2004} Abulfarage, on the other hand, places the library in the Royal Treasury; and the anachronism is just as bad. The royal edifices were all contained within the walls of the Bruchion; and not one of them could then be left. … As a fact is not necessarily incontestable because advanced as such by one or even two historians, several persons of learning and research have doubted the truth of this assertion. Renaudot (Hist. des Patriarches d'Alexandrie) had already questioned its authenticity, by observing: 'This account is rather suspicious, as is frequently the case with the Arabians.' And, lastly, Querci, the two Assemani, Villoison, and Gibbon, completely declared themselves against it. Gibbon at once expresses his astonishment that two historians, both of Egypt, should not have said a word about so remarkable an event. The first of these is Eutychius, patriarch of Alexandria, who lived in that city 500 years after it was taken by the Saracens, and who gives a long and detailed account, in his Annals, both of the siege and the succeeding events; the second is Elmacin, a most veracious writer, the author of a History of the Saracens, and who especially relates the life of Omar, and the taking of Alexandria, with its minutest circumstances. Is it conceivable or to be believed that these two historians should have been ignorant of so important a circumstance? That two learned men who would have been deeply interested in such a loss should have made no mention of it, though living and writing in Alexandria—Eutychius, too, at no distant period from the event? and that we should learn it for the first time from a stranger who wrote, six centuries after, on the frontiers of Media? Besides, as Gibbon observes, why should the Caliph Omar, who was no enemy to science, have acted, in this one instance, in direct opposition to his character. … To these reasons may be added the remark of a German writer, M. Reinhard, who observes that Eutychius (Annals of Eutychius, volume ii. page 316) transcribes the very words of the letter in which Amrou gives the Caliph Omar an account of the taking of Alexandria after a long and obstinate siege. 'I have carried the town by storm,' says he, 'and without any preceding offer of capitulation. I cannot describe all the treasures it contains; suffice it to say, that it numbers 4,000 palaces, 4,000 baths, 40,000 taxable Jews, 400 theatres, 12,000 gardeners who sell vegetables. Your Mussulmans demand the privilege of pillaging the city, and sharing the booty.' Omar, in his reply, disapproves of the request, and expressly forbids all pillage or dilapidation. It is plain that, in his official report, Amrou seeks to exaggerate the value of his conquest, and to magnify its importance, like the diplomatists of our times. He does not overlook a single hovel, nor a Jew, nor a gardener. How then could he have forgotten the library, he who, according to Abulfarage, was a friend to the fine arts and philosophy? … Elmacin in turn gives us Amrou's letter nearly in the same terms, and not one word of the library. … We … run no great risk in drawing the conclusion, from all these premises, that the library of the Ptolemies no longer existed in 640 at the taking of Alexandria by the Saracens. … If it be true, as we have every reason to think, that in 640 … the celebrated library no longer existed, we may inquire in what manner it had been dispersed and destroyed since 415 when Oroses affirms that he saw it? In the first place we must observe that Oroses only mentions some presses which he saw in the temples. It was not, therefore, the library of the Ptolemies as it once existed in the Serapeum. Let us call to mind, moreover, that ever since the first Roman emperors, Egypt had been the theatre of incessant civil warfare, and we shall be surprised that any traces of the library could still exist in later times."

Historical Researches on the pretended burning of the Library of Alexandria by the Saracens (Fraser's Magazine. April, 1844).

"After summing up the evidence we have been able to collect in regard to these libraries, we conclude that almost all the 700,000 volumes of the earlier Alexandrian libraries had been destroyed before the capture of the city by the Arabs; that another of considerable size, but chiefly of Christian literature, had been collected in the 250 years just preceding the Arab occupation; and that Abulpharaj, in a statement that is not literally true, gives, in the main, a correct account of the final destruction of the Alexandrian Library."

_C. W. Super, Alexandria and its Libraries (National Quarterly Review, December, 1875)._

ALSO IN: E. Edwards, Memoirs of Libraries, book 1, chapter 5 (volume 1).

E. Edwards, Libraries and the Founders of Libraries, chapter 1.

See, also, EDUCATION, ANCIENT: ALEXANDRIA; and ALEXANDRIA: B. C. 282-246.

LIBRARIES: Pergamum.

See PERGAMUM.

LIBRARIES: Rome.

Pliny states that C. Asinius Pollio was the first who established a Public Library in Rome. But "Lucullus was undoubtedly before him in this claim upon the gratitude of the lovers of books. Plutarch tells us expressly that not only was the Library of Lucullus remarkable for its extent and for the beauty of the volumes which composed it, but that the use he made of them was even more to his honour than the pains he had taken in their acquisition. The Library, he says, 'was open to all. The Greeks who were at Rome resorted thither, as it were to the retreat of the Muses.' It is important to notice that, according to Pliny, the benefaction of Asinius Pollio to the literate among the Romans was 'ex manubiis.' This expression, conjoined with the fact that the statue of M. Varro was placed in the Library of Pollio, has led a recent distinguished historian of Rome under the Empire, Mr. Merivale, to suggest, that very probably Pollio only made additions to that Library which, as we know from Suetonius, Julius Cæsar had directed to be formed for public use under the care of Varro. These exploits of Pollio, which are most likely to have yielded him the 'spoils of war,' were of a date many years subsequent to the commission given by Cæsar to Varro. It has been usually, and somewhat rashly perhaps, inferred that this project, like many other schemes that were surging in that busy brain, remained a project only. In the absence of proof either way, may it not be reasonably conjectured that Varro's bust was placed in the Library called Pollio's because Varro had in truth carried out Cæsar's plan, with the ultimate concurrence and aid of Pollio? This Library—by whomsoever formed—was probably in the 'atrium libertatis' on the Aventine Mount. {2005} From Suetonius we further learn that Augustus added porticoes to the Temple of Apollo on the Palatine Mount, with (as appears from monumental inscriptions to those who had charge of them) two distinct Libraries of Greek and Latin authors; that Tiberius added to the Public Libraries the works of the Greek poets Euphorion, Rhianus, and Parthenius,—authors whom he especially admired and tried to imitate,—and also their statues; that Caligula (in addition to a scheme for suppressing Homer) had thoughts of banishing both the works and the busts of Virgil and of Livy—characterizing the one as a writer of no genius and of little learning, and the other (not quite so unfortunately) as a careless and verbose historian—from all the Libraries; and that Domitian early in his reign restored at vast expense the Libraries in the Capitol which had been burnt, and to this end both collected MSS. from various countries, and sent scribes to Alexandria expressly to copy or to correct works which were there preserved. In addition to the Libraries mentioned by Suetonius, we read in Plutarch of the Library dedicated by Octavia to the memory of Marcellus; in Aulus Gellius of a Library in the Palace of Tiberius and of another in the Temple of Peace; and in Dion Cassius of the more famous Ulpian Library founded by Trajan. This Library, we are told by Vopiscus, was in his day added, by way of adornment, to the Baths of Diocletian. Of private Libraries amongst the Romans one of the earliest recorded is that which Emilius Paulus found amongst the spoils of Perseus, and which he is said to have shared between his sons. The collection of Tyrunnion, some eighty years later (perhaps), amounted, according to a passage in Suidas, to 30,000 volumes. That of Lucullus—which, some will think, ought to be placed in this category—has been mentioned already. With that—the most famous of all—which was the delight and the pride of Cicero, every reader of his letters has an almost personal familiarity, extending even to the names and services of those who were employed in binding and in placing the books. … Of the Libraries of the long-buried cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum there is not a scintilla of information extant, other than that which has been gathered from their ruins. At one time great hopes were entertained of important additions to classical learning from remains, the discovery of which has so largely increased our knowledge both of the arts and of the manners of the Romans. But all effort in this direction has hitherto been either fruitless or else only tantalizing, from the fragmentary character of the results attained."

E. Edwards, Memoirs of Libraries, pages 26-29.

"Most houses had a library, which, according to Vitruvius, ought to face the east in order to admit the light of the morning, and to prevent the books from becoming mouldy. At Herculaneum a library with bookcases containing 1,700 scrolls has been discovered. The grammarian Epaphroditus possessed a library of 30,000, and Sammanicus Serenus, the tutor of the younger Gordian, one of 62,000 books. Seneca ridicules the fashionable folly of illiterate men who adorned their walls with thousands of books, the titles of which were the delight of the yawning owner. According to Publius Victor, Rome possessed twenty-nine public libraries, the first of which was opened by Asinius Polio in the forecourt of the Temple of Peace; two others were founded during the reign of Augustus, viz., the Octavian and the Palatine libraries. Tiberius, Vespasian, Domitian, and Trajan added to their number; the Ulpian library, founded by the last-mentioned emperor, being the most important of all."

E. Guhl and W. Koner, The Life of the Greeks and Romans, p. 531.

LIBRARIES: Herculaneum.

"Herculaneum remained a subterranean city from the year 79 to the year 1706. In the latter year some labourers who were employed in digging a well came upon a statue, a circumstance which led—not very speedily but in course of time … —to systematic excavations. Almost half a century passed, however, before the first roll of papyrus was discovered, near to Portici at a depth from the surface of about 120 English feet. In the course of a year or two, some 250 rolls—most of them Greek—had been found. … In 1754, further and more careful researches were made by Camillo Paderni, who succeeded in getting together no less than 337 Greek volumes and 18 Latin volumes. The latter were of larger dimensions than the Greek, and in worse condition. Very naturally, great interest was excited by these discoveries amongst scholars in all parts of Europe. In the years 1754 and 1755 the subject was repeatedly brought before the Royal Society by Mr. Locke and other of its fellows, sometimes in the form of communications from Paderni himself; at other times from the notes and observations of travellers. In one of these papers the disinterred rolls are described as appearing at first 'like roots of wood, all black, and seeming to be only of one piece. One of them falling on the ground, it broke in the middle, and many letters were observed, by which it was first known that the rolls were of papyrus. … They were in wooden cases, so much burnt, … that they cannot be recovered.' … At the beginning of the present century the attention of the British government was, to some extent, attracted to this subject. … Leave was at length obtained from the Neapolitan government for a literary mission to Herculaneum, which was entrusted to Mr. Hayter, one of the chaplains to the Prince Regent. But the results were few and unsatisfactory. … The Commission subsequently entrusted to Dr. Sickler of Hildburghausen was still more unfortunate. … In 1818, a committee of the House of Commons was appointed to inquire into the matter. It reported that, after an expenditure of about £1,100, no useful results had been attained. This inquiry and the experiments of Sickler led Sir Humphrey Davy to investigate the subject, and to undertake two successive journeys into Italy for its thorough elucidation. His account of his researches is highly interesting. … 'My experiments,' says Sir Humphrey Davy, … 'soon convinced me that the nature of these MSS. had been generally misunderstood; that they had not, as is usually supposed, been carbonized by the operation of fire, … but were in a state analogous to peat or Bovey coal, the leaves being generally cemented into one mass by a peculiar substance which had formed during the fermentation and chemical change of the vegetable matter comprising them, in a long course of ages. The nature of this substance being known, the destruction of it became a subject of obvious chemical investigation; and I was fortunate enough to find means of accomplishing this, without injuring the characters or destroying the texture of the MSS.' These means Sir Humphrey Davy has described very minutely in his subsequent communications to the Royal Society. {2006} Briefly, they may be said to have consisted in a mixture of a solution of glue with alcohol, enough to gelatinize it, applied by a camel's hair brush, for the separation of the layers. The process was sometimes assisted by the agency of ether, and the layers were dried by the action of a stream of air warmed gradually up to the temperature of boiling water. 'After the chemical operation, the leaves of most of the fragments separated perfectly from each other, and the Greek characters were in a high degree distinct. … The MSS. were probably on shelves of wood, which were broken down when the roofs of the houses yielded to the weight of the superincumbent mass. Hence, many of them were crushed and folded in a moist state, and the leaves of some pressed together in a perpendicular direction … in confused heaps; in these heaps the exterior MSS. … must have been acted on by the water; and as the ancient ink was composed of finely divided charcoal suspended in a solution of glue or gum, wherever the water percolated continuously, the characters were more or less erased.' … Sir Humphrey Davy proceeds to state that, according to the information given him, the number of MSS. and fragments of MSS. originally deposited in the Naples Museum was 1,696; that of these 88 had then been unrolled and found to be legible; that 319 others had been operated upon, and more or less unrolled, but were illegible; that 24 had been sent abroad as presents; and that of the remaining 1,265—which he had carefully examined—the majority were either small fragments, or MSS. so crushed and mutilated as to offer little hope of separation; whilst only from 80 to 120 offered a probability of success (and he elsewhere adds:—'this estimate, as my researches proceeded, appeared much too high'). … 'Of the 88 unrolled MSS. … the great body consists of works of Greek philosophers or sophists; nine are of Epicurus; thirty-two bear the name of Philodemus, three of Demetrius, one of each of these authors:—Colotes, Polystratus, Carneades, Chrysippus; and the subjects of these works, … and of those the authors of which are unknown, are either Natural or Moral Philosophy, Medicine, Criticism, and general observations on Arts, Life, and Manners.'"

E. Edwards, Memoirs of Libraries, volume 1, book 1, chapter 5.

LIBRARIES: Constantinople.

"When Constantine the Great, in the year 336, made Byzantium the seat of his empire, he in a great measure newly built the city, decorated it with numerous splendid edifices, and called it after his own name. Desirous of making reparation to the Christians, for the injuries they had sustained during the reign of his tyrannical predecessor, this prince commanded the most diligent search to be made after those books which had been doomed to destruction. He caused transcripts to be made of such books as had escaped the Diocletian persecution; to these he added others, and with the whole formed a valuable Library at Constantinople. On the death of Constantine, the number of books contained in the Imperial Library was only six thousand nine hundred; but it was successively enlarged by the emperors, Julian and Theodosius the younger, the latter of whom augmented it to one hundred thousand volumes. Of these, more than half were burnt in the seventh century, by command of the emperor Leo III., in order to destroy all the monuments that might be quoted in proof against his opposition to the worship of images. In this library was deposited the only authentic copy of the Council of Nice: it has also been asserted that the works of Homer, written in golden letters, were consumed at the same time, together with a magnificent copy of the Four Gospels, bound in plates of gold to the weight of fifteen pounds, and enriched with precious stones. The convulsions that weakened the lower empire, were by no means favourable to the interests of literature. During the reign of Constantine Porphyrogennetus (in the eleventh entry) literature flourished for a short time: and he is said to have employed many learned Greeks in collecting books for a library, the arrangement of which he superintended himself. The final subversion of the Eastern Empire, and the capture of Constantinople by Mohammed II., A. D. 1453, dispersed the literati of Greece over Western Europe: but the Imperial Library was preserved by the express command of the conqueror, and continued to be kept in some apartments of the Seraglio; until Mourad (or Amurath) IV., in a fit of devotion, sacrificed (as it is reported) all the books in this Library to his hatred against the Christians."

T. H. Horne, Introduction to the Study of Bibliography, pages 23-25.

LIBRARIES: Tripoli. Destruction of Library by Crusaders.

See CRUSADES: A. D. 1104-1111.

LIBRARIES: Mediæval.

Monastic Libraries.

"In every monastery there was established first a library, then great studios, where, to increase the number of books, skilful caligraphers transcribed manuscripts; and finally, schools, open to all those who had need of, or desire for, instruction. At Montierender, at Lorsch, at Corvey, at Fulda, at St. Gall, at Reichenau, at Nonantula, at Monte Cassino, at Wearmouth, at St. Albans, at Croyland, there were famous libraries. At St. Michael, at Luneburg, there were two—one for the abbot and one for the monks. In other abbeys, as at Hirschau, the abbot himself took his place in the Scriptorium, where many other monks were occupied in copying manuscripts. At St. Riquier, books bought for high prices, or transcribed with the utmost care, were regarded as the most valuable jewels of the monastery. 'Here,' says the chronicler of the abbey, counting up with innocent pride the volumes which it contained—'here are the riches of the cloister, the treasures of the celestial life, which fatten the soul by their sweetness. This is how we fulfil the excellent precept, Love the study of the Scriptures, and you will not love vice.' If we were called upon to enumerate the principal centres of learning in this century, we should be obliged to name nearly all the great abbeys whose founders we have mentioned, for most of them were great homes of knowledge. … The principal and most constant occupation of the learned Benedictine nuns was the transcription of manuscripts. It can never be known how many services to learning and history were rendered by their delicate hands throughout the middle ages. They brought to the work a dexterity, an elegance, and an assiduity which the monks themselves could not attain, and we owe to them some of the most beautiful specimens of the marvellous caligraphy of the period. … Nuns, therefore, were the rivals of monks in the task of enlarging and fertilising the field of Catholic learning. {2007} Every one is aware that the copying of manuscripts was one of the habitual occupations of monks. By it they fed the claustral libraries already spoken of, and which are the principal source of modern knowledge. Thus we must again refer to the first beginning of the Monastic Orders to find the earliest traces of a custom which from that time was, as it were, identified with the practices of religious life. In the depths of the Thebaïde, in the primitive monasteries of Tabenna, every house … had its library. There is express mention made of this in the rule of St. Benedict. … In the seventh century, St. Benedict Biscop, founder and abbot of Wearmouth in England, undertook five sea-voyages to search for and purchase books for his abbey, to which each time he brought back a large cargo. In the ninth century, Loup of Ferrières transformed his monastery of St. Josse-sur-Mer into a kind of depot for the trade in books which was carried on with England. About the same time, during the wars which ravaged Lombardy, most of the literary treasures which are now the pride of the Ambrosian library were being collected in the abbey of Bobbio. The monastery of Pomposa, near Ravenna, had, according to contemporaries, a finer library than those of Rome or of any other town in the world. In the eleventh century, the library of the abbey of Croyland numbered 3,000 volumes. The library of Novalese had 6,700, which the monks saved at the risk of their lives when their abbey was destroyed by the Saracens in 905. Hirschau contained an immense number of manuscripts. But, for the number and value of its books, Fulda eclipsed all the monasteries of Germany, and perhaps of the whole Christian world. On the other hand, some writers assure us that Monte Cassino, under the Abbot Didier, the friend of Gregory VII., possessed the richest collection which it was possible to find. The libraries thus created by the labours of monks became, as it were, the intellectual arsenals of princes and potentates. … There were also collections of books in all the cathedrals, in all the collegiate churches, and in many of the castles. Much has been said of the excessive price of certain books during the middle ages: Robertson and his imitators, in support of this theory, are fond of quoting the famous collection of homilies that Grecia Countess of Anjou bought, in 1056, for two hundred sheep, a measure of wheat, one of millet, one of rye, several marten-skins, and four pounds of silver. An instance like this always produces its effect; but these writers forgot to say that the books bought for such high prices were admirable specimens of caligraphy, of painting, and of carving. It would be just as reasonable to quote the exorbitant sums paid at sales by bibliomaniacs of our days, in order to prove that since the invention of printing, books have been excessive in price. Moreover, the ardent fondness of the Countess Grecia for beautiful books had been shared by other amateurs of a much earlier date. Bede relates that Alfred, King of Northumbria in the seventh century, gave eight hides of land to St. Benedict Biscop in exchange for a Cosmography which that book-loving abbot had bought at Rome. The monks loved their books with a passion which has never been surpassed in modern times. … It is an error to … suppose that books of theology or piety alone filled the libraries of the monks. Some enemies of the religious orders have, indeed, argued that this was the case; but the proof of the contrary is evident in all documents relating to the subject. The catalogues of the principal monastic libraries during those centuries which historians regard as most barbarous, are still in existence; and these catalogues amply justify the sentence of the great Leibnitz, when he said, 'Books and learning were preserved by the monasteries.' It is acknowledged that if, on one hand, the Benedictines settled in Iceland collected the Eddas and the principal traditions of the Scandinavian mythology, on the other all the monuments of Greece and Rome which escaped the devastations of barbarians were saved by the monks of Italy, France, and Germany, and by them alone. And if in some monasteries the scarcity of parchment and the ignorance of the superiors permitted the destruction, by copyists, of a certain small number of precious works, how can we forget that without these same copyists we should possess nothing—absolutely nothing—of classic antiquity? … Alcuin enumerates among the books in the library at York the works of Aristotle, Cicero, Pliny, Virgil, Statius, Lucan, and of Trogus Pompeïus. In his correspondence with Charlemagne he quotes Ovid, Horace, Terence, and Cicero, acknowledging that in his youth he had been more moved by the tears of Dido than by the Psalms of David."

Count de Montalembert, The Monks of the West, book 18, chapter 4 (volume 6).

"It is in the great houses of the Benedictine Order that we find the largest libraries, such as in England at Bury St. Edmund's, Glastonbury, Peterborough, Heading, St. Alban's, and, above all, that of Christ Church in Canterbury, probably the earliest library formed in England. Among the other English monasteries of the libraries of which we still possess catalogues or other details, are St. Peter's at York, described in the eighth century by Alcuin, St. Cuthbert's at Durham, and St. Augustine's at Canterbury. At the dissolution of the monasteries their libraries were dispersed, and the basis of the great modern libraries is the volumes thus scattered over England. In general, the volumes were disposed much as now, that is to say, upright, and in large cases affixed to a wall, often with doors. The larger volumes at least were in many cases chained, so that they could only be used within about six feet of their proper place; and since the chain was always riveted on the fore-edge of one of the sides of a book, the back of the volume had to be thrust first into the shelf, leaving the front edge of the leaves exposed to view. Many old volumes bear a mark in ink on this front edge; and when this is the case, we may be sure that it was once chained in a library; and usually a little further investigation will disclose the mark of a rivet on one of the sides. Regulations were carefully made to prevent the mixture of different kinds of books, and their overcrowding or inconvenient position; while an organized system of lending was in vogue, by which at least once a year, and less formally at shorter intervals, the monks could change or renew the volumes already on loan. … Let us take an example of the arrangement of a monastic library of no special distinction in A. D. 1400,—that at Titchfield Abbey,—describing it in the words of the register of the monastery itself, only translating the Latin into English. {2008} 'The arrangement of the library of the monastery of Tychefeld is this:—There are in the library of Tychefeld four cases (columnae) in which to place books, of which two, the first and second, are on the eastern face; on the southern face is the third, and on the northern face the fourth. And each of them has eight shelves (gradus), marked with a letter and number affixed on the front of each shelf, that is to say, on the lower board of each of the aforesaid shelves; certain letters, however, are excepted, namely A, H, K, L, M, O, P, Q, which have no numbers affixed, because all the volumes to which one of those letters belongs are contained in the shelf to which that letter is assigned. [That is, the shelves with the letters A, H, K, etc., have a complete class of books in each, and in no case does that class overflow into a second shelf, so there was no need of marking these shelves with numbers as well as letters, in the way in which the rest were marked. Thus we should find 'B 1,' 'B 2,' 'B 3,' … 'B 7,' because B filled seven shelves; but 'A' only, because A filled one shelf alone.] So all and singular the volumes of the said library are fully marked on the first leaf and elsewhere on the shelf belonging to the book, with certain numbered letters. And in order that what is in the library may be more quickly found, the marking of the shelves of the said library, the inscriptions in the books, and the references in the register, in all points agree with each other. Anno Domini MCCCC.' … Titchfield Abbey was a Præmonstratensian house, founded in the thirteenth century, and never specially rich or prominent; yet we find it with a good library of sixty-eight books in theology, thirty-nine in Canon and Civil Law, twenty-nine in Medicine, thirty-seven in Arts, and in all three hundred and twenty-six volumes, many containing several treatises, so that the total number of works was considerably over a thousand."

F. Madan, Books in Manuscript, pp. 76-79.

LIBRARIES: Renaissance.

Italy.

On the revival of learning in Italy, "scarcity of books was at first a chief impediment to the study of antiquity. Popes and princes and even great religious institutions possessed far fewer books than many farmers of the present age. The library belonging to the Cathedral Church of S. Martino at Lucca in the ninth century contained only nineteen volumes of abridgements from ecclesiastical commentaries. The Cathedral of Novara in 1212 could boast copies of Boethius, Priscian, the Code of Justinian, the Decretals, and the Etymology of Isidorus, besides a Bible and some devotional treatises. This slender stock passed for great riches. Each of the precious volumes in such a collection was an epitome of mediæval art. Its pages were composed of fine vellum adorned with pictures. The initial letters displayed elaborate flourishes and exquisitely illuminated groups of figures. The scribe took pains to render his caligraphy perfect, and to ornament the margins with crimson, gold, and blue. Then he handed the parchment sheets to the binder, who encased them in rich settings of velvet or carved ivory and wood, embossed with gold and precious stones. The edges were gilt and stamped with patterns. The clasps were of wrought silver chased with niello. The price of such masterpieces was enormous. … Of these MSS. the greater part were manufactured in the cloisters, and it was here too that the martyrdom of ancient authors took place. Lucretius and Livy gave place to chronicles, antiphonaries, and homilies. Parchment was extremely dear, and the scrolls which nobody could read might be scraped and washed. Accordingly, the copyist erased the learning of the ancients, and filled the fair blank space he gained with litanies. At the same time it is but just to the monks to add that palimpsests have occasionally been found in which ecclesiastical works have yielded place to copies of the Latin poets used in elementary education. Another obstacle to the diffusion of learning was the incompetence of the copyists. It is true that at the great universities 'stationarii,' who supplied the text-books in use to students, were certified and subjected to the control of special censors called 'Preciani.' Yet their number was not large, and when they quitted the routine to which they were accustomed their incapacity betrayed itself by numerous errors. Petrarch's invective against the professional copyists shows the depth to which the art had sunk. 'Who,' he exclaims, 'will discover a cure for the ignorance and vile sloth of these copyists, who spoil everything and turn it to nonsense? If Cicero, Livy, and other illustrious ancients were to return to life, do you think they would understand their own works? There is no check upon these copyists, selected without examination or test of their capacity.' … At the same time the copyists formed a necessary and flourishing class of craftsmen. They were well paid. … Under these circumstances it was usual for even the most eminent scholars, like Petrarch, Boccaccio, and Poggio, to make their own copies of MSS. Niccolo de' Niccoli transcribed nearly the whole of the codices that formed the nucleus of the Library of the Mark. … It is clear that the first step toward the revival of learning implied three things: first, the collection of MSS. wherever they could be saved from the indolence of the monks; secondly, the formation of libraries for their preservation; and, thirdly, the invention of an art whereby they might be multiplied cheaply, conveniently, and accurately. The labour involved in the collection of classical manuscripts had to be performed by a few enthusiastic scholars, who received no help from the universities and their academical scribes, and who met with no sympathy in the monasteries they were bent on ransacking. … The monks performed at best the work of earthworms, who unwittingly preserve fragments of Greek architecture from corrosion by heaping mounds of mould and rubbish round them. Meanwhile the humanists went forth with the instinct of explorers to release the captives and awake the dead. From the convent libraries of Italy, from the museums of Constantinople, from the abbeys of Germany and Switzerland and France, the slumbering spirits of the ancients had to be evoked. … This work of discovery began with Petrarch. … It was carried on by Boccaccio. The account given by Benvenuto da Imola of Boccaccio's visit to Monte Cassino brings vividly before us both the ardour of these first explorers and the apathy of the Benedictines (who have sometimes been called the saviours of learning) with regard to the treasures of their own libraries. … {2009} 'Desirous of seeing the collection of books, which he understood to be a very choice one, he modestly asked a monk—for he was always most courteous in manners—to open the library, as a favour, for him. The monk answered stiffly, pointing to a steep staircase, "Go up; it is open." Boccaccio went up gladly; but he found that the place which held so great a treasure was without door or key. He entered, and saw grass sprouting on the windows, and all the books and benches thick with dust. In his astonishment he began to open and turn the leaves of first one tome and then another, and found many and divers volumes of ancient and foreign works. Some of them had lost several sheets; others were snipped and pared all round the text, and mutilated in various ways. At length, lamenting that the toil and study of so many illustrious men should have passed into the hands of most abandoned wretches, he departed with tears and sighs. Coming to the cloister, he asked a monk whom he met, why those valuable books had been so disgracefully mangled. He answered that the monks, seeking to gain a few soldi, were in the habit of cutting off sheets and making psalters, which they sold to boys. The margins too they manufactured into charms, and sold to women.' … What Italy contained of ancient codices soon saw the light. The visit of Poggio Bracciolini to Constance (1414) opened up for Italian scholars the stores that lay neglected in transalpine monasteries. … The treasures he unearthed at Reichenau, Weingarten, and above all S. Gallen, restored to Italy many lost masterpieces of Latin literature, and supplied students with full texts of authors who had hitherto been known in mutilated copies. The account he gave of his visit to S. Gallen in a Latin letter to a friend is justly celebrated. … 'In the middle [he says] of a well-stocked library, too large to catalogue at present, we discovered Quintilian, safe as yet and sound, though covered with dust and filthy with neglect and age. The books, you must know, were not housed according to their worth, but were lying in a most foul and obscure dungeon at the very bottom of a tower, a place into which condemned criminals would hardly have been thrust; and I am firmly persuaded that if anyone would but explore those ergastula of the barbarians wherein they incarcerate such men, we should meet with like good fortune in the case of many whose funeral orations have long ago been pronounced. Besides Quintilian, we exhumed the three first books and a half of the fourth book of the Argonautica of Flaccus, and the Commentaries of Asconius Pedianus upon eight orations of Cicero.' … Never was there a time in the world's history when money was spent more freely upon the collection and preservation of MSS., and when a more complete machinery was put in motion for the sake of securing literary treasures."

J. A. Symonds, Renaissance in Italy: The Revival of Learning, chapter 3.

LIBRARIES: Modern. Europe: Rise and growth of the greater Libraries.

In a work entitled "Essai Statistique sur les Bibliothèques de Vienne," published in 1835, M. Adrien Balbi entered into an examination of the literary and numerical value of the principal libraries of ancient and modern times. M. Balbi, in this work, shows that "the Imperial Library of Vienna, regularly increasing from the epoch of its formation, by means equally honorable to the sovereign and to the nation, held, until the French revolution, the first place among the libraries of Europe. Since that period, several other institutions have risen to a much higher numerical rank. … No one of the libraries of the first class, now in existence, dates beyond the fifteenth century. The Vatican, the origin of which has been frequently carried back to the days of St. Hilarius, in 465, cannot, with any propriety, be said to have deserved the name of library before the reign of Martin the Fifth, by whose order it was removed from Avignon to Rome in 1417. And even then, a strict attention to the force of the term would require us to withhold from it this title, until the period of its final organization by Nicholas the Fifth, in 1447. It is difficult to speak with certainty concerning the libraries, whether public or private, which are supposed to have existed previous to the fifteenth century, both on account of the doubtful authority and indefiniteness of the passages in which they are mentioned, and the custom which so readily obtained, in those dark ages, of dignifying every petty collection with the name of library. But many libraries of the fifteenth century being still in existence, and others having been preserved long enough to make them the subject of historical inquiry before their dissolution, it becomes easier to fix, with satisfactory accuracy, the date of their foundation. We find accordingly, that, including the Vatican, and the libraries of Vienna, Ratisbon, and the Laurentian of Florence, which are a few years anterior to it, no less than ten were formed between the years 1430 and 1500. The increase of European libraries has generally been slowly progressive, although there have been periods of sudden augmentation in nearly all. Most of them began with a small number of manuscripts, sometimes with a few printed volumes, and often without any. To these, gradual accessions were made, from the different sources, which have always been more or less at the command of the sovereigns and nobles of Europe. In 1455, the Vatican contained 5,000 manuscripts. … Far different was the progress of the Royal Library of Paris. The origin of this institution is placed in the year 1595, the date of its removal from Fontainebleau to Paris by order of Henry the Fourth. In 1660, it contained but 1,435 printed volumes. In the course of the following year, this number was raised to 16,746, both printed volumes and manuscripts. During the ensuing eight years the library was nearly doubled; and before the close of the next century, it was supposed to have been augmented by upwards of 100,000 volumes more."

G. W. Greene, Historical Studies, pages 278-281.

"The oldest of the great libraries of printed books is probably that of Vienna, which dates from 1440, and is said to have been opened to the public as early as 1575. The Town Library of Ratisbon dates from 1430; St. Mark's Library at Venice, from 1468; the Town Library of Frankfort, from 1484; that of Hamburg, from 1529; of Strasburg, from 1531; of Augsburg, from 1537; those of Berne and Geneva, from 1550; that of Basel, from 1564. The Royal Library of Copenhagen was founded about 1550. In 1671 it possessed 10,000 volumes; in 1748, about 65,000; in 1778, 100,000; in 1820, 300,000; and it now contains 410,000 volumes. The National Library of Paris was founded in 1595, but was not made public until 1737. In 1640 it contained about 17,000 volumes; in 1684, 50,000; in 1775, 150,000; in 1790, 200,000."

_E. Edwards, A Statistical View of the Principal Public Libraries in Europe and the United States Of America, (Journal of the Statistical Society, August., 1848)._

{2010}

LIBRARIES: Modern. Germany.

According to "Minerva" (the "Year-book of the Learned World"), for 1893-94, the Royal Library at Berlin contains 850,000 printed books and 24,622 manuscripts; the Münich University Library, 370,000 books and 50,000 pamphlets, including 2,101 incunabula; the Leipsic University Library, 500,000 printed books, and 4,000 manuscripts; Heidelberg University Library, 400,000 bound volumes (including 1,000 incunabula), and 175,000 pamphlets and "dissertationen," with a large collection of manuscripts; Dresden Royal Public Library, 300,000 printed books (including 2,000 incunabula), 6,000 manuscripts, and 20,000 maps; Freiburg University Library, 250,000 volumes and over 500 manuscripts; Königsberg University Library, 220,000 volumes and 1,100 manuscripts; Tübingen University Library, 300,000 volumes and 3,500 manuscripts; Jena University Library, 200,000 volumes and 100,000 "dissertationen"; Halle University Library, 182,000 books and 800 manuscripts, besides 12,800 books, 35,000 pamphlets and 1,040 manuscripts in the Ponickausche Bibliothek, which is united with the University Library; Hamburg City Library, about 500,000 printed books and 5,000 manuscripts; Frankfort City Library (April, 1893), 326,139 volumes; Cologne City Library, 105,000 volumes, including 2,000 incunabula; Augsburg City and Provincial Library, about 200,000 volumes (including 1,760 incunabula) and 2,000 manuscripts; Göttingen University Library, 456,000 volumes of books and 5,300 manuscripts; Gotha Public Library, 200,000 printed books, including 1,029 incunabula, and 7,037 manuscripts, of which 3,500 are oriental; Greifswald University Library, 143 volumes of printed books and about 800 manuscripts; Bamberg Royal Public Library, 300,000 volumes, 3,132 manuscripts; Berlin University Library, 142,129 volumes; Bonn University Library, 219,000 volumes, including 1,235 incunabula, and 1,273 manuscripts; Bremen City Library, 120,000 volumes; Breslau University Library, 300,000 volumes, including about 2,500 incunabula, and about 3,000 manuscripts; Breslau City Library, 150,000 volumes and 3,000 manuscripts; Erlangen University Library, 180,000 volumes; Hanover Royal Public Library, 180,000 books and 3,500 manuscripts; Hanover City Library, 47,000 volumes; Carlsruhe Grand-ducal Library, 159,842 books and 3,754 manuscripts; Kiel University Library, 217,039 volumes, 2,375 manuscripts; Colmar City Library, 80,000 volumes; Marburg University Library, 150,000 volumes; Strasburg University Library, 700,000 volumes; Strasburg City Library, 90,000 volumes; Weimar Grand-ducal Library, 223,000 volumes and 2,000 manuscripts; Würzburg University Library, 300,000 volumes.

Minerva, 1893-94.

"The Munich library, … in matter of administration, resembles the British Museum. Here one finds carefully catalogued that great wealth of material that appears only in doctorate theses, and for this reason is most valuable to the historic student. No tedious formalities are insisted upon, and orders for books are not subjected to long delays. The Vienna library moves slowly, as though its machinery were retarded by the weight of its royal imperial name. The catalogue is not accessible, the attendants are not anxious to please, and the worker feels no special affection for the institution. But at the royal library of Berlin there exists an opposite state of affairs—with the catalogue at hand one can readily give the information needful in filling up the call card. This being a lending library, one occasionally meets with disappointment, but, as the privilege of borrowing is easily had, this feature can have a compensatory side. The most marked peculiarity found here is the periodic delivery of books. All books ordered before nine o'clock are delivered at eleven; those before eleven, at one; those before one, at three; and those after three are delivered the same day if possible. This causes some delay, but as soon as the rule is known it has no drawback for the continuous user, and for the benefit of one who wants only a single order there is placed at the outer door of the building a box into which one can deposit the call card, and returning at the proper time find the book waiting in the reading room above. This saves the climbing of many steps, and enables one to perform other duties between ordering and receiving. As far as I know, here alone does one purchase the call cards, but as the price is only twenty cents per hundred the cost is not an important item."

_J. H. Gore, Library Facilities for Study in Europe (Educational Review, June, 1893)._

In Berlin, "the report of the city government for 1889-00 reckons 25 public free libraries; 334,837 books were read by 14,900 persons, i. e., 17,219 volumes less than last year. The expenses were 26,490 marks, the allowance from the city treasury 23,400 marks [less than $6,000]."

The Library Journal, May, 1892.

LIBRARIES: France: The Bibliothèque Nationale.

"The history of the vast collection of books which is now, after many wanderings, definitely located in the Rue de Richelieu, divides itself naturally into three periods, which, for the sake of convenience, may well be called by three of the names under which the Library has, at different times, been known. The first period is that in which the Library was nothing more than the private collection of each successive sovereign of France, which sometimes accompanied him in his journeys, and but too often, as in the case of King John, or that of Charles VII., shared in his misfortunes; it was then fitly called the 'Bibliothèque du Roi.' This period may be considered as ending in the time of Henry IV., who transferred the royal collection from Fontainebleau to Paris, and gave it a temporary home in the College de Clermont. Although its abode has often been changed since, it has never again been attached to a royal palace, or been removed from the capital. The second period dates from this act of Henry the Fourth's, and extends down to the Revolution of 1780, during which time the Library, although open with but slight restrictions to all men of letters who were well recommended, and to the general public for two days a week, from the year 1692, was not regarded as national property, but as an appendage of the Crown, which was indeed graciously opened to the learned, but was only national property in the same sense that the Queen's private library at Windsor is national property. {2011} Although still called the Bibliothèque du Roi during this period, it may well be here spoken of, for the sake of distinction, as the Bibliothèque Royale down to the Revolution. In 1791, the King's library was proclaimed national property, and it was decreed that it should henceforth be called 'Bibliothèque Nationale,' which name it bore till the coronation of Napoleon as Emperor of the French, in 1805, when it was styled 'Bibliothèque Impériale.' Of course it was Bibliothèque Royale again in 1815, 'Nationale' in 1848, and once again, in 1852, was declared to be the 'Bibliothèque Impériale.'"

_Imperial Library of Paris (Westminster Review, April, 1870)._

After the fall of the Second Empire, the great library again became "Nationale" in name. According to a report made in the spring of 1894, the Bibliothèque Nationale of France contained, at the end of the previous year, 1,934,154 "'numbers,' forming at least 2,600,000 volumes." This report was made by a committee of twenty persons, appointed to consider the advisability and method of printing the catalogue of the library. The conclusions of the committee are favorable to the printing of the catalogue.

_The Nation, May 17, 1894_.

Books come to the National Library "in three ways: from (1) gifts, about 3,000 a year; … (2) purchase, 4,500 (the library has $20,000 a year to spend on books and binding); (3) copyright, 22,000 articles and 6,000 pieces of music. The printer, not the publisher, is bound to make the deposit, so that if the text and the illustrations are printed at different places there is a chance, unless everyone is careful, that the library will have an imperfect copy. But the greatest trouble comes from periodicals, of which the Bibliothèque Nationale receives 3,000. What would some of our librarians think of this who are inclined to boast or to lament that they receive 300? Every number of every newspaper in France must be received, sent for if it fails to come, registered, put on its pile, and at the end of the year tied up in a bundle and put away (for only the most important are bound). … The titles of new books are printed in a bulletin in two series, French and Foreign (causing a printer's bill of 5,000 francs a year). This began in 1875 for the foreign, and in 1882 for the French. These bulletins are cut up and the titles mounted on slips, which are fastened in a Leyden binder, three making a small folio page. The result is a series of 900 volumes, less easy to consult than a good card catalog, very much less easy than the British Museum pasted catalog, the Rudolph books, or the Rudolph machine. … The books received at the Bibliothèque Nationale before 1875 and 1882 are entered on some 2,000,000 slips, which are divided between two catalogs, that of the old library ('fonds ancien'), and of the intermediate library ('fonds intermédiarie'). In each of these catalogs they are arranged in series according to the subject divisions given above and under each subject alphabetically. There is no author catalog and the public are not allowed to consult these catalogs. If then a reader asks for a work received before 1875 the attendant guesses in which 'fonds' it is and what subject it treats of; if he does not find it where he looks first he tries some other division. No wonder it takes on an average half an hour for the reader to get his book. I must bear witness to the great skill which necessity has developed in the officials charged with this work. Some of their successes in bringing me out-of-the-way books were marvellous. On the other hand, when they reported certain works not in the library I did not feel at all sure that they were right, and I dare say they doubted themselves. All this will be changed when the library gets a printed alphabetical catalog of authors and has made from it a pasted alphabetical catalog of subjects. The author catalog, by the way, is expected to fill 40,000 double-columned quarto pages. … The library now has 50 kilometres (31 miles) of shelves and is full. A new store-house is needed and a public reading room ('salle de lecture'), which can be lighted by electricity, and be opened, like the British Museum, in the evening."

_C. A. Cutter, Notes on the Bibliothèque Nationale (Library Journal, June, 1894)._

LIBRARIES: France: Paris Municipal Libraries.

"The Bibliothèques Municipales de Paris have undergone a rapid development within the last few years. In 1878 there were only nine altogether, of which five were little used, and four practically unused. A special Bureau was then appointed by the Municipal Council to take charge of them, with the result that altogether 22 libraries have been opened, while the number of volumes lent rose from 29,339 in 1878 to 57,840 in 1879, to 147,567 in 1880, to 242,738 in 1881, and to 363,322 in 1882. … A sum of 3,050 francs is placed at the disposal of each library by the Municipal Council, which is thus appropriated; Books and Binding, Fr. 1,750; Librarian, 1,000; Attendant, 300. The amount of the sums thus voted by the Municipal Council in the year 1883 was 110,150 fr. For the year of 1884 the sum of 171,700 fr. has been voted, the increase being intended to provide for the establishment of fifteen new libraries in Communal Schools, as well as for the growing requirements of some of the libraries already established. The individual libraries are not, of course, as yet very considerable in point of numbers. The stock possessed by the twenty-two Bibliothèques Municipales in 1882 was 87,831 volumes, of which 20,411 had been added during that year. Information received since the publication of M. Dardenne's Report places the number in 1883 at 98,843 volumes. … The libraries are open to the public gratuitously every evening from 8 to 10 o'clock, and are closed on five days only during the whole year. Books may be read in the library or are lent out for home use. … Music is lent as well as books, the experiment having been first tried at the Mairie of the second arrondissement, in 1879, and having proved so successful that nine arrondissements have followed suit, and the total number of musical issues from the ten libraries in 1882 was 9,085. … Beside these libraries under the direction of the Mairies, there are a certain number of popular free libraries established and supported by voluntary efforts. Without dwelling upon the history of these libraries, all of which have been formed since 1860, it may be stated that there are now fourteen such libraries in as many arrondissements."

_E. C. Thomas, The Popular Libraries of Paris (Library Chronicle, volume 1, 1884, pages 13-14)._

{2012}

"The Journal Officiel' contains in the number for August 29, of this year (1891), the substance of the following account: … The city of Paris has now 64 public libraries, all of which send out books and accommodate readers in their halls; they are open at the times when the factories and shops are closed. … The libraries are kept in the mayoralty buildings or ward district school-houses; a central office provides for the administration and support, while in each precinct a committee of superintendence attends to the choice and ordering of new accessions. All expenses are paid by the city, which, in its last budget, in 1890, appropriated therefor the trifle of 225,000 francs. On every library in full use are bestowed yearly about 2,400 francs, while 14,000 francs are employed in founding new ones. The number of books circulated in 1890 was 1,386,642, against 29,339 in 1878, in the nine libraries then existing. In 1878 there was an average of only 3,259 readers for each library, and in the last year the average was 23,500, which shows a seven-fold use of the libraries."

Public Libraries in Paris; translated from the Börsenblatt, October 7, 1891 (Library Journal, May, 1892).

LIBRARIES: France: Other Libraries.

A library of importance in Paris second only to the great National is the Mazarin, which contains 300,000 volumes (1,000 incunabula), and 5,800 manuscripts. The Library of the University has 141,678 volumes; the Library of the Museum of Natural History has 140,850 books and 2,050 manuscripts; the Sainte-Genevieve Library contains 120,000 volumes and 2,392 manuscripts; the Library of the City of Paris, 90,000 volumes and 2,000 manuscripts. The principal libraries of the provincial cities are reported as follows: Caen Municipal Library, 100,000 volumes, 620 manuscripts; Dijon Municipal Library, 100,000 volumes, 1,558 manuscripts; Marseilles City Library, 102,000 volumes, 1,656 manuscripts; Montpelier City Library, 120,000 volumes; Nantes City Library, 102,172 volumes, 2,231 manuscripts; Rheims Library, 100,000 books and 1,700 manuscripts; Lyons City Library and Library of the Palace of Arts, 160,000 volumes and 1,900 manuscripts; Toulouse City Library, 100,000 volumes and 950 manuscripts; Rouen City Library, 132,000 printed books and 3,800 manuscripts; Avignon, 117,000 volumes and 3,300 manuscripts; Bordeaux, 160,000 volumes, 1,500 manuscripts; Tours, 100,000 volumes and 1,743 manuscripts; Amiens, 80,000 volumes, 1,500 manuscripts; Besançon, 140,000 volumes and 1,850 manuscripts.

Minerva, 1893-94.

LIBRARIES: Italy.

"There are in Italy between thirty and forty libraries which the present National Government, in recognition of former Governmental support, is committed to maintain, at least in some degree. It is a division of resources which even a rich country would find an impediment in developing a proper National Library, and Italy, with its over-burdened Treasury, is far from being in a position to offer the world a single library of the first class. … Italy, to build up a library which shall rank with the great national libraries of the future, will need to concentrate her resources; for though she has libraries now which are rich in manuscripts, she has not one which is able to meet the great demands of modern scholarship for printed books. … If with this want of fecundity there went a corresponding slothfulness in libraries, there would be little to be hoped of Italy in amassing great collections of books. In some respects I have found a more active bibliothecal spirit in Italy than elsewhere in Europe, and I suspect that if Italian unification has accomplished nothing else, it has unshackled the minds of librarians, and placed them more in sympathy with the modern gospel which makes a library more the servant than the master of its users. I suspect this is not, as a rule, the case in Germany. … I have certainly found in Italian librarians a great alertness of mind and a marked eagerness to observe the advances in library methods which have taken place elsewhere during the last five and twenty years. But at the same time, with all this activity, the miserable bureaucratic methods of which even the chance stranger sees so much in Italy, are allowed to embarrass the efforts of her best librarians. … In the present condition of Italian finances nothing adequate to the needs of the larger libraries can be allowed, and the wonder is that so much is done as is apparent; and it is doubtless owing to the great force of character which I find in some of the leading librarians that any progress is made at all. During the years when the new Italian kingdom had its capital in Florence a certain amount of concentration started the new Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale on its career; and when later the Government was transferred to Rome, the new capital was given another library, got together in a similar way, which is called the Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele. Neither collection is housed in any way suited to its functions, and the one at Florence is much the most important; indeed it is marvellously rich in early printed books and in manuscripts."

_J. Winsor, The condition of Italian Libraries (The Nation, July 9, 1891)._

LIBRARIES: The Vatican Library.

"Even so inveterate a hater of literature as the Calif, who conquered Alexandria and gave its precious volumes to the flames, would have appreciated such a library as the Vatican. Not a book is to be seen—not a shelf is visible, and there is nothing to inform the visitor that he is in the most famous library in the world. … The eye is bewildered by innumerable busts, statues, and columns. The walls are gay with brilliant arabesques, and the visitor passes through lofty corridors and along splendid galleries, finding in every direction something to please and interest him. … The printed books number about 125,000 volumes and there are about 25,000 manuscripts. The books and manuscripts are enclosed in low wooden cases around the walls of the various apartments, the cases are painted in white and gold colors, and thus harmonize with the gay appearance of the walls and ceilings. … The honor of founding the Vatican Library belongs to Pope Nicholas V., who, in 1447, transferred to the Palace of the Vatican the manuscripts which had been collected in the Lateran. At his death the library contained 9,000 manuscripts, but many of them were dispersed under his successor, Calixtus III. Sixtus IV. was very active in restoring and increasing the library. In 1588, the present library building was erected by Sixtus V., to receive the immense collection obtained by Leo X. In the year 1600 the value of the library was greatly augmented by the acquisition of the collection of Fulvius Ursinus and the valuable manuscripts from the Benedictine Monastery of Bobbio, composed chiefly of palimpsests. … {2013} The next acquisition was the Library of the Elector Palatine, captured in 1621, at Heidelberg, by De Tilley, who presented it to Gregory XV. It numbered 2,388 manuscripts, 1,956 in Latin, and 432 in Greek. In 1658 the Library founded by Duke Federigo de Urbino—1,711 Greek and Latin manuscripts—was added to the valuable collection. One of the most valuable accessions was the collection of Queen Christina of Sweden, containing all the literary works which her father, Gustavus Adolphus, had captured at Prague, Bremen, etc., amounting to 2,291 manuscripts, Greek and Latin. In 1746 the magnificent library of the Ottobuoni family, containing 3,862 Greek and Latin manuscripts, enriched the Vatican collection. After the downfall of Napoleon and the restoration of the peace of Europe in 1815, the King of Prussia, at the suggestion of Humboldt, applied to Pope Pius VII for the restoration of some of the manuscripts which De Tilley had plundered from the Heidelberg Library. The Pope, mindful of the prominent part taken by Prussia in the restoration of the Papal See, immediately complied with the royal request, and many manuscripts of great value to the German historians were sent back to Germany."

_E. L. Didier, The Vatican Library (Literary World, June 28, 1884)._

The following recent statistics of other Italian libraries are from "Minerva," 1893-94: Florence National Central Library, 422,183 printed books, 398,845 pamphlets and 17,386 manuscripts; Rome, National Central Library of Victor Emmanuel, 241,978 books, 130,728 pamphlets, 4,676 manuscripts; Naples University Library, 181,072 printed books, 43,453 pamphlets, and 109 manuscripts; Bologna University Library, 251,700 books, 43,633 pamphlets and 5,000 manuscripts; Pavia University Library, 136,000 books, 80,000 pamphlets and 1,100 manuscripts; Turin National Library, 196,279 printed books and 4,119 manuscripts; Venice, National Library of St. Mark, 401,652 printed and bound books, 80,450 pamphlets, and 12,016 manuscripts; Pisa University Library, 108,188 books, 22,960 pamphlets and 274 manuscripts; Genoa University Library, 106,693 books, 46,231 pamphlets, and 1,586 manuscripts; Modena, the Este Library, 123,300 volumes, and 5,000 manuscripts; Padua University Library, 135,837 volumes, 2,326 manuscripts, and 63,849 pamphlets, etc.; Palermo National Library, 177,892 volumes and pamphlets, and 1,527 manuscripts; Palermo Communal Library, 209,000 books, 16,000 pamphlets, etc., 3,000 manuscripts; Parma Palatine Library, 250,000 books, 20,313 pamphlets, etc., 4,769 manuscripts; Siena Communal Library 67,966 volumes, 26,968 pamphlets, 4,890 manuscripts.

LIBRARIES: Austria-Hungary.

The principal libraries in the Empire are reported to contain as follows: Vienna University Library, 416,608 volumes, 373 incunabula, 498 manuscripts; Vienna Imperial and Royal Court Library, 500,000 volumes, 6,461 incunabula, and 20,000 manuscripts; Budapest University Library, 200,000 volumes, 1,000 manuscripts; Hungarian National Museum, 400,000 volumes and 63,000 manuscripts, mostly Hungarian; Czernowitz University Library, 64,586 volumes and over 30,000 pamphlets, etc.; Graz University 131,397 volumes of books and 1,708 manuscripts; Innspruck University Library, 135,000 printed books, including 1,653 incunabula, and 1,046 manuscripts; Cracow University Library, 283,858 volumes and 5,150 manuscripts; Lemberg University Library, 120,900 volumes; Prague University Library, 211,131 volumes, 3,848 manuscripts.

Minerva, 1893-94.

LIBRARIES: Switzerland.

The principal libraries of Switzerland are the following: Basle Public Library, 170,000 volumes of printed books and about 5,000 manuscripts; Berne City Library, 80,000 volumes and a valuable manuscript collection; Berne University Library, 35,000 volumes; St. Gall "Stiftsbibliothek," about 40,000 volumes, including l,584 incunabula, and 1,730 manuscripts; Lucerne Cantonal Library, 80,000 volumes; Zurich City Library, 130,000 volumes.

Minerva, 1893-94.

LIBRARIES: Holland.

The following statistics of libraries in Holland are given in the German handbook, "Minerva," 1893-94: Leyden University Library, 190,000 volumes of printed books and 5,400 manuscripts, of which latter 2,400 are oriental; Utrecht University Library, 200,000 volumes, besides pamphlets; Groningen University Library, 70,000 volumes.

LIBRARIES: Belgium.

Brussels Royal Library, 375,000 volumes, and 27,000 manuscripts; Ghent, Library of the City and University of Gand, 300,000 volumes.

LIBRARIES: Denmark, Norway and Sweden.

The principal libraries of the Scandinavian kingdoms contain as follows: Christiania University Library, 312,000 volumes; Gothenburg City Library, about 60,000 volumes; Copenhagen University Library 300,000 books and 5,000 manuscripts; Lund University Library, 150,000 volumes; Stockholm Royal Library, 300,000 printed books and 11,000 manuscripts; Upsala University Library, 275,000 volumes and 11,000 manuscripts.

Minerva, 1893-94.

LIBRARIES: Spain.

The principal libraries in Spain are the following: Barcelona Provincial and University Library, 54,000 volumes; Madrid University Library, 200,761 volumes and 3,000 manuscripts; Madrid National Library, 450,000 volumes and 10,000 manuscripts; Salamanca University Library, 72,000 volumes and 870 manuscripts; Seville University Library, 62,000 volumes; Valencia University Library, 45,000 volumes; Valladolid University Library, 32,000 volumes.

Minerva, 1893-94.

LIBRARIES: Russia.

"The most notable [Russian] libraries are those founded by the government. Of these, two deserve special attention: the library of the Academy of Sciences and the Imperial Public Library in St. Petersburg. Books taken by the Russian armies from the Baltic provinces at the beginning of the eighteenth century formed the foundation of the first. The Imperial Library was the result of the Russian capture of Warsaw. Count Joseph Zalussky, bishop of Kiev, spent forty-three years collecting a rich library of 300,000 volumes and 10,000 manuscripts, devoting all his wealth to the purchase of books. His brother Andrew further enriched the library with volumes taken from the museum of the Polish king, John III. In 1747 Joseph Zalussky opened the library to the public, and in 1761 bequeathed it to a college of Jesuits in Warsaw. Six years later (1767) Zalussky was arrested and his library removed to St. Petersburg. The transfer took place in bad weather and over poor roads, so that many books were injured and many lost in transit. When the library reached St. Petersburg it numbered 262,640 volumes and 24,500 estampes. Many had been stolen during the journey, and years later there were to be found in Poland books bearing the signature of Zalussky. {2014} To the Imperial Library Alexander I. added, in 1805, the Dubrovsky collection. … Dubrovsky gathered his collection during a twenty-five years' residence in Paris, Rome, Madrid, and other large cities of Europe. He acquired many during the French revolution. … The Imperial Library possesses many palimpsests, Greek manuscripts of the second century, … besides Slavonian, Latin, French, and Oriental manuscripts. … The library is constantly growing, about 25,000 volumes being added every year. In income, size, and number of readers it vastly surpasses all private libraries in Russia, the largest of which does not exceed 25,000 volumes. In later years the village schools began to open libraries for limited circles of readers. Small libraries were successfully maintained in cities and the demand for good reading steadily increased among the people."

_A. V. Babine, Libraries in Russia, (Library Journal, March, 1893)._

The principal libraries of Russia reported in the German yearbook "Minerva" 1893-94 are the following: Charkow University Library, 123,000 volumes; Dorpat University Library, 170,000 volumes, and 104,700 dissertationen; Helsingfors University Library 170,000 volumes; Kasan University Library, 100,000 volumes; Kiev University Library, 118,000 volumes; Moscow University Library, 217,000 volumes; Odessa University Library, 102,000 volumes; St. Petersburg University Library, 215,700 volumes; St. Petersburg Imperial Public Library, 1,050,000 volumes, 28,000 manuscripts.

LIBRARIES: England: The King's Library and the British Museum.

"No monarch of England is known to have been an extensive collector of books (in the modern acceptation of the term) except George III., or, if the name of Charles I. should be added, it must be in a secondary rank, and with some uncertainty, because we have not the same evidence of his collection of books as we have of his pictures, in the catalogue which exists of them. A royal library had, indeed, been established in the reign of Henry VII.; it was increased, as noticed by Walpole, by many presents from abroad, made to our monarchs after the restoration of learning and the invention of printing; and naturally received accessions in every subsequent reign, if it were only from the various presents by which authors desired to show their respect or to solicit patronage, as well as from the custom of making new year's gifts, which were often books. There were also added to it the entire libraries of Lord Lumley (including those of Henry, Earl of Arundel, and Archbishop Cranmer), of the celebrated Casaubon, of Sir John Morris, and the Oriental MSS. of Sir Thomas Roe. Whilst this collection remained at St. James's Palace, the number of books amassed in each reign could have been easily distinguished, as they were classed and arranged under the names of the respective sovereigns. In 1759 King George II. transferred the whole, by letters patent, to the then newly-formed establishment of the British Museum; the arrangement under reigns was some time after departed from, and the several royal collections interspersed with the other books obtained from Sir Hans Sloane, Major Edwards, and various other sources. … George III., on his accession to the crown, thus found the apartments which had formerly contained the library of the Kings of England vacated by their ancient tenants. … Sir F. A. Barnard states that 'to create an establishment so necessary and important, and to attach it to the royal residence, was one of the earliest objects which engaged his majesty's attention at the commencement of his reign;' and he adds that the library of Joseph Smith, Esq., the British Consul at Venice, which was purchased in 1762, 'became the foundation of the present Royal Library.' Consul Smith's collection was already well known, from a catalogue which had been printed at Venice in 1755, to be eminently rich in the earliest editions of the classics, and in Italian literature.' Its purchase was effected for about £10,000, and it was brought direct to some apartments at the Queen's Palace commonly called Buckingham House. Here the subsequent collections were amassed; and here, after they had outgrown the rooms at first appropriated to them, the King erected two large additional libraries, one of which was a handsome octagon. Latterly the books occupied no less than seven apartments. … Early in the year 1823, it was made known to the public that King George IV. had presented the Royal Library to the British nation. … Shortly after, the Chancellor of the Exchequer stated in the House of Commons that it was his majesty's wish that the library should be placed in the British Museum, but in a separate apartment from the Museum Library."

Gentleman's Magazine, 1834, pages 16-22.

"In the chief countries of the Continent of Europe … great national Museums have, commonly, had their origin in the liberality and wise foresight either of some sovereign or other, or of some powerful minister whose mind was large enough to combine with the cares of State a care for Learning. In Britain, our chief public collection of literature and of science originated simply in the public spirit of private persons. The British Museum was founded precisely at that period of our history when the distinctively national, or governmental, care for the interests of literature and of science was at its lowest, or almost its lowest, point. As regards the monarchs, it would be hard to fix on any, since the dawn of the Revival of Learning, who evinced less concern for the progress and diffusion of learning than did the first and second princes of the House of Hanover. As regards Parliament, the tardy and languid acceptance of the boon proffered, posthumously, by Sir Hans Sloane, constitutes just the one exceptional act of encouragement that serves to give saliency to the utter indifference which formed the ordinary rule. Long before Sloane's time … there had been zealous and repeated efforts to arouse the attention of the Government as well to the political importance as to the educational value of public museums. Many thinkers had already perceived that such collections were a positive increase of public wealth and of national greatness, as well as a powerful instrument of popular education. It had been shewn, over and over again, that for lack of public care precious monuments and treasures of learning had been lost; sometimes by their removal to far-off countries; sometimes by their utter destruction. Until the appeal made to Parliament by the Executors of Sir Hans Sloane, in the middle of the eighteenth century, all those efforts had uniformly failed. But Sir Hans Sloane cannot claim to be regarded, individually or very specially, as the Founder of the British Museum. His last Will, indeed, gave an opportunity for the foundation. {2015} Strictly speaking, he was not even the Founder of his own Collection, as it stood in his lifetime. The Founder of the Sloane Museum was William Courten, the last of a line of wealthy Flemish refugees, whose history, in their adopted country, is a series of romantic adventures. Parliament had previously accepted the gift of the Cottonian Library, at the hands of Sir John Cotton, third in descent from its Founder, and its acceptance of that gift had been followed by almost unbroken neglect, although the gift was a noble one. Sir John, when conversing, on one occasion, with Thomas Carte, told the historian that he had been offered £60,000 of English money, together with a carte blanche for some honorary mark of royal favour, on the part of Lewis XIV., for the Library which he afterwards settled upon the British nation. It has been estimated that Sloane expended (from first to last) upon his various collections about £50,000; so that even from the mercantile point of view, the Cotton family may be said to have been larger voluntary contributors towards our eventual National Museum than was Sir Hans Sloane himself. That point of view, however, would be a very false, because very narrow, one. Whether estimated by mere money value, or by a truer standard, the third, in order of time, of the Foundation-Collections,—that of the 'Harleian Manuscripts,'—was a much less important acquisition for the Nation than was the Museum of Sloane, or the Library of Cotton; but its literary value, as all students of our history and literature know, is, nevertheless, considerable. Its first Collector, Robert Harley, the Minister of Queen Anne and the first of the Harleian Earls of Oxford, is fairly entitled to rank, after Cotton, Courten, and Sloane, among the virtual or eventual co-founders of the British Museum. Chronologically, then, Sir Robert Cotton, William Courten, Hans Sloane, and Robert Harley, rank first as Founders; so long as we estimate their relative position in accordance with the successive steps by which the British Museum was eventually organized. But there is another synchronism by which greater accuracy is attainable. Although four years had elapsed between the passing—in 1753—of 'An Act for the purchase of the Museum or Collection of Sir Hans Sloane, and of the Harleian Collection of Manuscripts, and for providing one general repository for the better reception and more convenient use of the said Collections, and of the Cottonian Library and of the additions thereto,' and the gift—in 1757—to the Trustees of those already united Collections by King George II. of the Old Royal Library of the Kings his predecessors, yet that royal collection itself had been (in a restricted sense of the words) a Public and National possession soon after the days of the first real and central Founder of the present Museum, Sir Robert Cotton. But, despite its title, that Royal Library, also, was—in the main—the creation of subjects, not of Sovereigns or Governments. Its virtual founder Was Henry, prince of Wales [son of James I.]. It was acquired, out of his privy purse, as a subject, not as a Prince. He, therefore, has a title to be placed among the individual Collectors whose united efforts resulted—after long intervals of time—in the creation, eventually, of a public institution second to none, of its kind, in the world."

E. Edwards, Founders of the British Museum, book 1, chapter 1.

"Montague House was purchased by the Trustees in 1754 for a general repository, and the collections were removed to it. … On the 15th of January, 1750, the British Museum was opened for the inspection and use of the public. At first the Museum was divided into three departments, viz., Printed Books, Manuscripts, and Natural History; at the head of each of them was placed an officer designated as 'Under Librarian.' The increase of the collections soon rendered it necessary to provide additional accommodation for them, Montague House proving insufficient. The present by George III. of Egyptian Antiquities, and the purchase of the Hamilton and Townley Antiquities, made it moreover imperative to create an additional department—that of Antiquities and Art—to which were united the Prints and Drawings, as well as the Medals and Coins, previously attached to the library of Printed Books and Manuscripts. The acquisition of the Elgin Marbles in 1816 made the Department of Antiquities of the highest importance, and increased room being indispensable for the exhibition of those marbles, a temporary shelter was prepared for them. This was the last addition to Montague House. When, in 1823, the library collected by George III. was presented to the nation by George IV. it became necessary to erect a building fit to receive this valuable and extensive collection. It was then decided to have an entirely new edifice to contain the whole of the Museum collection, including the recently-acquired library. Sir R. Smirke was accordingly directed by the Trustees to prepare plans. The eastern side of the present structure was completed in 1828, and the Royal Library was then placed in it. The northern, southern, and western sides of the building were subsequently added, and in 1845 the whole of Montague House and its additions had disappeared; while the increasing collections had rendered it necessary to make various additions to the original design of Sir R. Smirke, some of them even before it had been carried out."

J. W. Jones, British Museum: a Guide, pages ii-iii.

"The necessity of a general enlargement of the library led to the suggestion of many plans—some impracticable—some too expensive—and all involving a delay which would have been fatal to the efficiency of the Institution. … Fortunately … after much vigorous discussion, a plan which had been suggested by the … Principal Librarian [Mr. Panizzi] for building in the vacant quadrangle, was adopted and carried out under his own immediate and watchful superintendence. … The quadrangle within which the new library is built is 313 feet in length by 235 wide, comprising an area of 73,555 square feet. Of this space the building covers 47,472 feet, being 258 feet long by 184 feet in width, thus leaving an interval of from 27 to 30 feet all round. By this arrangement, the light and ventilation of the surrounding buildings is not interfered with, and the risk of fire from the outer buildings is guarded against. The Reading Boom is circular. The dome is 140 feet in diameter, and its height 106 feet. The diameter of the lantern is 40 feet. Light is further obtained from twenty circular-headed windows, 27 feet high by 12 feet wide, inserted at equal intervals round the dome at a height of 35 feet from the ground. {2016} In its diameter the dome of the Reading Room exceeds all others, with the exception of the Pantheon of Rome, which is about 2 feet wider. That of St. Peter's at Rome, and of Santa Maria in Florence are each only 139 feet; that of the tomb of Mahomet at Bejapore, 135; of St. Paul's, 112; of St. Sophia, at Constantinople, 107; and of the church of Darmstadt, 105. The new Reading Room contains 1,250,000 cubic feet of space, and the surrounding libraries 750,000. These libraries are 24 feet in height, with the exception of that part which runs round the outside of the Reading Room, which is 32 feet high; the spring of the dome being 24 feet from the floor of the Reading Room, and the ground excavated 8 feet below this level. The whole building is constructed principally of iron. … The Reading Room contains ample and comfortable accommodation for 302 readers. There are thirty-five tables: eight are 34 feet long, and accommodate sixteen readers, eight on each side; nine are 30 feet long, and accommodate fourteen readers, seven on each side; two are 30 feet long, and accommodate eight readers each, viz., seven on one side and one on the other—these two tables are set apart for the exclusive use of ladies; sixteen other tables are 6 feet long, and accommodate two readers each—these are fitted up with rising desks of a large size for those readers who may have occasion to consult works beyond the usual dimensions. Each person has allotted to him, at the long tables, a space of 4 feet 3 inches in length by 2 feet 1 inch in depth. He is screened from the opposite occupant by a longitudinal division, which is fitted with a hinged desk graduated on sloping racks, and a folding shelf for spare books. In the space between the two, which is recessed, an inkstand is fixed, having suitable penholders. … The framework of each table is of iron, forming air-distributing channels, which are contrived so that the air may be delivered at the top of the longitudinal screen division, above the level of the heads of the readers, or, if desired, only at each end pedestal of the tables, all the outlets being under the control of valves. A tubular foot-rail also passes from end to end of each table, which may have a current of warm water through it at pleasure, and be used as a foot-warmer if required. The pedestals of the tables form tubes communicating with the air-chamber below, which is 6 feet high, and occupies the whole area of the Reading Room: it is fitted with hot-water pipes arranged in radiating lines. The supply of fresh air is obtained from a shaft 60 feet high. … The shelves within the Reading Room contain about 60,000 volumes: the new building altogether will accommodate about 1,500,000 volumes."

List of the Books of Reference in the Reading Room of the British Museum; preface.

The number of volumes of printed books in the British Museum in 1893 is reported to have been 1,600,000, the number of manuscripts 50,000 and the maps and charts 200,000.

Minerva, 1893-94.

A purchase from the Duke of Bedford, of adjoining land, to the extent of five and a half acres, for the enlargement of the Museum, was announced by the London Times, March 18, 1894. With this addition, the area of ground occupied by the Museum will be fourteen acres.

LIBRARIES: England: The Bodleian Library.

"Its founder, Sir Thomas Bodley, was a worthy of Devon, who had been actively employed by Queen Elizabeth as a diplomatist, and had returned tired of court life to the University, where long before he had been Fellow of Merton College. He found the ancient library of the University (which, after growing slowly with many vicissitudes from small beginnings, had suddenly been enriched in 1439-46 by a gift of 264 valuable MSS. from Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester) utterly destroyed by Edward VI.'s Commissioners, and the room built for its reception (still called 'Duke Humphrey's library') swept clear even of the readers' desks. His determination to refound the library of the University was actively carried out, and on November 8, 1602, the new institution was formally opened with about 2,000 printed and manuscript volumes. Two striking advantages were possessed by the Bodleian almost from the first. Sir Thomas Bodley employed his great influence at court and with friends to induce them to give help to his scheme, and accordingly we find not only donations of money and books from personal friends, but 240 MSS. contributed by the Deans and Chapters of Exeter and Windsor. Moreover, in 1610, he arranged with the Stationers' Company that they should present his foundation with a copy of every printed book published by a member of the Company; and from that time to this the right to every book published in the kingdom has been continuously enjoyed."

F. Madan, Books in Manuscript, page 84.

In 1891 the Bodleian Library was said to contain 400,000 printed books and 30,000 manuscripts. Under the copyright act of Great Britain, the British Museum, the Bodleian Library, Oxford, the Cambridge University Library, the Advocates Library, Edinburgh, and the Trinity College Library, Dublin, are each entitled to a copy of every work published in the United Kingdom.

LIBRARIES: England: Rise and Growth of Free Town-Libraries.

In the "Encyclopædia Britannica" (9th edition) we read, in the article "Libraries," that "the fine old library instituted by Humphrey Chetham in Manchester, in 1653, and which is still 'housed in the old collegiate buildings where Raleigh was once entertained by Dr. Dee, might be said to be the first free library' in England. Two centuries, however, before worthy Chetham had erected his free fountain of knowledge for thirsty souls, a grave fraternity known as the Guild of Kalendars had established a free library, for all comers, in connection with a church yet standing in one of the thoroughfares of Old Bristol. … John Leland (temp. Henry VIII.) speaks of the Kalendars as an established body about the year 1170: and when in 1216 Henry III. held a Parliament in Bristol, the deeds of the guild were inspected, and ratified on account of the antiquity and high character of the fraternity ('propter antiquitates et bonitates in eâ Gilda repertas'), and Gualo, the Papal Legate, commended the Kalendars to the care of William de Blois, Bishop of Worcester, within whose diocese Bristol then lay. It was the office of the Kalendars to record local events and such general affairs as were thought worthy of commemoration, whence their name. They consisted of clergy and laity, even women being admitted to their Order. … {2017} It was ordered by Wolstan, Bishop of Worcester, who in visitation of this part of his diocese, July 10, 1340, examined the ancient rules of the College, that a prior in priest's orders should be chosen by the majority of the chaplains and lay brethren, without the solemnity of confirmation, consecration or benediction of superiors, and eight chaplains who were not bound by monastic rules, were to be joined with him to celebrate for departed brethren and benefactors every day. By an ordinance of John Carpenter, Bishop of Worcester, A. D. 1464, the Prior was to reside in the college, and take charge of a certain library newly erected at the Bishop's expense, so that every festival day from seven to eleven in the forenoon admission should be freely allowed to all desirous of consulting the Prior, to read a public lecture every week in the library, and elucidate obscure places of Scripture as well as he could to those desirous of his teachings. … Lest, through negligence or accident, the books should be lost, it was ordered that three catalogues of them should be kept; one to remain with the Dean of Augustinian Canons, whose 14th-century church is now Bristol Cathedral, another with the Mayor for the time being, and the third with the Prior himself. Unfortunately, they are all three lost. … This interesting library was destroyed by fire in 1466 through the carelessness of a drunken 'point-maker,' two adjoining houses against the steeple of the church being at the same time burnt down."

_J. Taylor, The First English Free Library and its Founders (Murray's Magazine, November, 1891)._

"Free town-libraries are essentially a modern institution, and yet can boast of a greater antiquity than is generally supposed, for we find a town-library at Auvergne in 1540, and one at a still earlier date at Aix. Either the munificence of individuals or the action of corporate authorities has given very many of the continental towns freely accessible libraries, some of them of considerable extent. In England the history of town-libraries is much briefer. There is reason to believe that London at an early date was possessed of a common library; and Bristol, Norwich, and Leicester, had each town-libraries, but the corporations proved but careless guardians of their trust, and in each case allowed it to be diverted from the free use of the citizens for the benefit of a subscription library. At Bristol, in 1613, Mr. Robert Redwood 'gave his lodge to be converted into a library or place to put books in for the furtherance of learning.' Some few years after, Tobie Matthew, Archbishop of York, left some valuable books in various departments of literature for free access 'to the merchants and shopkeepers.' … The paucity of our public libraries, twenty years ago, excited the attention of Mr. Edward Edwards, to whose labours in this field the country owes so much. Having collected a large amount of statistics as to the comparative number of these institutions in different States, he communicated the result of his researches to the Statistical Society, in a paper which was read on the 20th of March, 1848, and was printed in this 'Journal' in the August following. The paper revealed some unpleasant facts, and showed that, in respect of the provision of public libraries, Great Britain occupied a very unworthy position. In the United Kingdom (including Malta) Mr. Edwards could only discover 29 libraries having more than 10,000 volumes, whilst France could boast 107, Austria 41, Switzerland 13. The number of volumes to every hundred of the population of cities containing libraries, was in Great Britain 43, France 125, Brunswick 2,353. Of the 29 British libraries enumerated by Mr. Edwards, some had only doubtful claims to be considered as public, and only one of them was absolutely free to all comers, without influence or formality. That one was the public library at Manchester, founded by Humphrey Chetham in 1665. The paper read before this Society twenty-two years ago was destined to be productive of great and speedy results. From the reading of it sprang the present system of free town-libraries. The seed was then sown, and it is now fructifying in the libraries which are springing up on every hand. The paper attracted the attention of the late William Ewart, Esq., M. P., and ultimately led to the appointment of a parliamentary committee on the subject of public libraries. The report of this committee paved the way for the Public Libraries Act of 1850."

_W. E. A. Axon, Statistical Notes on the Free Town-Libraries of Great Britain and the Continent (Journal of the Statistical Society, September 1870, volume 33)._

The progress of free public libraries in England under the Act of 1850 was not, for a long time, very rapid. "In the 36 years from 1850 onward—that is, down to 1886—133 places had availed themselves of the benefits of the act. That was not a very large number, not amounting quite, upon the average, to four in each of those 36 years. … Now, see the change which has taken place. We have only four years, from 1887 to 1890, and in those four years no less than 70 places have taken advantage of the act, so that instead of an average of less than four places in the year, we have an average of more than 17 places."

_W. E. Gladstone, Address at the Opening of the Free Public Library of St. Martin's-in-the-Fields._

"The Clerkenwell Library Commissioners draw attention to the enormous strides London has made within the last five years in the matter of public libraries. In 1886 four parishes had adopted the Acts; by December, 1891, 29 parishes had adopted them, and there are already 30 libraries and branches opened throughout the County of London, possessing over 250,000 volumes, and issuing over 3,000,000 volumes per annum."

_The Library Journal, February, 1892._

Under a new law, which came into force in 1893, "any local authority (i. e., town council or district board), save in the County of London, may establish and maintain public libraries without reference to the wishes of the rate payers."

_The Library Journal, October, 1893 (volume 18, page 442)._

LIBRARIES: United States of America: Franklin and the first Subscription Library.

When Franklin's club, at Philadelphia, the Junto, was first formed, "its meetings were held (as the custom of clubs was in that clubbing age) in a tavern; and in a tavern of such humble pretensions as to be called by Franklin an ale-house. But the leathern-aproned philosophers soon removed to a room of their own, lent them by one of their members, Robert Grace. It often happened that a member would bring a book or two to the Junto, for the purpose of illustrating the subject of debate, and this led Franklin to propose that all the members should keep their books in the Junto room, as well for reference while debating as for the use of members during the week. The suggestion being approved, one end of their little apartment was soon filled with books; and there they remained for the common benefit a year. {2018} But some books having been injured, their owners became dissatisfied, and the books were all taken home. Books were then scarce, high-priced, and of great bulk. Folios were still common, and a book of less magnitude than quarto was deemed insignificant. … Few books of much importance were published at less than two guineas. Such prices as four guineas, five guineas, and six guineas were not uncommon. Deprived of the advantage of the Junto collection, Franklin conceived the idea of a subscription library. Early in 1731 he drew up a plan, the substance of which was, that each subscriber should contribute two pounds sterling for the first purchase of books, and ten shillings a year for the increase of the library. As few of the inhabitants of Philadelphia had money to spare, and still fewer cared for reading, he found very great difficulty in procuring a sufficient number of subscribers. He says: 'I put myself as much as I could out of sight, and stated it as a scheme of a number of friends, who had requested me to go about and propose it to such as they thought lovers of reading. In this way my affairs went on more smoothly, and I ever after practiced it on such occasions, and from my frequent successes can heartily recommend it.' Yet it was not until November, 1731, at least five months after the project was started, that fifty names were obtained; and not till March, 1732, that the money was collected. After consulting James Logan, 'the best judge of books in these parts,' the first list of books was made out, a draft upon London of forty-five pounds was purchased, and both were placed in the hands of one of the directors who was going to England. Peter Collinson undertook the purchase, and added to it presents of Newton's 'Principia,' and 'Gardener's Dictionary.' All the business of the library Mr. Collinson continued to transact for thirty years, and always swelled the annual parcel of books by gifts of valuable works. In those days getting a parcel from London was a tedious affair indeed. All the summer of 1732 the subscribers were waiting for the coming of the books, as for an event of the greatest interest. … In October the books arrived, and were placed, at first, in the room of the Junto. A librarian was appointed, and the library was opened once a week for giving out the books. The second year Franklin himself served as librarian. For many years the secretary to the directors was Joseph Breintnal, by whose zeal and diligence the interests of the library were greatly promoted. Franklin printed a catalogue soon after the arrival of the books, for which, and for other printing, he was exempted from paying his annual ten shillings for two years. The success of this library, thus begun by a few mechanics and clerks, was great in every sense of the word. Valuable donations of books, money and curiosities were frequently made to it. The number of subscribers slowly, but steadily, increased. Libraries of similar character sprung up all over the country, and many were started even in Philadelphia. Kalm, who was in Philadelphia in 1748, says that then the parent library had given rise to 'many little libraries,' on the same plan as itself. He also says that non-subscribers were then allowed to take books out of the library, by leaving a pledge for the value of the book, and paying for a folio eight pence a week, for a quarto six pence, and for all others four pence. 'The subscribers,' he says, 'were so kind to me as to order the librarian, during my stay here, to lend me every book I should want, without requiring any payment of me.' In 1764, the shares had risen in value to nearly twenty pounds, and the collection was considered to be worth seventeen hundred pounds. In 1785, the number of volumes was 5,487; in 1807, 14,457; in 1861, 70,000. The institution is one of the few in America that has held on its way, unchanged in any essential principle, for a century and a quarter, always on the increase, always faithfully administered, always doing well its appointed work. There is every reason to believe that it will do so for centuries to come. The prosperity of the Philadelphia Library was owing to the original excellence of the plan, the good sense embodied in the rules, the care with which its affairs were conducted, and the vigilance of Franklin and his friends in turning to account passing events. Thomas Penn, for example, visited Philadelphia a year or two after the library was founded; when the directors of the library waited upon him with a dutiful address, and received, in return, a gift of books and apparatus. It were difficult to over-estimate the value to the colonies of the libraries that grew out of Franklin's original' conception. They were among the chief means of educating the colonies up to Independence. 'Reading became fashionable,' says Franklin; 'and our people having no public amusements to divert their attention from study, became better acquainted with books, and in a few years were observed, by strangers, to be better instructed and more intelligent than people of the same rank generally are in other countries.' … What the Philadelphia Library did for Franklin himself, the libraries, doubtless, did for many others. It made him a daily student for twenty years. He set apart an hour or two every day for study, and thus acquired the substance of all the most valuable knowledge then possessed by mankind. Whether Franklin was the originator of subscription libraries, and of the idea of permitting books to be taken to the homes of subscribers, I cannot positively assert. But I can discover no trace of either of those two fruitful conceptions before his time."

J. Parton, Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin, pages 200-203.

"The books were at first kept in the house of Robert Grace, whom Franklin characterizes as 'a young gentleman of some fortune, generous, lively, and witty, a lover of punning and of his friends.' Afterward they were allotted a room in the State-House; and, in 1742, a charter was obtained from the Proprietaries. In 1790, having in the interval absorbed several other associations and sustained a removal to Carpenter's Hall, where its apartment had been used as a hospital for wounded American soldiers, the Library was at last housed in a building especially erected for it at Fifth and Chestnut streets, where it remained until within the last few years. It brought only about eight thousand volumes into its new quarters, for it had languished somewhat during the Revolution and the war of words which attended our political birth. But it had received no injury. … Two years after removal to its quarters on Fifth street, the Library received the most valuable gift of books it has as yet had. James Logan, friend and adviser of Penn, … had gathered a most important collection of books. {2019} Mr. Logan was translator of Cicero's 'Cato Major,' the first classic published in America, besides being versed in natural science. His library comprised, as he tells us, 'over one hundred volumes of authors, all in Greek, with mostly their versions; all the Roman classics without exception; all the Greek mathematicians. … Besides there are many of the most valuable Latin authors, and a great number of modern mathematicians.' These, at first bequeathed as a public library to the city, became a branch of the Philadelphia Library under certain conditions, one of which was that, barring contingencies, one of the donor's descendants should always hold the office of trustee. And to-day his direct descendant fills the position, and is perhaps the only example in this country of an hereditary office-holder. … In 1869 died Dr. James Rush, son of Benjamin Rush, and himself well known as the author of a work on the human voice, and as husband of a lady who almost succeeded in naturalizing the salon in this country. By his will about one million dollars were devoted to the erection and maintenance of an isolated and fire-proof library-building, which was to be named the Ridgway Library, in memory of his wife. This building was offered to the Philadelphia Company, and the bequest was accepted. That institution had by this time accumulated about one hundred thousand volumes. … A building of the Doric order was erected, which with its grounds covers an entire square or block, and is calculated to contain four hundred thousand volumes, or three times as many as the Library at present has, and to this building the more valuable books of the Library were removed in 1878; the fiction and more modern works being placed in another designed in imitation of the old edifice, and nearer the center of the city."

_B. Samuel, The Father of American Libraries (Century Magazine, May, 1883)._

In 1893, the library of the Philadelphia Library Company contained 171,069 volumes.

LIBRARIES: The First Library in New York.

The New York Society Library is the oldest institution of the kind in the city of New York. "In 1729, the Reverend Dr. Millington, Rector of Newington, England, by his will, bequeathed his library to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. By this society the library of Dr. Millington was presented to the corporation of the city, for the use of the clergy and gentlemen of New-York and the neighbouring provinces. … 'In 1754 [as related in Smith's History of New York] a set of gentlemen undertook to carry about a subscription towards raising a public library, and in a few days collected near 600 pounds, which were laid out in purchasing about 700 volumes of new, well-chosen books. Every subscriber, upon payment of five pounds principal, and the annual sum of ten shillings, is entitled to the use of these books,—his right, by the articles, is assignable, and for non-compliance with them may be forfeited. The care of this library is committed to twelve trustees, annually elected by the subscribers, on the last Tuesday of April, who are restricted from making any rules repugnant to the fundamental subscription. This is the beginning of a library which, in process of time, will probably become vastly rich and voluminous, and it would be very proper for the company to have a Charter for its security and encouragement.' The library of the corporation above alluded to, appearing to have been mismanaged, and at length entirely disused, the trustees of the New-York Society Library offered to take charge of it, and to deposit their own collection with it, in the City-Hall. This proposal having been acceded to by the corporation, the Institution thenceforward received the appellation of 'The City Library,' a name by which it was commonly known for a long time. A good foundation having been thus obtained, the library prospered and increased. … In 1772, a charter was granted to it by the colonial government. The war of the revolution, however, which soon after occurred, interfered with these pleasing prospects; the city fell into the possession of the enemy; the effect on all our public institutions was more or less disastrous, and to the library nearly fatal. An interval of no less than fourteen years, (of which it possesses no record whatever,) here occurs in the history of the society. At length it appears from the minutes, that 'the accidents of the late war having nearly destroyed the former library, no meeting of the proprietors for the choice of trustees was held from the last Tuesday in April, 1774, until Saturday, the 21st December, 1788, when a meeting was summoned.' In 1789, the original charter, with all its privileges, was revived by the legislature of this state; the surviving members resumed the payment of their annual dues, an accession of new subscribers was obtained, and the society, undeterred by the loss of its books, commenced almost a new collection."

_Catalogue of the New York Society Library: Historical Notice._

LIBRARIES: Redwood Library.

While Bishop Berkeley was residing, in 1729, on his farm near Newport, Rhode Island, "he took an active share in forming a philosophical society in Newport. … Among the members were Colonel Updike, Judge Scott (a granduncle of Sir Walter Scott), Nathaniel Kay, Henry Collins, Nathan Townsend, the Reverend James Honeyman, and the Reverend Jeremiah Condy. … The Society seems to have been very successful. One of its objects was to collect books. It originated, in 1747, the Redwood Library."

_A. C. Fraser, Life and Letters of George Berkeley (volume 4 of Works), page 169._

The library thus founded took its name from Abraham Redwood, who gave £500 to it in 1747. Other subscriptions were obtained in Newport to the amount of £5,000, colonial currency, and a building for the library erected in 1750.

United States of America: Free Public Libraries.

"Mr. Ewart, in his Report of the Select Committee on Public Libraries, 1849, says: 'Our younger brethren, the people of the United States, have already anticipated us in the formation of libraries entirely open to the public.' No free public library, however, was then in operation, in the United States, yet one had been authorized by legislative action. The movements in the same direction in England and the United States seem to have gone on independently of each other; and in the public debates and private correspondence relating to the subject there seems to have been no borrowing of ideas, or scarcely an allusion, other than the one quoted, to what was being done elsewhere. In October, 1847, Josiah Quincy, Jr., Mayor of Boston, suggested to the City Council that a petition be sent to the State legislature asking for authority to lay a tax by which the city of Boston could establish a library free to all its citizens. The Massachusetts legislature, in March, 1848, passed such an act, and in 1851 made the act apply to all the cities and towns in the State. {2020} In 1849 donations of books were made to the Boston Public Library. Late in the same year Mr. Edward Everett made to it the donation of his very complete collection of United States documents, and Mayor Bigelow a gift of $1,000. In May, 1852, the first Board of Trustees, with Mr. Everett as president, was organized, and Mr. Joshua Bates, of London, made his first donation of $50,000 for the use of the library. It was fortunate that the public-library system started where it did and under the supervision of the eminent men who constituted the first board of trustees of the Boston Public Library. Mr. George Ticknor was the person who mapped out the sagacious policy of that library—a policy which has never been improved, and which has been adopted by all the public libraries in this country, and, in its main features, by the free libraries of England. For fifteen years or more Mr. Ticknor gave the subject his personal attention. He went to the library every day, as regularly as any of the employes, and devoted several hours to the minutest details of its administration. Before he had any official relations with it, he gave profound consideration to, and settled in his own mind, the leading principles on which the library should be conducted. … Started as the public-library system was on such principles, and under the guidance of these eminent men, libraries sprang up rapidly in Massachusetts, and similar legislation was adopted in other States. The first legislation in Massachusetts was timid. The initiative law of 1848 allowed the city of Boston to spend only $5,000 a year on its Public Library, which has since expended $125,000 a year. The State soon abolished all limitation to the amount which might be raised for library purposes. New Hampshire, in 1849, anticipated Massachusetts, by two years, in the adoption of a general library law. Maine followed in 1854; Vermont in 1865; Ohio in 1867; Colorado, Illinois, and Wisconsin in 1872; Indiana and Iowa in 1873; Texas in 1874; Connecticut and Rhode Island in 1875; Michigan and Nebraska in 1877; California in 1878; Missouri and New Jersey in 1885; Kansas in 1886. … The public library law of Illinois, adopted in 1872, and since enacted by other Western States, is more elaborate and complete than the library laws of any of the New England States. … The law of Wisconsin is similar to that of Illinois. … New Jersey has a public-library law patterned after that of Illinois."

W. F. Poole, President's Address at the annual meeting of the American Library Association, 1887.

The State of New York adopted a library law in 1892, under which the creation of free libraries has been promisingly begun. A law having like effect was adopted in New Hampshire in 1891.

LIBRARIES: United States of America: Library Statistics of 1891.

"As to the early statistics of libraries in this country but little can be found. Prof. Jewett, in his 'Notices of Public Libraries,' published by the Smithsonian Institution in 1850, gave a summary of public libraries, amounting to 694 and containing at that time 2,201,632 volumes. In the census of 1850 an attempt was made to give the number of libraries and the number of volumes they contained, exclusive of school and Sunday school libraries. This number was 1,560; the number of volumes, 2,447,086. In 1856 Mr. Edward Edwards in his summary of libraries gave a much smaller number of libraries, being only 341, but the number of volumes was nearly the same, being 2,371,887, and was also based upon the census of 1850. Mr. William J. Rhees, in his 'Manual of Public Libraries,' which was printed in 1859, gave a list of 2,902 libraries, but of all this number only 1,312 had any report whatever of the number of volumes they contained. From these meager statistics it is seen that the reports do not vary very much, giving about the same number of libraries and number of volumes in them, taking account of the changes that would occur from the different classifications as to what was excepted or omitted as a library. The annual reports of the Bureau from 1870 to 1874 contained limited statistics of only a few hundred libraries, and little more is shown than the fact that there were about 2,000 public libraries of all kinds in the United States. About five years of labor was expended in collecting material for the special report of the Bureau upon public libraries, which was printed in 1876, and this gave a list of 3,649 libraries of over 300 volumes, and the total number of volumes was 12,276,964, this being about the first fairly complete collection of library statistics. In the report of the Bureau for 1884-85, after considerable correspondence and using the former work as a basis, another list of public libraries was published, amounting to 5,388 libraries of over 300 volumes, an increase of 1,869 libraries in ten years, or almost 54 per cent. The number of volumes contained in these libraries at that time was 20,622,076, or an increase of about 66 per cent, and showing that the percentage of increase in the number of volumes was even greater than that of the number of libraries. An estimate of the proportion of smaller libraries under 500 volumes in that list indicates that these smaller libraries included only about 20 per cent of the books, so that this list could be said to fairly show the extent of the libraries at that time. In the report for 1886-87, detailed statistics of the various classes of libraries were given, except those of colleges and schools, which were included in the statistics of those institutions. From the uncertainty of the data and the imperfect records given of the very small libraries, it was deemed best to restrict the statistics to collections of books that might be fairly called representative, and as those having less than 1,000 volumes made but a proportionally small percentage of the whole number of books the basis of 1,000 volumes or over was taken. This list includes the statistics only of libraries of this size and amounted to 1,777 libraries, containing 14,012,370 volumes, and were arranged in separate lists by classes as far as it could be done. … The number of libraries and of volumes in each of the seven special classes in the report made in 1887 was as follows: Free public lending libraries, 434; volumes, 3,721,191; free public reference libraries, 153; volumes, 3,075,099; free public school libraries, 93; volumes, 177,560; free corporate lending libraries, 241; volumes 1,727,870; libraries of clubs, associations, etc., 341; volumes, 2,460,334; subscription corporate libraries, 452; volumes, 2,644,929; and circulating libraries proper, 751; volumes, 215,487. The statistics [now] given … are for the year 1891, and include only libraries of 1,000 volumes and over, thus differing from the complete report of 1885. … {2021} There were, in 1891, 3,804 libraries. Of these, 3 contain over 500,000 volumes; 1 between 300,000 and 500,000; 26 between 100,000 and 300,000; 68 between 50,000 and 100,000; 128 between 25,000 and 50,000; 383 between 10,000 and 25,000; 565 between 5,000 and 10,000; and 2,360 between 1,000 and 5,000. … The North Atlantic Division contains 1,913 libraries, or 50.3 per cent of the whole number; the South Atlantic, 339, or 8.88 per cent; the South Central, 256, or 6.73 per cent; the North Central, 1,098, or 28.87 per cent, and the Western, 198, or 5.22 per cent. Of the distribution of volumes in the libraries, the North Atlantic Division has 16,605,286 or 53.34 per cent; the South Atlantic, 4,276,894, or 13.71 per cent; the South Central 1,345,708, or 4.03 per cent; the North Central, 7,320,045, or 23.32 per cent; and the Western, 1,593,974, or 5.34 per cent. … From [1885 to 1891] the increase in the United States in the number of libraries was from 2,987 to 3,804, an increase of 817, or 27.35 per cent; in the North Atlantic, from 1,543 to 1,913, an increase of 370, or 24 per cent; in the South Atlantic, from 289 to 338, an increase of 49, or 17 per cent; in the South Central, from 201 to 256, an increase of 55, or 27.5 per cent; in the North Central, from 813 to 1,099, an increase of 286, or 35.18 per cent; and in the Western, from 141 to 198, an increase of 57, or 40.43 per cent. These figures show that, comparatively, the largest increase in the number of libraries was in the Western Division, and of the number of volumes the greatest increase was in the North Central Division. The percentage of increase in the whole country was 66.3 for six years, or an average of over 11 per cent each year, which at this rate would double the number of volumes and libraries every nine years. … In the United States in 1885 there was one library to each 18,822 of the population, while in 1891 there was one to every 16,462, or a decrease of population to a library of 2,360, or 12.5 percent; in the North Atlantic Division the decrease was from 10,246 to 9,096, 1,150, or 11.2 per cent; in the South Atlantic, from 28,740 to 26,206, 2,534, or 8.08 per cent; in the South Central, from 48,974 to 42,863, 6,111, or 12.5 per cent; in the North Central, from 24,807 to 20,348, 4,459, or 18 per cent; and in the Western, from 15,557 to 15,290, 277 or 1.8 per cent. The distribution of libraries in the North Atlantic Division shows the smallest average population to a library and the least change in the number, except the Western Division, where the increase of population from immigration has been greater than the increase in the number of libraries. But, generally, the establishment and growth in the size of libraries have been very large in nearly every section. … This shows that in 1885 there were in the United States in the libraries of the size mentioned 34 books to every 100 of the population, while in 1891 this number was 50, or an increase of 16 books, or 47 per cent. In the North Atlantic Division the increase was from 66 to 95, an increase of 29 books, or 34 per cent; in the South Atlantic, from 34 to 48, an increase of 14, or 41 per cent; in the South Central, from 9 to 12, an increase of 3, or 33.33 per cent; in the North Central, from 20 to 33, an increase of 13, or 65 per cent; and in the Western, from 43 to 53, an increase of 10, or 23 per cent. These figures show that, comparatively, the largest increase of books to population has been in the great Northwest, over 11 per cent each year. In the whole country there has been an average increase of 7.8 per cent per annum; that is, the increase of the number of books in the libraries of the country has been 7.8 per cent greater than the increase of the population during the past six years."

_W. Flint, Statistics of Public Libraries (United States Bureau of Education, Circ. of Information Number 7, 1893)._

LIBRARIES: United States of America: Massachusetts Free Libraries.

"In 1839 the Hon. Horace Mann, then Secretary of the Board of Education, stated as the result of a careful effort to obtain authentic information relative to the libraries in the State, that there were from ten to fifteen town libraries, containing in the aggregate from three to four thousand volumes, to which all the citizens of the town had the right of access; that the aggregate number of volumes in the public libraries, of all kinds, in the State was about 300,000; and that but little more than 100,000 persons, or one-seventh of the population of the State, had any right of access to them. A little over a half century has passed. There are now 175 towns and cities having free public libraries under municipal control, and 248 of the 351 towns and cities contain libraries in which the people have rights or free privileges. There are about 2,500,000 volumes in these libraries, available for the use of 2,104,224 of the 2,238,943 inhabitants which the State contains according to the census of 1890. The gifts of individuals in money, not including gifts of books, for libraries and library buildings, exceed five and a half million dollars. There are still 103 towns in the State, with an aggregate population of 134,719, which do not have the benefit of the free use of a public library. These are almost without exception small towns, with a slender valuation, and 67 of them show a decline in population in the past five years. The State has taken the initiative in aiding the formation of free public libraries in such towns."

_First Report of the Free Public Library Commission of Massachusetts, 1891, pref._

The second report of the Commissioners, 1892, showed an addition of 36 to the towns which have established free public libraries.

LIBRARIES: United States of America: The American Library Association.

A distinctly new era in the history of American libraries—and in the history, it may be said, of libraries throughout the English-speaking world,—was opened, in 1876, by the meeting of a conference of librarians at Philadelphia, during the Centennial Exhibition of the summer of that year. The first fruit of the conference was the organization of a permanent American Library Association, which has held annual meetings since, bringing large numbers of the librarians of the country together every year, making common property of their experience, their knowledge, their ideas,—animating them with a common spirit, and enlisting them in important undertakings of cooperative work. Almost simultaneously with the Philadelphia meeting, but earlier, there was issued the first number of a "Library Journal," called into being by the sagacious energy of the same small band of pioneers who planned and brought about the conference. The Library Journal became the organ of the American Library Association, and each was stimulated and sustained by the other: Their combined influence has acted powerfully upon those engaged in the work of American libraries, to elevate their aims, to increase their efficiency, and to make their avocation a recognized profession, exacting well-defined qualifications. {2022} The general result among the libraries of the country has been an increase of public usefulness beyond measure. To this renaissance in the library world many persons contributed; but its leading spirits were Melvil Dewey, latterly Director of the New York State Library; Justin Winsor, Librarian of Harvard University, formerly of the Boston Public Library; the late William F. Poole, LL.D., Librarian of the Newberry Library and formerly of the Chicago Public Library; Charles A. Cutter, lately Librarian of the Boston Athenæum; the late Frederick Leypoldt, first publisher of the "Library Journal," and his successor, R. R. Bowker. The new library spirit was happily defined by James Russell Lowell, in his address delivered at the opening of a free public library in Chelsea, Massachusetts, and published in the volume of his works entitled "Democracy and other Addresses"; "Formerly," he said, "the duty of a librarian was considered too much that of a watch-dog, to keep people as much as possible away from the books, and to hand these over to his successor as little worn by use as he could. Librarians now, it is pleasant to see, have a different notion of their trust, and are in the habit of preparing, for the direction of the inexperienced, lists of such books as they think best worth reading. Cataloguing has also, thanks in great measure to American librarians, become a science, and catalogues, ceasing to be labyrinths without a clew, are furnished with finger-posts at every turn. Subject catalogues again save the beginner a vast deal of time and trouble by supplying him for nothing with one at least of the results of thorough scholarship, the knowing where to look for what he wants. I do not mean by this that there is or can be any short cut to learning, but that there may be, and is, such a short cut to information that will make learning more easily accessible."

The organization of the American Library Association led to the formation, in 1877, of the Library Association of the United Kingdom, which was incident to the meeting of an international conference of Librarians held in London.

LIBRARIES: United States of America: Principal Libraries.

The following are the libraries in the United States which exceeded 100,000 volumes in 1891, as reported in the "Statistics of Public Libraries" published by the Bureau of Education. The name of each library is preceded by the date of its foundation:

1638. Harvard University Library, 292,000 volumes; 278,097 pamphlets.

1701. Yale College Library, New Haven, 185,000 volumes; 100,000 pamphlets.

1731. Philadelphia Library Company, 165,487 volumes; 30,000 pamphlets.

1749. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 100,000 volumes; 100,000 pamphlets.

1754. Columbia College Library, New York, 135,000 volumes.

1789. Library of the House of Representatives, Washington, 125,000 volumes.

1800. Library of Congress, Washington, 659,843 volumes; 210,000 pamphlets.

1807. Boston Athenæum, 173,831 volumes; 70,000 pamphlets.

1818. New York State Library, Albany, 157,114 volumes.

1820. New York Mercantile Library, New York, 239,793 volumes.

1821. Philadelphia Mercantile Library, 166,000 volumes; 10,000 pamphlets.

1826. Maryland State Library, Annapolis, 100,000 volumes.

1849. Astor Library, New York, 238,946 volumes; 12,000 pamphlets.

1852. Boston Public Library, 556,283 volumes.

1857. Brooklyn Library, 113,251 volumes; 21,500 pamphlets.

1857. Peabody Institute, Baltimore, 110,000 volumes; 13,500 pamphlets.

1865. Library of the Surgeon-General's Office, Washington, 104,300 volumes; 161,700 pamphlets.

1865. Detroit Public Library, 108,720 volumes.

1867. Cincinnati Public Library, 156,673 volumes; 18,326 pamphlets.

1868. Cornell University Library, Ithaca, New York, 111,007 volumes; 25,000 pamphlets.

1872. Chicago Public Library, 175,874 volumes; 25,293 pamphlets.

1882. Enoch Pratt Free Library, Baltimore, 106,663 volumes; 1,500 pamphlets.

1890. University of Chicago Library, 280,000 volumes.

1891. Sutro Library, San Francisco, 200,000 volumes.

LIBRARIES: United States of America: Library Gifts.

A remarkable number of the free public libraries of the United States are the creations of private wealth, munificently employed for the common good. The greater institutions which have this origin are the Astor Library in New York, founded by John Jacob Astor and enriched by his descendants; the Lenox Library in New York, founded by James Lenox; the Peabody Institute, in Baltimore, founded by George Peabody; the Enoch Pratt Free Library, in Baltimore, founded by the gentleman whose name it bears; the Newberry Library, in Chicago, founded by the will of Walter L. Newberry, who died in 1868; the Sutro Library in San Francisco, founded by Adolph Sutro, and the Carnegie Libraries founded at Pittsburg, Alleghany City and Braddock by Andrew Carnegie. By the will of John Crerar, who died in 1889, trustees for Chicago are in possession of an estate estimated at $2,500,000 or $3,000,000, for the endowment of a library which will soon exist. The intention of the late Samuel J. Tilden, former Governor of the State of New York, to apply the greater part of his immense estate to the endowment of a free library in the City of New York, has been partially defeated by contesting heirs; but the just feeling of one among the heirs has restored $2,000,000 to the purpose for which $5,000,000 was appropriated in Mr. Tilden's intent. Steps preparatory to the creation of the library are in progress. The lesser libraries, and institutions including libraries of considerable importance, which owe their origin to the public spirit and generosity of individual men of wealth, are quite too numerous in the country to be catalogued in this place. In addition to such, the bequests and gifts which have enriched the endowment of libraries otherwise founded are beyond computation.

{2023}

LIBRARIES: United States of America: Government Departmental Libraries at Washington.

A remarkable creation of special libraries connected with the departments and bureaus of the national Government, has occurred within a few years past. The more important among them are the following:

Department of Agriculture, 20,000 volumes and 15,000 pamphlets;

Department of Justice, 21,500 volumes;

Department of State, 50,000 volumes;

Department of the Interior, 11,500;

Navy Department, 24,518;

Post Office Department, 10,000;

Patent Office Scientific Library, 50,000 volumes and 10,000 pamphlets;

Signal Office, 10,540 volumes;

Surgeon General's Office, 104,300 volumes and 161,700 pamphlets (reputed to be the best collection of medical literature, as it is certainly the best catalogued medical library, in the world);

Treasury Department, 21,000 volumes;

Bureau of Education, 45,000 volumes and 120,000 pamphlets;

Coast and Geodetic Survey, 12,000 volumes and 4,000 pamphlets;

Geological Survey, 30,414 volumes, and 42,917 pamphlets;

Naval Observatory, 13,000 volumes and 3,000 pamphlets;

United States Senate, 72,592 volumes;

United States House of Representatives, 125,000 (both of these being distinct from the great Library of Congress, which contained, in 1891, 659,843 volumes);

War Department, 30,000 volumes.

LIBRARIES: Canada.

"In 1779 a number of the officers stationed at Quebec, and of the leading merchants, undertook the formation of a subscription library. The Governor, General Haldimand, took an active part in the work, and ordered on behalf of the subscribers £500 worth of books from London. The selection was entrusted to Richard Cumberland, the dramatist: and an interesting letter from the Governor addressed to him, describing the literary wants of the town and the class of books to be sent, is now in the Public Archives. A room for their reception was granted in the Bishop's Palace; and as late as 1806, we learn from Lambert's Travels that it was the only library [?] in Canada. Removed several times, it slowly increased, until in 1882 it numbered 4,000 volumes. The list of subscribers having become very much reduced, it was leased to the Quebec Literary Association in 1843. In 1854 a portion of it was burnt with the Parliament Buildings, where it was then quartered; and finally in 1866 the entire library, consisting of 6,990 volumes, were sold, subject to conditions, to the Literary and Historical Society for a nominal sum of $500. … Naturally on the organization of each of the provinces, libraries were established in connection with the Parliaments. We have therefore the following:

Nova Scotia, Halifax, 25,319; New Brunswick, Fredericton, 10,850; Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, 4,000; Quebec, Quebec, 17,400; Ontario, Toronto, 40,000; Manitoba, Winnipeg, 10,000; Northwest Territory, Regina, 1,480; British Columbia, Victoria, 1,200; Dominion of Canada, Ottawa, 120,000. Total volumes in Parliamentary libraries, 230,249.

By far the most important of our Canadian libraries is the Dominion Library of Parliament at Ottawa. Almost corresponding with the Congressional Library at Washington in its sources of income and work, it has grown rapidly during the past ten years, and now numbers 120,000 volumes. Originally established on the union of the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada in 1841, it was successively removed with the seat of government from Kingston to Montreal, to Quebec, to Toronto, again to Quebec, and finally to Ottawa. … The 38 colleges in Canada are provided with libraries containing 429,470 volumes, or an average of 11,302. The senior of these, Laval College, Quebec, is famous as being, after Harvard, the oldest on the continent, being founded by Bishop Laval in 1663. … In 1848 the late Dr. Ryerson, Superintendent of Education from 1844-1876, drafted a school bill which contained provisions for school and township libraries, and succeeded in awakening a deep interest in the subject. … In 1854 Parliament passed the requisite act and granted him the necessary funds to carry out his views in the matter. The regulations of the department authorized each county council to establish four classes of libraries—

1. An ordinary common school library in each schoolhouse for the use of the children and rate-payers.

2. A general public lending library available to all the ratepayers in the municipality.

3. A professional library of books on teaching, school organization, language, and kindred subjects, available for teachers only.

4. A library in any public institution under the control of the municipality, for the use of the inmates, or in any county jail, for the use of the prisoners. …

The proposal to establish the second class was however premature; and accordingly, finding that mechanics institutes were being developed throughout the towns and villages, the Educational Department wisely aided the movement by giving a small grant proportionate to the amount contributed by the members and reaching a maximum of $200, afterwards increased to $400 annually. In 1869 these had grown to number 26; in 1880, 74; and in 1886, 125. The number of volumes possessed by these 125 is 206,146, or an average of 1,650. … In the cities, however, the mechanics institute, with its limited number of subscribers, has been found unequal to the task assigned it, and accordingly, in 1882, the Free Libraries Act was passed, based upon similar enactments in Britain and the United States. … By the Free Libraries Act, the maximum of taxation is fixed at ½ a mill on the annual assessment. … None of the other provinces have followed Ontario in this matter."

_J. Bain, Brief Review of the Libraries of Canada (Thousand Islands Conference of Librarians, 1887)._

"The total number of public libraries in Canada of all kinds containing 1,000 or more volumes is 202, and of this number the Province of Ontario alone has 152, or over three-fourths of all, while Quebec has 27 or over one-half of the remaining fourth, the other provinces having from 2 to 6 libraries each. The total number of volumes and pamphlets in all the libraries reported is 1,478,910, of which the Province of Ontario has 863,332 volumes, or almost 60 per cent, while the Province of Quebec has 490,354, or over 33 percent; Nova Scotia, 48,250 volumes, or 3½ per cent; New Brunswick, 34,894 volumes, a little over 2.3 per cent; Manitoba, 31,025 volumes, or 2.1 per cent; British Columbia, 10,225 volumes, or not quite 0.7 per cent; and Prince Edward Island, 5,200 volumes, or over 0.3 per cent of the total number."

V. Flint, Statistics [1891] of Public Libraries in the United States and Canada (United States Bureau of Education, Circular of Information No.7, 1893).

LIBRARIES: Mexico.

The National Library of Mexico contains 155,000 books, besides manuscripts and pamphlets.

{2024}

LIBRARIES: China. The Imperial Library.

"It would be surprising if a people like the Chinese, who have the literary instinct so strongly developed, had not at an early date found the necessity of those great collections of books which are the means for carrying on the great work of civilization. China had her first great bibliothecal catastrophe two centuries before the Christian era, when the famous edict for the burning of the books was promulgated. Literature and despotism have never been on very good terms, and the despot of Tsin, finding a power at work which was unfavorable to his pretensions, determined to have all books destroyed except those relating to agriculture, divination and the history of his own house. His hatred to books included the makers of them, and the literati have not failed to make his name execrated for his double murders of men and books. When the brief dynasty of Tsin passed, the Princes of Han showed more appreciation of culture, and in 190 B. C. the atrocious edict was repealed, and the greatest efforts made to recover such literary treasures as had escaped the destroyer. Some classics are said to have been rewritten from the dictation of scholars who had committed them to memory. Some robbers broke open the tomb of Seang, King of Wei, who died B. C. 295, and found in it bamboo tablets containing more than 100,000 peen [bamboo slips]. These included a copy of the Classic of Changes and the Annals of the Bamboo Books, which indeed take their title from this circumstance. This treasure trove was placed in the Imperial Library. So the Shoo-king is said to have been found in a wall where it had been hidden by a descendant of Confucius, on the proclamation of the edict against books. Towards the close of the first century a library had been formed by Lew Heang and his son Lew Hin. … Succeeding dynasties imitated more or less this policy, and under the later Han dynasty great efforts were made to restore the library. … In the troubles at the close of the second century the palace at Lo-Yang was burned, and the greater part of the books destroyed. … Another Imperial collection at Lo-Yang, amounting to 29,945 books, was destroyed A. D. 311. In A. D. 431, Seäy Ling-Yuen, the keeper of the archives, made a catalogue of 4,582 books in his custody. Another catalogue was compiled in 473, and recorded 5,704 books. Buddhism and Taouism now began to contribute largely to the national literature. Amongst the other consequences of the overthrow of the Tse dynasty at the end of the fifth century was the destruction of the royal library of 18,010 books. Early in the next century a collection of 33,106 books, not including the Buddhist literature, was made chiefly, it is said, by the exertions of Jin Fang, the official curator. The Emperor Yuen-te removed his library, then amounting to 70,000 books, to King Chow, and the building was burnt down when he was threatened by the troops of Chow. The library of the later Wei dynasty was dispersed in the insurrection of 531, and the efforts made to restore it were not altogether successful. The later Chow collected a library of 10,000 books, and, on the overthrow of the Tse dynasty, this was increased by a mass of 5,000 mss. obtained from the fallen dynasty. When towards the close of the sixth century the Suy became masters of the empire they began to accumulate books. … The Tang dynasty are specially remarkable for their patronage of literature. Early in the eighth century the catalogue extended to 53,915 books, and a collection of recent authors included 28,469 books. Printing began to supersede manuscript in the tenth century, plentiful editions of the classics appeared and voluminous compilations. Whilst the Sung were great patrons of literature, the Leaou were at least lukewarm, and issued an edict prohibiting the printing of books by private persons. The Kin had books translated into their own tongue, for the benefit of the then Mongolian subjects. A similar policy was pursued by the Yuen dynasty, under whom dramatic literature and fiction began to flourish. In the year 1406, the printed books in the Imperial Library are said to have amounted to 300,000 printed books and twice the number of mss. … The great Imperial Library was founded by K'in Lung in the last century. In response to an imperial edict, many of the literati and book-lovers placed rare editions at the service of the government, to be copied. The Imperial Library has many of its books, therefore, in mss. Chinese printing, however, is only an imperfect copy of the caligraphy of good scribes. Four copies were made of each work. One was destined for the Wan Yuen Repository at Peking; a second for the Wan-tsung Repository at Kang-ning, the capital of Kiang-su province; a third for the Wan-hwui Repository at Yang-chou-fu, and the fourth for the Wan-lan Repository at Hong-Chou, the capital of Cheh-Kiang. A catalogue was published from which it appears that the library contained from ten to twelve thousand distinct works, occupying 168,000 volumes. The catalogue is in effect an annotated list of Chinese literature, and includes the works which were still wanting to the library and deemed essential to its completion. Dr. D. J. McGowan, who visited the Hong-Chou collection, says that it was really intended for a public library, and that those who applied for permission to the local authorities, not only were allowed access, but were afforded facilities for obtaining food and lodging, 'but from some cause or other the library is rarely or never consulted.' Besides the Imperial, there are Provincial, Departmental and District Libraries. Thus, the examination hall of every town will contain the standard classical and historical books. At Canton and other cities there are extensive collections, but their use is restricted to the mandarins. There are collections of books and sometimes printing presses in connection with the Buddhist monasteries."

_W. E. A. Axon, Notes on Chinese Libraries (Library Journal, January and February, 1880)._

For an account of the ancient library of Chinese classics in stone,

See EDUCATION, ANCIENT: CHINA.

{2025}

LIBRARIES: Japan.

"The Tokyo Library is national in its character, as the Congressional Library of the United States, the British Museum of Great Britain, etc. It is maintained by the State, and by the copyright Act it is to receive a copy of every book, pamphlet, etc., published in the empire. The Tokyo Library was established in 1872 by the Department of Education with about 70,000 volumes. In 1873 it was amalgamated with the library belonging to the Exhibition Bureau and two years later it was placed under the control of the Home Department, while a new library with the title of Tokyo Library was started by the Education Department at the same time with about 28,000 volumes newly collected. Thus the Tokyo Library began its career on a quite slender basis; but in 1876, the books increased to 68,953, and in 1877 to 71,853. Since that time, both the numbers of books and visitors have steadily increased, so much so that in 1884 the former reached 102,350 and latter 115,986, averaging 359 persons per one day. The library was then open free to all classes; but the presence of too many readers of the commonest text-books and light literature was found to have caused much hindrance to the serious students. … This disadvantage was somewhat remedied by introducing the fee system, which, of course, placed much restriction to the visitors of the library. … It is very clear from the character of the library that it is a reference library and not a circulating library. But as there are not any other large and well-equipped libraries in Tokyo, a system of 'lending out' is added, something like that of Königliche Bibliothek zu Berlin, with a subscription of 5 yen (about $5) per annum. … The Tokyo Library now contains 97,550 Japanese and Chinese books and 25,559 European books, besides about 100,000 of duplicates, popular books, etc., which are not used. The average number of books used is 337,262 a year. … The Library of the Imperial University, which is also under my charge, comprises all the books belonging to the Imperial University of Japan. These books are solely for the use of the instructors, students, and pupils, no admittance being granted to the general public. The library contains 77,991 European books and 101,217 Japanese and Chinese books. As to other smaller libraries of Japan, there are eight public and ten private libraries in different parts of the empire. The books contained in them are 66,912 Japanese and Chinese books and 4,731 European books with 43,911 visitors! Besides these, in most of towns of respectable size, there are generally two or three small private circulating libraries, which contain books chiefly consisting of light literature and historical works popularly treated."

_I. Tanaka, Tokyo Library (San Francisco Conference of Librarians, 1891)._

LIBRARIES: India.

The first free library in a native state of India was opened in 1892, with 10,000 volumes, 7,000 being in English. It was founded by the brother of the Maharajah.

Library Journal, volume 17, page 395.

----------LIBRARIES: End----------

LIBURNIANS, The.

See KORKYRA.

LIBYAN SIBYL.

See SIBYLS.

LIBYANS, The.

"The name of Africa was applied by the ancients only to that small portion of country south of Cape Bon; the rest was called Libya. The bulk of the population of the northern coast, between Egypt and the Pillars of Hercules, was of the Hamitic race of Phut, who were connected with the Egyptians and Ethiopians, and to whom the name of Libyans was not applied until a later date, as this name was originally confined to some tribes of Arian or Japhetic race, who had settled among the natives. From these nations sprung from Phut descended the races now called Berbers, who have spread over the north of Africa, from the northernmost valleys of the Atlas to the southern limits of the Sahara, and from Egypt to the Atlantic; perhaps even to the Canaries, where the ancient Guanches seem to have spoken a dialect nearly approaching that of the Berbers of Morocco. These Berbers—now called Amazigh, or Shuluh, in Morocco; Kabyles, in the three provinces of Algeria, Tunis, and Tripoli; Tibboos, between Fezzan and Egypt; and Tuariks in the Sahara—are the descendants of the same great family of nations whose blood, more or less pure, still runs in the veins of the tribes inhabiting the different parts of the vast territory once possessed by their ancestors. The language they still speak, known through the labours of learned officers of the French army in Africa, is nearly related to that of Ancient Egypt. It is that in which the few inscriptions we possess, emanating from the natives of Libya, Numidia, and Mauritania in olden times, are written. The alphabet peculiar to these natives, whilst under the Carthaginian rule, is still used by the Tuariks. Sallust, who was able to consult the archives of Carthage, and who seems more accurate than any other classical writer on African history, was acquainted with the annals of the primitive period, anterior to the arrival of the Arian tribes and the settlement of the Phœnician colonies. Then only three races, unequally distributed in a triple zone, were to be met with throughout Northern Africa. Along the shore bordering the Mediterranean were the primitive Libyans, who were Hamites, descendants of Phut; behind them, towards the interior, but on the western half only, were the Getulians … ; further still in the interior, and beyond the Sahara, were the negroes, originally called by the Greek name 'Ethiopians, which was afterwards erroneously applied to the Cushites of the Upper Nile. Sallust also learnt, from the Carthaginian traditions, of the great Japhetic invasion of the coast of Africa. … The Egyptian monuments have acquainted us with the date of the arrival of these Indo-Europeans in Africa, among whom were the Libyans, properly so called, the Maxyans, and Macæ. It was contemporary with the reigns of Seti I. and Ramses II."

F. Lenormant, Manual of Ancient History of the East, book 6, chapter 5 (volume 2).

See, also, NUMIDIANS; and AMORITES.

LICINIAN LAWS, The.

See ROME: B. C. 376-367.

LICINIUS, Roman Emperor, A. D. 307-323.

LICTORS. FASCES.

"The fasces were bundles of rods (virgæ) of elm or birchwood, tied together round the handle of an axe (securis) with (most likely red) straps. The iron of the axe, which was the executioner's tool, protruded from the sticks. The fasces were carried on their left shoulders by the lictors, who walked in front of certain magistrates, making room for them, and compelling all people to move out of the way (summovere), barring Vestals and Roman matrons. To about the end of the Republic, when a special executioner was appointed, the lictors inflicted capital punishment. The king was entitled to twelve fasces, the same number being granted to the consuls. … The dictator was entitled to twenty-four lictors. … Since 42 B. C. the Flamen Dialis and the Vestals also were entitled to one lictor each. In case a higher official met his inferior in the street, he was saluted by the lictors of the latter withdrawing the axe and lowering the fasces."

E. Guhl and W. Koner, Life of the Greeks and Romans, section 107, foot-note.

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LIDUS, LEUD, LATT, The.

See SLAVERY, MEDIÆVAL: GERMANY.

----------LIÈGE: Start--------

LIÈGE: The Episcopal Principality.

"Liège lies on the borderland of the French and German speaking races. … It was the capital of an ecclesiastical principality, whose territory extended some distance up the river and over the wooded ridges and green valleys of the Ardennes. The town had originally sprung up round the tomb of St. Lambert—a shrine much frequented by pilgrims. … The Prince Bishop of Liège was the vassal of the emperor, but his subjects had long considered the kings of France their natural protectors. It was in France that they found a market for their manufactures, from France that pilgrims came to the tomb of St. Lambert or to the sylvan shrine of St. Hubert. Difference of language and rivalry in trade separated them from their Dutch-speaking neighbours. We hear, as early as the 10th century, of successful attempts on the part of the people of Liège, supported and directed by their bishops, to subdue the lords of the castles in their neighbourhood. A population of traders, artizans, and miners, were unlikely to submit to the pretensions of a feudal aristocracy. Nor was there a burgher oligarchy, as in many of the Flemish and German towns. Every citizen was eligible to office if he could obtain a majority of the votes of the whole male population. Constitutional limits were imposed on the power of the bishop; but he was the sole fountain of law and justice. By suspending their administration he could paralyse the social life of the State, and by his interdicts annihilate its religious life. Yet the burghers were involved in perpetual disputes with their bishop. When the power of the Dukes of Burgundy was established in the Low Countries, it was to them that the latter naturally applied for assistance against their unruly flock. John the Fearless defeated the citizens with great slaughter in 1408. He himself reckoned the number of slain at 25,000. In 1431 Liège was compelled to pay a fine of 200,000 crowns to the Duke of Burgundy." The Duke—Philip the Good—afterwards forced the reigning bishop to resign in favor of a brother of the Duke of Bourbon, a dissolute boy of eighteen, whose government was reckless and intolerable.

P. F. Willert, Reign of Lewis XI., pages 93-94.

ALSO IN: J. F. Kirk, History of Charles the Bold, book 1, chapter 7.

LIÈGE: A. D. 1467-1468. War with Charles the Bold of Burgundy and destruction of the city.

See BURGUNDY: A. D. 1467-1468; also, DINANT.

LIÈGE: A. D. 1691. Bombardment by the French.

The Prince-bishop of Liège having joined the League of Augsburg against Louis XIV., and having received troops of the Grand Alliance into his city, the town was bombarded in May, 1691, by the French General Boufflers. There was no attempt at a siege; the attack was simply one of destructive malice, and the force which made it withdrew speedily.

H. Martin, History of France: Age of Louis XIV., volume 2, chapter 2.

LIÈGE: A. D. 1702. Reduced by Marlborough.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1702-1704.

LIÈGE: A. D. 1792-1793. Occupation and surrender by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1792 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER); and 1793 (FEBRUARY-APRIL).

----------LIÈGE: Start--------

----------LIEGNITZ: Start----------

LIEGNITZ, The Battle of (1241).

On the 9th of April, A. D. 1241, the Mongols, who had already overrun a great part of Russia, defeated the combined forces of Poland, Moravia and Silesia in a battle which filled all Europe with consternation. It was fought near Lignitz (or Liegnitz), on a plain watered by the river Keiss, the site being now occupied by a village called Wahlstadt, i. e., "Field of Battle." "It was a Mongol habit to cut off an ear from each corpse after a battle, so as to have a record of the number slain; and we are told they filled nine sacks with these ghastly trophies," from the field of Lignitz.

H. H. Howorth, History of the Mongols, part 1, page 144.

See MONGOLS: A. D. 1229-1294.

LIEGNITZ: Battle of (1760).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1760.

----------LIEGNITZ: End----------

LIGERIS, The.

The ancient name of the river Loire.

LIGHT BRIGADE, The Charge of the.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1854 (OCTOBER-NOVEMBER).

LIGII, The.

See LYGIANS.

LIGNY, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1815 (JUNE).

LIGONIA.

See MAINE: A. D. 1629-1631; and 1643-1677.

LIGURIAN REPUBLIC, The.

The mediæval republic of Genoa is often referred to as the Ligurian Republic; but the name was distinctively given by Napoleon to one of his ephemeral creations in Italy.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1797 (MAY-OCTOBER), and 1804-1805.

LIGURIANS, The.

"The whole of Piedmont in its present extent was inhabited by the Ligurians: Pavia, under the name of Ticinum, was founded by a Ligurian tribe, the Lævians. When they pushed forward their frontier among the Apennines into the Casentino on the decline of the Etruscans, they probably only recovered what had before been wrested from them. Among the inhabitants of Corsica there were Ligurians. … The Ligurians and Iberians were anciently contiguous; whereas in aftertimes they were parted by the Gauls. We are told by Scylax, that from the borders of Iberia, that is, from the Pyrenees, to the Rhone, the two nations were dwelling intermixed. … But it is far more probable that the Iberians came from the south of the Pyrenees into Lower Languedoc, as they did into Aquitaine, and that the Ligurians were driven back by them. When the Celts, long after, moving in an opposite direction, reached the shore of the Mediterranean, they too drove the Ligurians close down to the coast, and dwelt as the ruling people amongst them, in the country about Avignon, as is implied by the name Celto-Ligurians. … Of their place in the family of nations we are ignorant: we only know that they were neither Iberians nor Celts."

G. B. Niebuhr, History of Rome, volume 1.

"On the coast of Liguria, the land on each side of the city of Genoa, a land which was not reckoned Italian in early times, we find people who seem not to have been Aryan. And these Ligurians seem to have been part of a race which was spread through Italy and Sicily before the Aryan settlements, and to have been akin to the non-Aryan inhabitants of Spain and southern Gaul, of whom the Basques … remain as a remnant."

E. A. Freeman, Historical Geography of Europe, chapter 3.

ALSO IN: I. Taylor, Origin of the Aryans, chapter 2, section 7.

See, also, APPENDIX A, VOLUME 1.

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----------LILLE: Start--------

LILLE: A. D. 1583. Submission to Spain.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1584-1585 LIMITS OF THE UNITED PROVINCES.

LILLE: A. D. 1667. Taken by the French.

See NETHERLANDS (THE SPANISH PROVINCES): A. D. 1667.

LILLE: A. D. 1668. Ceded to France.

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1668.

LILLE: A. D. 1708. Siege and capture by Marlborough and Prince Eugene.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1708-1709.

LILLE: A. D. 1713. Restoration to France.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

----------LILLE: End--------

LILLEBONNE, Assembly of.

A general assembly of Norman barons convened by Duke William, A. D. 1066, for the considering of his contemplated invasion of England.

E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest, chapter 13, section 3 (volume 3).

LILLIBULLERO.

"Thomas Wharton, who, in the last Parliament, had represented Buckinghamshire, and who was already conspicuous both as a libertine and as a Whig, had written [A. D. 1688, just prior to the Revolution which drove James II. from the English throne] a satirical ballad on the administration of Tyrconnel [Richard Talbot, Earl of Tyrconnel, James' Lord Deputy in Ireland.]

See IRELAND: A. D. 1685-1688.

In this little poem an Irishman congratulates a brother Irishman, in a barbarous jargon, on the approaching triumph of Popery and of the Milesian race. … These verses, which were in no respect above the ordinary standard of street poetry, had for burden some gibberish which was said to have been used as a watchword by the insurgents of Ulster in 1641. The verses and the tune caught the fancy of the nation. From one end of England to the other all classes were constantly singing this idle rhyme. It was especially the delight of the English army. More than seventy years after the Revolution, a great writer delineated, with exquisite skill, a veteran who had fought at the Boyne and at Namur. One of the characteristics of the good old soldier is his trick of whistling Lillibullero. Wharton afterwards boasted that he had sung a King out of three kingdoms. But in truth the success of Lillibullero was the effect, and not the cause, of that excited state of public feeling which produced the Revolution. … The song of Lillibullero is among the State Poems. In Percy's Relics the first part will be found, but not the second part, which was added after William's landing."

Lord Macaulay, History of England, chapter 9, with foot-note.

ALSO IN: W. W. Wilkins, Political Ballads of the 17th and 18th Centuries, volume 1, page 275.

LILY OF FLORENCE, The.

See FLORENCE: ORIGIN AND NAME.

----------LILYBÆUM: Start--------

LILYBÆUM: B. C. 368. Siege by Dionisius.

"This town, close to the western cape of Sicily, appears to have arisen as a substitute for the neighbouring town of Motye (of which we hear little more since its capture by Dionysius in 396 B. C.), and to have become the principal Carthaginian station." Lilybæum was first besieged and then blockaded by the Syracuse tyrant, Dionysius, B. C. 368; but he failed to reduce it. It was made a powerful stronghold by the Carthaginians.

G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 83.

LILYBÆUM: B. C. 277. Siege by Pyrrhus.

See ROME: B. C. 282-275.

LILYBÆUM: B. C. 250-241. Siege by the Romans.

See PUNIC WAR, THE FIRST.

----------LILYBÆUM: End--------

LIMA: Founded by Pizarro (1535).

See PERU: A. D. 1533-1548.

LIMBURG: Capture by the Dutch (1632).

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1621-1633.

----------LIMERICK: Start--------

LIMERICK: A. D. 1690-1691. Sieges and surrender.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1689-1691.

LIMERICK: A. D. 1691. The treaty of surrender and its violation.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1691.

----------LIMERICK: End--------

LIMES, The.

This term was applied to certain Roman frontier-roads. "Limes is not every imperial frontier, but only that which is marked out by human hands, and arranged at the same time for being patrolled and having posts stationed for frontier-defence, such as we find in Germany and in Africa. … The Limes is thus the imperial frontier-road, destined for the regulation of frontier-intercourse, inasmuch as the crossing of it was allowed only at certain points corresponding to the bridges of the river boundary, and elsewhere forbidden. This was doubtless effected in the first instance by patrolling the line, and, so long as this was done, the Limes remained a boundary road. It remained so, too, when it was fortified on both sides, as was done in Britain and at the mouth of the Danube; the Britannic wall is also termed Limes."

T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 8, chapter 4, foot-note.

LIMIGANTES, The.

The Limigantes were a tribe occupying, in the fourth century, a region of country between the Danube and the Theiss, who were said to have been formerly the slaves of a Sarmatian people in the same territory and to have overpowered and expelled their masters. The latter, in exile, became dependents of the warlike nation of the Quadi. At the end of a war with the latter, A. D. 357-359, in which they were greatly humbled, the Emperor Constantius commanded the Limigantes to surrender their stolen territory to its former owners. They resisted the mandate and were exterminated.

E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapters 18-19.

The Limigantes were a branch of the Iazyges or Jazyges, a nomadic Sarmatian or Sclavonic people who were settled in earlier times on the Palus Mæotis.

LIMISSO.

See HOSPITALLERS OF ST. JOHN: A. D. 1118-1310.

----------LIMOGES: Start--------

LIMOGES, Origin of the town.

See LEMOVICES.

LIMOGES, A. D. 1370. Massacre by the Black Prince.

A foul crime which stains the name of "the Black Prince." Taking the city of Limoges, in France, after a short siege, A. D. 1370, he ordered a promiscuous massacre of the population, and more than 3,000 men, women and children were slain, while the town was pillaged and burned.

Froissart, Chronicles (translated by Johnes), book 1, chapters 288, 290.

See, also, FRANCE: A. D. 1360-1380.

----------LIMOGES: End--------

LIMONUM.

See POITIERS.

LIMOUSIN, Early inhabitants of the.

See LEMOVICES.

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LINCOLN, Abraham. Election to the Presidency.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1860 (APRIL-NOVEMBER).

LINCOLN, Abraham. Inauguration and Presidential administration.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (FEBRUARY-MARCH), to 1865 (APRIL).

LINCOLN, Abraham. Gettysburg address.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (NOVEMBER).

LINCOLN, Abraham. Reëlection to the Presidency.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (MAY-NOVEMBER).

LINCOLN, Abraham. Visit to Richmond.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (APRIL: VIRGINIA).

LINCOLN, Abraham. Assassination.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (APRIL 14TH).

LINCOLN, General Benjamin, in the War of the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1778-1779 THE WAR CARRIED INTO THE SOUTH; 1779 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER); 1780 (FEBRUARY-AUGUST).

LINCOLN, Battle of.

See LAMBETH, TREATY OF.

LINCOLN, Origin of.

See LINDUM.

LINDISWARA, LINDESFARAS.

"Dwellers about Lindum," or Lincoln; a name given for a time to the Angles who seized and settled in that English district.

_J. R. Green, The Making of England._

See ENGLAND: A. D. 547-633.

LINDSEY, Kingdom of.

One of the small and transient kingdoms of the Angles in early England.

W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, chapter 7, section 70 (volume 1).

LINDUM.

The Roman city from which sprang the English city of Lincoln.

T. Wright, Celt, Roman and Saxon, chapter 5.

LINGONES, The.

A tribe in ancient Gaul whose territory embraced parts in the modern French departments of the Haute-Marne, the Aube, the Yonne and the Côte-d'Or.

Napoleon III., History of Cæsar, book 3, chapter 2, foot-note (volume 2).

See, also, ROME: B. C. 390-347.

LINKÖPING, Battle of (1598).

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1523-1604.

LION AND THE SUN, The Order of the.

A Persian order, instituted in 1808.

LION OF ST. MARK, The Winged.

The standard of the Venetian republic. "Historians have failed or omitted to fix the precise time when this ensign of the lion was first adopted by the Republic. But when the two granite columns ['trophies of a successful raid in the Archipelago'], still the conspicuous ornaments of the Piazetta of St. Mark, were erected, in or about 1172, a winged lion in bronze was placed on one of them, and a statue of St. Theodore, a patron of earlier standing, on the other."

The Republic of Venice (Quarterly Review, Oct., 1874), page 423.

See, also, VENICE: A. D. 829.

LIPAN, Battle of (1434).

See BOHEMIA: A. D. 1419-1434.

----------LISBON: Start--------

LISBON: Origin and early history.

See PORTUGAL: EARLY HISTORY.

LISBON: A. D. 1147. Capture from the Moors. Made the capital of Portugal.

See PORTUGAL: A. D. 1095-1325.

LISBON: A. D. 1755. The great Earthquake.

"On the morning of the 1st of November in this year, at the same period, though in less or greater degree a far-spreading earthquake ran through great part both of Europe and Barbary. In the north its effects, as usual with earthquakes in that region, were happily slight and few. Some gentle vibrations were felt as far as Dantzick. … In Madrid a violent shock was felt, but no buildings, and only two human beings, perished. In Fez and in Morocco, on the contrary, great numbers of houses fell down, and great multitudes of people were buried beneath the ruins. But the widest and most fearful destruction was reserved for Lisbon. Already, in the year 1531, that city had been laid half in ruins by an earthquake. The 1st of November 1755 was All Saints' Day, a festival of great solemnity; and at nine in the morning all the churches of Lisbon were crowded with kneeling worshippers of each sex, all classes, and all ages, when a sudden and most violent shock made every church reel to its foundations. Within the intervals of a few minutes two other shocks no less violent ensued, and every church in Lisbon—tall column and towering spire—was hurled to the ground. Thousands and thousands of people were crushed to death, and thousands more grievously maimed, unable to crawl away, and left to expire in lingering agony. The more stately and magnificent had been the fabric, the wider and more grievous was the havoc made by its ruin. About one fourth, as was vaguely computed, of all the houses in the city toppled down. The encumbered streets could scarce afford an outlet to the fugitives; 'friends,' says an eye-witness, 'running from their friends, fathers from their children, husbands from their wives, because every one fled away from their habitations full of terror, confusion, and distraction.' The earth seemed to heave and quiver like an animated being. The sun was darkened with the clouds of lurid dust that arose. Frantic with fear a headlong multitude rushed for refuge to a large and newly built stone pier which jutted out into the Tagus, when a sudden convulsion of the stream turned this pier bottom uppermost, like a ship on its keel in the tempest, and then engulphed it. And of all the living creatures who had lately thronged it,—full 3,000, it is said,—not one, even as a corpse, ever rose again. From the banks of the river other crowds were looking on in speechless affright, when the river itself came rushing in upon them like a torrent, though against wind and tide. It rose at least fifteen feet above the highest spring tides, and then again subsided, drawing in or dashing to pieces every thing within its reach, while the very ships in the harbour were violently whirled around. Earth and water alike seemed let loose as scourges on this devoted city. 'Indeed every clement,' says a person present, 'seemed to conspire to our destruction … for in about two hours after the shock fires broke out in three different parts of the city, occasioned from the goods and the kitchen fires being all jumbled together.' At this time also the wind grew into a fresh gale, which made the fires spread in extent and rage with fury during three days, until there remained but little for them to devour. Many of the maimed and wounded are believed to have perished unseen and unheeded in the flames; some few were almost miraculously rescued after being for whole days buried where they fell, without light or food or hope. The total number of deaths was computed at the time as not less than 30,000."

Lord Mahon (Earl Stanhope), History of England, 1713-1783, chapter 32 (volume 4).

LISBON: A. D. 1807. Occupied by the French. Departure of the Royal Family for Brazil.

See PORTUGAL: A. D. 1807.

----------LISBON: End-------- {2029}

LISLE.

See LILLE.

LISSA, Battle of (1866).

See ITALY: A. D. 1862-1866.

LIT DE JUSTICE.

See BED OF JUSTICE.

----------LITHUANIA: Start--------

LITHUANIA: A. D. 1235. Formation of the Grand Duchy.

"From 1224 [when Russia was prostrated by the Mongol conquest] to 1487 … is a period of obscuration in Russian history, during which Russia is nothing in the Slavonian world. The hour of Russia's weakness was that in which the Lithuanians, formerly a mere chaos of Slavo-Finnish tribes, assumed organization and strength. Uniting the original Lithuanian tribes into one government, and extending his sway over those territories, formerly included in the Russian Empire, which the Mongolian destruction of the Russian power had left without a ruler, a native chief, named Ringold, founded (1235) a new state called the Grand-Duchy of Lithuania. The limits of this state extended from the Baltic coast, which it touched at a single point, across the entire continent, almost to the Black Sea, with Lithuania proper as its northern nucleus, and the populations along the whole course of the Dnieper as its subjects. The Lithuanians, thus made formidable by the extent of their dominion, were at this time still heathens."

Poland: Her History and Prospects (Westminster Review, January, 1855), page 119.

See, also, RUSSIA: A. D. 1237-1480.

LITHUANIA: A. D. 1386. Union with Poland under the Jagellon kings.

See POLAND: A. D. 1333-1572.

----------LITHUANIA: End--------

LITHUANIANS. LETTS.

"They and the Slavonians are branches of the same Sarmatian family; so, of course, their languages, though different, are allied. But next to the Slavonic what tongues are nearest the Lithuanic? Not the speech of the Fin, the German, or the Kelt, though these are the nearest in geography. The Latin is liker than any of these; but the likest of all is the ancient sacred language of India—the Sanskrit of the Vedas, Puranas, the Mahabharata, and the Ramayana. And what tongue is the nearest to the Sanskrit? Not those of Tibet and Armenia, not even those of Southern India. Its nearest parallel is the obscure and almost unlettered languages of Grodno, Wilna, Vitepsk, Courland, Livonia, and East Prussia. There is a difficult problem here. … The present distribution of the Lithuanian populations is second only in importance to that of the Ugrians. Livonia is the most convenient starting-point. Here it is spoken at present; though not aboriginal to the province. The Polish, German, and Russian languages have encroached on the Lithuanian, the Lithuanian on the Ugrian. It is the Lett branch of the Lithuanian which is spoken by the Letts of Livonia (Liefland), but not by the Liefs. The same is the case in Courland. East Prussia lies beyond the Russian empire, but it is not unnecessary to state that, as late as the sixteenth century, a Lithuanian tongue was spoken there. Vilna, Grodno, and Vitepsk are the proper Lithuanian provinces. There, the original proper Lithuanic tongue still survives; uncultivated, and day by day suffering from the encroachment of the Russian, but, withal, in the eyes of the ethnologist, the most important language in Europe."

R. G. Latham, Ethnology of Europe, chapter 6.

LITTLE BIG HORN, Battle of the.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1876.

LITTLE BRETHREN.

See BEGUINES, &c.

LITTLE ROCK, Federal occupation of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (AUGUST-OCTOBER: ARKANSAS-MISSOURI).

LITTLE RUSSIA.

See RUSSIA, GREAT.

LITTLE YAHNI, Battle of (1877).

See TURKS: A. D. 1877-1878.

LITURGIES.

"It was not only by taxation of its members that the [Athenian] State met its financial needs, but also by many other kinds of services which it demanded from them, and which, though not, like the former, producing an income, yet nevertheless saved an expense. Such services are called Liturgies [i. e.; properly, services for the people.'—Footnote]. They are partly ordinary or 'encyclic'— such, that is, as occurred annually, even in times of peace, according to a certain order, and which all bore some relation to worship and to the celebration of festivals—and partly extraordinary, for the needs of war. Among the former class the most important is the so-called Choregia, i. e., the furnishing of a chorus for musical contests and for festivals. … A similar though less burdensome Liturgy was the Gymnasiarchy for those feasts which were celebrated with gymnastic contests. The gymnasiarch, as it seems, was compelled to have all who wished to come forward as competitors trained in the gymnasia, to furnish them with board during the time of training, and at the games themselves to furnish the necessary fittings and ornaments of the place of contest. … More important and more costly than all these ordinary or encyclic Liturgies was the extraordinary Liturgy of trierarchy, i. e., the equipment of a ship of war."

G. F. Schumann, Antiquity of Greece: The State, part 3, chapter 3.

"The Liturgiæ, which are sometimes considered as peculiar to the Athenians, … were common to all democracies at least [in the Greek states], and even to certain aristocracies or oligarchies. … The Liturgiæ of the Greeks were distinguished by a much more generous and noble characteristic than the corresponding services and contributions of the present day. They were considered honorable services. … Niggardliness in the performance of them was considered disgraceful. The state needed no paid officer, or contractors to superintend or undertake their execution. … The ordinary Liturgiæ … are principally the choregia, the gymnasiarchia, and the feasting of the tribes [or hestiasis]. … The lampadarchy, if not the only kind, was certainly the most important and expensive kind of gymnasiarchy. The race on foot with a torch in the hand was a common game. The same kind of race was run with horses for the first time at Athens in the time of Socrates. The art consisted, besides other particulars, in running the fastest, and at the same time not extinguishing the torch. … Since the festivity was celebrated at night, the illumination of the place which was the scene of the contest was necessary. Games of this kind were celebrated specially in honor of the gods of light and fire. … The expenses of the feasting of the tribes were borne by a person selected for this purpose from the tribe. … The entertainments, the expenses of which were defrayed by means of this liturgia, were different from the great feastings of the people, the expenses of which were paid from the treasury of the theorica. They were merely entertainments at the festivals of the tribes."

A. Boeckh, Public Economy of the Athenians (translated by Lamb), book 3, chapters 1 and 21-23.

ALSO IN: E. G. Bulwer-Lytton, Athens, book 5, chapter 2.

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LITUS, The.

In the Salic law, of the Franks, the litus appears as representing a class in that Germanic nation. He "was no doubt identical with the serf whom Tacitus represents as cultivating the soil, and paying a rent in kind to his lord. That the litus was not free is evident from the mention of his master and the fact that he could be sold; though we find a weregild set upon his life equal to that of a free Roman."

W. C. Perry, The Franks, chapter 10.

LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAY, The.

See STEAM LOCOMOTION ON LAND.

LIVERPOOL MINISTRY, The,

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1812-1813.

LIVERY, Origin of the term.

"After an ancient custom, the kings of France, at great solemnities, gave such of their subjects as were at court certain capes or furred mantles, with which the latter immediately clothed themselves before leaving the court. In the ancient 'comptes' (a sort of audits) these capes were called 'livrées' (whence, no doubt, our word livery), because the monarch gave them ('les livrait') himself."

J. F. Michaud, History of the Crusades, book 13.

LIVERY COMPANIES.

See GUILDS, MEDIÆVAL.

LIVERY OF SEIZIN.

See FEUDAL TENURES.

LIVINGSTON MANOR, The.

Robert Livingston, "secretary of Albany," son of a Scotch clergyman, began to acquire a landed estate, by purchases from the Indians, soon after his arrival in America, which was about 1674. "The Mohegan tribes on the east side of the Hudson had become reduced to a few old Indians and squaws, who were ready to sell the lands of which they claimed the ownership. Livingston's position as clerk of Indian affairs gave him exceptional opportunities to select and to purchase the best lands in desirable localities. … In 1702, Lord Bellomont [then governor of New York] writes, 'I am told Livingston has on his great grant of 16 miles long and 24 broad, but four or five cottages, occupied by men too poor to be farmers, but are his vassals.' After the close of the war [Queen Anne's War], Livingston made more rapid progress in his improvements. He erected flour and timber mills, and a new manor-house." In 1715 Livingston obtained from Governor Hunter a confirmatory patent, under an exact and careful survey of his estate. "Although it does not give the number of acres, the survey computes the area of the manor to contain 160,240 acres. It was now believed to be secure against any attack. … Philip, the second proprietor, was not disturbed as to title or limits. He was a merchant, and resided in New York, spending his summers at the Manor House. … His son, Robert, succeeded him as the third proprietor, but he had hardly come into possession before he began to be harassed by his eastern neighbors, the people of Massachusetts. … Massachusetts, by her charter, claimed the lands lying west of her eastern boundary to the Pacific Ocean. She had long sought to make settlements within the province of New York. Now as her population increased she pushed them westward, and gradually encroached on lands within the limits of a sister province. In April, 1752, Livingston wrote to Governor Clinton, and entered complaint against the trespassers from Massachusetts. A long correspondence between the governors of the two provinces followed, but settled nothing. The trouble continued," for a number of years, and frequent riots were incident to it, in which several men were killed. At length, "the boundary between New York and Massachusetts was finally settled, and the claimants ceased their annoyance. … The Revolution was approaching. The public mind was occupied with politics. … Land titles ceased to be topics of discussion. The proprietors of the old manor, and all bearing their name, with a few unimportant exceptions, took a decided stand in favor of independence. During the war that followed, and for some years after its close, their title and possession of their broad acres were undisputed. But in 1795 another effort was made to dispossess them. The old methods of riots and arrests were abandoned. The title was now attacked by the tenants, incited and encouraged by the envious and disaffected. A petition, numerously signed by the tenants of the manor, was sent to the Legislature. … The committee to which the petition was referred reported adversely, and this was approved by the House on March 23, 1795. … After the failure of 1795 to break the title, there was a season of comparative quiet continued for nearly forty years. Then a combination was formed by the tenants of the old manorial estates, including those of large landed proprietors in other parts of the State, termed 'anti-renters.' It was a civil association with a military organization. It was their purpose to resist the payment of rents. The tenants of the Van Rensselaer and the Livingston Manors, being the most numerous, were the projectors and leaders, giving laws and directions. … Landlords and officers were intimidated by bands disguised as Indians, and some property was destroyed. The anti-renters carried their grievances into politics, throwing their votes for the party which would give them the most favorable legislation. In 1844, they petitioned the Legislature to set aside as defective the Van Rensselaer title, and put the tenants in legal possession of the farms they occupied. The petition was referred to the Judiciary Committee of the Assembly, the late Judge William Allen being chairman. Anti-renters of known ability were on the committee, and a favorable report was anticipated. But after a long and thorough investigation of the title … the committee unanimously reported against the prayer of the petition. This put an end to the combination, and to the anti-rent war, although resistance to the collection of rents in isolated cases, with bloodshed and loss of life, is still [1885] continued. The landlords, however, particularly the Livingstons, were tired of the strife. They adopted measures of compromise, selling to their tenants the lands they occupied at reduced valuations. Only small portions of the old manor now remain in the hands of Robert Livingston's descendants."

G. W. Schuyler, Colonial New York, volume I, pages 243-285.

ALSO IN: _E. P. Cheyney, Anti-Rent Agitations in New York (University of Pennsylvania Pubs.)._

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LIVONIA: 12th-13th Centuries. First introduction of Commerce and Christianity.

"Till the year A. D. 1158 … Livonia was well-nigh utterly unknown to the rest of Europe. Some traders of Bremen then visited it, and formed several settlements along the coast. These commercial relations with their western neighbours first opened up the country to missionary enterprise, and in the year A. D. 1186 one of the merchant-ships of Bremen brought to the mouth of the Düna a venerable canon named Meinhard." Meinhard died in 1196, having accomplished little. He was succeeded by a Cistercian abbot named Berthold, who, being driven away by the obstinate pagans, returned wrathfully in 1198, with a crusading army, which Pope Innocent III. had commissioned him to lead against them. This was the beginning of a long and merciless crusading warfare waged against the Livonians, or Lieflanders, and against their Prussian and other Sclavonic neighbors, until all were forced to submit to the religious rites of their conquerors and to call themselves Christians. For the furthering of this crusade, Berthold's successor, Albert von Apeldern, of Bremen (who founded the town of Riga), "instituted, in the year A. D. 1201, with the concurrence of the emperor Otho IV. and the approbation of the Pope, the knightly 'Order of the Sword,' and placed it under the special protection of the Virgin Mary. The members of this order bound themselves by solemn vows to hear mass frequently, to abstain from marriage, to lead a sober and chaste life, and to fight against the heathen. In return for these services they were to have and to enjoy whatever lands they might wrest with their swords from their pagan adversaries. … Albert von Apeldern made Riga the starting-point of his operations. Thence, aided by Waldemar II. king of Denmark, he directed the arms of his crusaders against Esthonia, and the neighbouring countries of Semgallen and Courland. On these war-wasted districts he succeeded in imposing a nominal form of Christianity." The Order of the Sword was subsequently united with the Teutonic Order, which turned its crusading energies from the Moslems of the Holy Land to the heathendom of the Baltic.

G. F. Maclear, Apostles of Mediæval Europe, chapters 15-16.

ALSO IN: A. Rambaud, History of Russia, volume 1, chapter 9.

See, also PRUSSIA: 13TH CENTURY.

LLANOS.

See PAMPAS.

LLORENS, Battle of (1645).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1644-1646.

LOANO, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1795 (JUNE-DECEMBER).

LOBBY, The.

"'The Lobby' is the name given in America to persons, not being members of a legislature, who undertake to influence its members, and thereby to secure the passing of bills. The term includes both those who, since they hang about the chamber, and make a regular profession of working upon the members, are called 'lobbyists,' and those persons who on any particular occasion may come up to advocate, by argument or solicitation, any particular measure in which they happen to be interested. The name, therefore, does not necessarily impute any improper motive or conduct, though it is commonly used in what Bentham calls a dyslogistic sense."

J. Bryce, The American Commonwealth, volume 1, appendix note (B) to chapter 16.

LOBOSITZ, OR LOWOSITZ, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1756.

LOCH LEVEN, Mary Stuart's captivity at.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1561-1568.

LOCHLANN.

The Celtic name for Norway, meaning Lakeland.

LOCKE'S CONSTITUTION FOR THE CAROLINAS.

See NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1669-1693.

LOCOFOCOS.

"In 1835, in the city and county of New York, a portion of the democrats organized themselves into the 'equal rights' party. At a meeting in Tammany Hall they attempted to embarrass the proceedings of the democratic nominating committee, by presenting a chairman in opposition to the one supported by the regular democrats. Both parties came to a dead lock, and, in the midst of great confusion, the committee extinguished the lights. The equal rights men immediately relighted the room with candles and locofoco matches, with which they had provided themselves. From this they received the name of locofocos, a designation which, for a time, was applied to the whole democratic party by the opposition."

W. R. Houghton, History of American Politics, page 219.

LOCRI.

The city of Locri, or Locri Epizephyrii, an ancient Greek settlement in Southern Italy, was founded by the Locrians as early as B. C. 683. The elder Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, married a Locrian woman and showed great favor to the city, of which he acquired control; but it suffered terribly from his son, the younger Dionysius, who transferred his residence to Locri when first driven from Syracuse.

LOCRIANS, The.

See LOKRIANS.

LODGER FRANCHISE.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1884-1885.

LODI, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1796 (APRIL-OCTOBER).

LODI, Treaty of (1454).

See MILAN: A. D. 1447-1454; and ITALY: A. D. 1447-1480.

LOEN, OR STADTLOHN, Battle of (1623).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1621-1623.

LŒTIC COLONIES.

During and after the civil wars of the declining years of the Roman empire, large numbers of Germans were enlisted in the service of the rival factions, and were recompensed by gifts of land, on which they settled as colonists. "They were called Lœti, and the colonies lœtic colonies, probably from the German word 'leute,' people, because they were regarded as the people or men of the empire."

P. Godwin, History of France: Ancient Gaul, book 3, chapter 9, foot-note.

LOG, The.

See EPHAH.

LOG CABIN AND HARD CIDER CAMPAIGN.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1840.

LOGAN CROSS ROADS, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY: KENTUCKY-TENNESSEE).

LOGAN'S WRONGS. LOGAN'S WAR. LOGAN'S FAMOUS SPEECH.

See OHIO (VALLEY): A. D. 1774.

LÖGBERG, The.

See THING.

LOGI, The.

See BRITAIN: CELTIC TRIBES.

LOGISTÆ AND EUTHYNI, The.

"In Athens, all accounts, with the exception of those of the generals, were rendered to the logistæ and euthyni. Both authorities, before and after the archonship of Euclid, existed together at the same time. Their name itself shows that the logistæ were auditors of accounts. The euthyni were in immediate connection with them. … The logistæ were the principal persons in the auditing board."

A. Boeckh, Public Economy of Athens (translated by Lamb), book 2, chapter 8.

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LOGOGRAPHI, The.

The earlier Ionian Greek historians "confined their attention to the circle of myths and antiquities connected with single families, single cities and districts. These were the Ionic 'logographi,' so called because they noted down in easy narrative the remarkable facts that they had collected and obtained by inquiry as to the foundation of the cities, the myths of the prehistoric age, and the natural, political, and social condition of different countries."

E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 3, chapter 3 (volume 2).

LOGOTHETES.

A class of officers created under Justinian for the administration of the imperial finances in Italy, after its conquest from the Goths. Their functions corresponded with those of a modern auditor, or comptroller.

T. Hodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders, book 5, chapter 15 (volume 4).

LOGSTOWN.

About the middle of the 18th century, Logstown was "an important Indian village a little below the site of the present city of Pittsburg. Here usually resided Tanacharisson, a Seneca chief of great note, being head sachem of the mixed tribes which had migrated to the Ohio and its branches. He was generally surnamed the half-king, being subordinate to the Iroquois confederacy."

W. Irving, Life of Washington, volume 1, chapter 5.

LOIDIS.

See ELMET.

LOJA: Sieges and capture by the Spaniards (1482-1483).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1476-1492.

LOJERA, Battle of (1353).

See CONSTANTINOPLE: A. D. 1348-1355.

LOKRIANS, The.

"The coast [of Greece, in ancient times] opposite to the western side of Eubœa, from the neighbourhood of Thermopylæ as far as the Bœotian frontier at Anthedon, was possessed by the Lokrians, whose northern frontier town, Alpeni, was conterminous with the Malians. There was, however, one narrow strip of Phokis—the town of Daphnus, where the Phokians also touched the Eubœan sea—which broke this continuity and divided the Lokrians into two sections,—Lokrians of Mount Knemis, or Epiknemidian Lokrians, and Lokrians of Opus, or Opuntian Lokrians. … Besides these two sections of the Lokrian name, there was also a third, completely separate, and said to have been colonised from Opus,—the Lokrians surnamed Ozolæ,—who dwelt apart on the western side of Phokis, along the northern coast of the Corinthian Gulf. … Opus prided itself on being the mother-city of the Lokrian name. … The whole length of this Lokrian coast is celebrated for its beauty and fertility, both by ancient and modern observers."

G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 3 (volume 2).

LOLLARDS. The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1360-1414; and BEGUINES.—BEGHARDS.

LOLLARDS' TOWER.

When the persecution of the Lollards, or disciples of Wyclif, began in England, under Henry IV., the prisons were soon crowded, and the Archbishop of Canterbury found need of building an additional tower to his palace at Lambeth for the custody of them. The Lollards' Tower, as it was named, is still standing, with the rings in its walls to which the captives were chained.

LOMBARDS, OR LANGOBARDI. Early history.

"The Langobardi … are ennobled by the smallness of their numbers; since, though surrounded by many powerful nations, they derive security, not from obsequiousness, but from their martial enterprise."

Tacitus, Germany, Oxford translation, chapter 40.

"In the reign of Augustus, the Langobardi dwelt on this side the Elbe, between Luneburg and Magdeburg. When conquered and driven beyond the Elbe by Tiberius, they occupied that part of the country where are now Prignitz, Ruppin, and part of the Middle Marche. They afterward founded the Lombard kingdom in Italy."

_Tacitus, Germany, Oxford translation, Translator's note._

The etymology which explains the name of the Lombards or Langobardi by finding in it a reference to the length of their beards is questioned by some modern writers. Sheppard ("Fall of Rome") conjectures that the name originally meant "long-spears" rather than "long-beards." Other writers derive the name "from the district they inhabited on the banks of the Elbe, where Börde (or Bord) still signifies 'a fertile plain by the side of a river,' and a district near Magdeburg is still called the lange Börde. According to this view, Langobardi would signify 'inhabitants of the long bord of the river'; and traces of their name are supposed still to occur in such names as Bardengau and Bardewick, in the neighbourhood of the Elbe."

Dr. W. Smith, Note to Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 42.

From the Elbe the Langobardi moved in time to the Danube. "Here they encountered the Gepidæ, who, … after having taken a leading part in the defeat and dispersion of the Huns in the great battle of Netad [A. D. 453], had settled in the plains of Upper Hungary and on the Transylvanian hills. For thirty years these two powerful tribes continued a contest in which both sides sought the assistance of the Greek emperor, and both were purposely encouraged in their rivalry with a view to their common destruction." In 566 the struggle was decided by a tremendous battle in which the Gepidæ were crushed. The Lombards, in this last encounter, had secured the aid of the pretended Avars, then lately arrived on the Danube; but the prestige of the overwhelming victory attached itself to the name of the young Lombard king, Alboin. "In the days of Charlemagne, the songs of the German peasant still told of his beauty, his heroic qualities, and the resistless vigour of his sword. His renown crossed the Alps, and fell, with a foreboding sound, upon the startled ears of the Italians, now experienced in the varied miseries of invasion."

J. G. Sheppard, Fall of Rome, lecture 6.

LOMBARDS: A. D. 568-573. Conquests and settlement in Italy.

When the Lombards and the Avars crushed the nation of the Gepidæ (see AVARS), in 566, it was one of the terms of the bargain between them that the former should surrender to the Avars, not only the conquered territory—in Wallachia, Moldavia, Transylvania and part of Hungary—but, also, their own homes in Pannonia and Noricum. No doubt the ambitious Lombard king, Alboin, had thoughts of an easy conquest of Italy in his mind when he assented to so strange an agreement. Fourteen years before, the Lombard warriors had traversed the sunny peninsula in the army of Narses, as friends and allies of the Roman-Greeks. {2033} The recollection of its charms, and of its still surviving wealth, invited them to return. Their old leader, Narses, had been deposed from the exarchate at Ravenna; it is possible that he encouraged their coming. "It was not an army, but an entire nation, which descended the Alps of Friuli in the year 568. The exarch Longinus, who had succeeded Narses, shut himself up within the walls of Ravenna, and offered no other resistance. Pavia, which had been well fortified by the kings of the Ostrogoths, closed its gates, and sustained a siege of four years. Several other towns, Padua, Monzelice, and Mantua, opposed their isolated forces, but with less perseverance. The Lombards advanced slowly into the country, but still they advanced; at their approach, the inhabitants fled to the fortified towns upon the sea coast in the hope of being relieved by the Greek fleet, or at least of finding a refuge in the ships, if it became necessary to surrender the place. … The islands of Venice received the numerous fugitives from Venetia, and at their head the patriarch of Aquileia, who took up his abode at Grado; Ravenna opened its gates to the fugitives from the two banks of the Po; Genoa to those from Liguria; the inhabitants of La Romagna, between Rimini and Ancona, retired to the cities of the Pentapolis; Pisa, Rome, Gaeta, Naples, Amalfi, and all the maritime towns of the south of Italy were peopled at the same time by crowds of fugitives."

J. C. L. de Sismondi, Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 11 (volume 1).

"From the Trentine hills to the gates of Ravenna and Rome, the inland regions of Italy became, without a battle or a siege, the lasting patrimony of the Lombards. … One city, which had been diligently fortified by the Goths, resisted the arms of a new invader; and, while Italy was subdued by the flying detachments of the Lombards, the royal camp was fixed above three years before the western gate of Ticinum, or Pavia. … The impatient besieger had bound himself by a tremendous oath that age, and sex, and dignity should be confounded in a general massacre. The aid of famine at length enabled him to execute his bloody vow; but as Alboin entered the gate his horse stumbled, fell, and could not be raised from the ground. One of his attendants was prompted by compassion, or piety, to interpret this miraculous sign of the wrath of Heaven: the conqueror paused and relented. … Delighted with the situation of a city which was endeared to his pride by the difficulty of the purchase, the prince of the Lombards disdained the ancient glories of Milan; and Pavia during some ages was respected as the capital of the kingdom of Italy."

E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 45.

LOMBARDS: A. D. 573-754. Their kingdom.

Alboin survived but a short time the conquest of his Italian kingdom. He was murdered in June, 573, at the instigation of his wife, the Gepid princess Rosamond, whose alliance with him had been forced and hateful. His successor, Clef, or Clepho, a chief elected by the assembly of the nation at Pavia, reigned but eighteen months, when he, too, was murdered. After a distracted period of ten years, in which there was no king, the young son of Clepho, named Autharis, came to manhood and was raised to the throne. "Under the standard of their new king, the conquerors of Italy withstood three successive invasions [of the Franks and the Alemanni], one of which was led by Childebert himself, the last of the Merovingian race who descended from the Alps. … During a period of 200 years Italy was unequally divided between the kingdom of the Lombards and the exarchate of Ravenna. … From Pavia, the royal seat, their kingdom [that of the Lombards] was extended to the east, the north, and the west, as far as the confines of the Avars, the Bavarians, and the Franks of Austrasia and Burgundy. In the language of modern geography, it is now represented by the Terra Firma of the Venetian republic, Tyrol, the Milanese, Piedmont, the coast of Genoa, Mantua, Parma, and Modena, the grand duchy of Tuscany, and a large portion of the ecclesiastical state from Perugia to the Adriatic. The dukes, and at length the princes, of Beneventum, survived the monarchy, and propagated the name of the Lombards. From Capua to Tarentum, they reigned near 500 years over the greatest part of the present kingdom of Naples."

E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 45.

LOMBARDS: A. D. 754-774. The Fall of their monarchy. Charlemagne's conquest.

Until 754 the Lombard kings pursued a generally prosperous career of aggrandizement, in Italy. They had succeeded, at the last, in expelling the exarchs of the Eastern Empire from Ravenna and in taking possession of that capital, with much of the territory and many of the cities in central Italy which depended on it. These successes inflamed their determination to acquire Rome, which had practically resumed its independence, and theoretically reconstituted itself a republic, with the Pope, in fact, ruling it as an actual prince. In 753 the Papal chair was filled by Stephen II. and the Lombard throne by King Aistaulf, or Astolphus. The former, being newly threatened by the latter, made a journey to the court of the Frank king, Pippin, to solicit his aid. Pippin was duly grateful for the sanction which the preceding pope had given to his seizure of the Merovingian crown, and he responded to the appeal in a vigorous way. In a short campaign beyond the Alps, in 754, he extorted from the Lombard king a promise to make over the cities of the exarchate to the Pope and to respect his domain. But the promise was broken as soon as made. The Franks were hardly out of Italy before Aistulf was ravaging the environs of Rome and assailing its gates. On this provocation Pippin came back the next year and humbled the Lombard more effectually, stripping him of additional territory, for the benefit of the Pope, taking heavy ransom and tributes from him, and binding him by oaths and hostages to acknowledge the supremacy of the king of the Franks. This chastisement sufficed for nearly twenty years; but in 773 the Pope (now Hadrian) was driven once more to appeal to the Frank monarch for protection against his northern neighbors. Pippin was dead and his great son Charles, or Charlemagne, had quarrels of his own with Lombardy to second the Papal call. He passed the Alps at the head of a powerful army, reduced Pavia after a year-long siege and made a complete conquest of the kingdom, immuring its late king in a cloister for the remainder of his days. He also confirmed, it is said, the territorial "donations" of his father to the Holy See and added some provinces to them. "Thus the kingdom of the Lombards, after a stormy existence of over two hundred years, was forever extinguished. {2034} Comprising Piedmont, Genoa, the Milanese, Tuscany, and several smaller states, it constituted the most valuable acquisition, perhaps, the Franks had lately achieved. Their limits were advanced by it from the Alps to the Tiber; yet, in the disposal of his spoil, the magnanimous conqueror regarded the forms of government which had been previously established. He introduced no changes that were not deemed indispensable. The native dukes and counts were confirmed in their dignities; the national law was preserved, and the distributions of land maintained, Karl receiving the homage of the Lombard lords as their feudal sovereign, and reserving to himself only the name of King of Lombardy."

P. Godwin, History of France: Ancient Gaul, chapters 15-16.

ALSO IN: E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 49.

J. I. Mombert, Charlemagne, book 1, chapter 2, and book 2, chapter 2.

J. Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire, chapters 4-5.

See, also, PAPACY: A. D. 728-774.

----------LOMBARDY: Start--------

LOMBARDY: A. D. 754. Charlemagne's reconstitution of the kingdom.

See LOMBARDS: A. D. 754-774.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 961-1039. The subjection to Germany.

See ITALY: A. D. 961-1039.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1056-1152. The rise of the Republican cities.

See ITALY: A. D. 1056-1152.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1154-1183. The wars of Frederick Barbarossa against the Communes. The League of Lombardy.

See ITALY: A. D. 1154-1162, to 1174-1183; and FEDERAL GOVERNMENT: MEDIÆVAL LEAGUE OF LOMBARDY.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1183-1250. The conflict with Frederick II.

See ITALY: A. D. 1183-1250.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1250-1520. The Age of the Despots.

See ITALY: A. D. 1250-1520.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1277-1447. Rise and domination of the Visconti of Milan, and the dissolution of their threatening tyranny.

See MILAN: A. D. 1277-1447.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1310-1313. Visit of the Emperor Henry VII. His coronation with the Iron Crown.

See ITALY: A. D. 1310-1313.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1327-1330. Visit and coronation of Louis IV. of Bavaria.

See ITALY: A. D. 1313-1330.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1360-1391. The Free Companies and the wars with Florence and with the Pope.

See ITALY: A. D. 1343-1393.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1412-1422. Reconquest by Filippo Maria Visconti, third duke of Milan.

See ITALY: A. D. 1412-1447.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1447-1454. Disputed succession of the Visconti in Milan. The duchy seized by Francesco Sforza. War of Venice, Naples, and other States against Milan and Florence.

See MILAN: A. D. 1447-1454.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1492-1544. The struggle for the Milanese territory, until its acquisition by the Spanish crown.

See references under MILAN: A. D. 1492-1496, to 1544.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1713. Cession of the duchy of Milan to Austria.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1745-1746. Occupied by the Spaniards and French and recovered by the Austrians.

See ITALY: A. D. 1745; and 1746-1747.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1749-1792. Under Austrian rule, after the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.

See ITALY: A. D. 1749-1792.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1796-1797. Conquest by Bonaparte. Creation of the Cisalpine Republic.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1796 (APRIL-OCTOBER); 1796-1797 (OCTOBER-APRIL); and 1797 (MAY-OCTOBER).

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1799. French evacuation.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (APRIL-SEPTEMBER).

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1800. Recovery by the French.

See FRANCE: A: D. 1800-1801 (MAY-FEBRUARY).

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1805. The Iron Crown bestowed on Napoleon, as King of Italy.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1804-1805.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1814. French evacuation.

See ITALY: A. D. 1814.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1814-1815. Restored to Austria. Formation of the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (APRIL-JUNE); VIENNA, THE CONGRESS OF; ITALY: A. D. 1814-1815; and AUSTRIA: A. D. 1815-1846.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1848-1849. The struggle for freedom from Austrian misrule and its failure.

See ITALY: A. D. 1848-1849.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1859. Emancipation from the Austrians. Absorption in the kingdom of Italy.

See ITALY: A. D. 1856-1859; and 1859-1861.

----------LOMBARDY: End----------

LOMBARDY, The iron crown of.

The crown of the Lombard kings was lined with an iron band, believed to have been wrought of the nails used in the Crucifixion. Hence it was called the Iron Crown.

J. I. Mombert, History of Charles the Great, book 2, chapter 2.

LONATO, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1796 (APRIL-OCTOBER).

LONDINIUM. The Roman name of the city of London.

See LONDON.

----------LONDON: Start----------

LONDON: The origin of the city and its name.

"When Plautius [Aulus Plautius, who, in the reign of the Emperor Claudius, A. D. 43, led the second Roman invasion of Britain, that of Cæsar having been the first] withdrew his soldiers from the marshes they had vainly attempted to cross, he, no doubt, encamped them somewhere in the neighbourhood. I believe the place was London. The name of London refers directly to the marshes, though I cannot here enter into a philological argument to prove the fact. At London the Roman general was able both to watch his enemy and to secure the conquests he had made, while his ships could supply him with all the necessaries he required. When, in the autumn of the year 43, he drew the lines of circumvallation round his camp, I believe he founded the present metropolis of Britain. The notion entertained by some antiquaries that a British town preceded the Roman camp has no foundation to rest upon, and is inconsistent with all we know of the early geography of this part of Britain."

E. Guest, Origines Celticæ, volume 2, part 2, chapter 13.

"Old as it is, London is far from being one of the oldest of British cities; till the coming of the Romans, indeed, the loneliness of its site seems to have been unbroken by any settlement whatever. The 'dun' was, in fact, the centre of a vast wilderness. … We know nothing of the settlement of the town; but its advantages as the first landing-place along the Thames secured for it at once the command of all trading intercourse with Gaul, and through Gaul with the empire at large. So rapid was its growth that only a few years after the landing of Claudius [who joined Aulus Plautius in the autumn of 43] London had risen into a flourishing port."

J. R. Green, The Making of England, chapter 3.

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"The derivation of 'Londinium' from 'Llyn-din,' the lake fort, seems to agree best with the situation and the history. The Roman could not frame to pronounce the British word 'Llyn,' a word which must have sounded to his ears very much like 'Clun,' or 'Lun,' and the fact, if it is a fact, that Llyn was turned into Lon, goes to increase the probability that this is the correct derivation of the name. The first founder called his fastness the 'Fort of the Lake,' and this is all that remains of him or it. … London was in those days emphatically a Llyndin, the river itself being more like a broad lake than a stream, and behind the fortress lying the great northern lake,' as a writer so late as Fitzstephen calls it, where is now Moorfields. I take it, it was something very like an island, if not quite—a piece of high ground rising out of lake, and swamp, and estuary."

W. J. Loftie, History of London, chapter 1, and foot-note.

LONDON: A. D. 61. Destruction by the Iceni.

Londinium was one of the Roman towns in Britain destroyed by the Iceni, at the time of the furious insurrection to which they were incited by their outraged queen Boadicea, A. D. 61. It "was crowded with Roman residents, crowded still more at this moment with fugitives from the country towns and villas: but it was undefended by walls, its population of traders was of little account in military eyes, and Suetonius sternly determined to leave it, with all the wealth it harboured, to the barbarians, rather than sacrifice his soldiers in the attempt to save it. … Amidst the overthrow of the great cities of southern Britain, not less than 70,000 Roman colonists … perished. The work of twenty years was in a moment undone. Far and wide every vestige of Roman civilization was trodden into the soil. At this day the workmen who dig through the foundations of the Norman and the Saxon London, strike beneath them on the traces of a double Roman city, between which lies a mass of charred and broken rubbish, attesting the conflagration of the terrible Boadicea."

C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 51.

LONDON: 4th Century. The Roman Augusta and its walls.

"It is certain that, either under Constantine [the emperor] himself, or under one of his immediate successors, the outer wall was built. Though the building of the Roman wall, which still in a sense defines the city boundaries, is an event in the history of London not second in importance even to its foundation, since it made a mere village and fort with a 'tête du pont' into a great city and the capital of provincial Britain, yet we have no records by which an exact date can be assigned to it. All we know is that in 350 London had no wall: and in 369 the wall existed. The new wall must have taken in an immense tract of what was until then open country, especially along the Watling Street, towards Cheap and Newgate. It transformed London into Augusta; and though the new name hardly appears on the page of history, and never without a reference to the older one, its existence proves the increase in estimation which was then accorded to the place. The object of this extensive circumvallation is not very clear. The population to be protected might very well have been crowded into a much smaller space. … The wall enclosed a space of 380 acres, being 5,485 yards in length, or 3 miles and 205 yards. The portion along the river extended from Blackfriars to the Tower."

W. J. Loftie, History of London, chapter 2 (volume 1).

"The historian Ammianus Marcellinus, who wrote about A. D. 380, in the reign of Gratian, states that Londinium (he calls it Lundinium) was in his days called Augusta. From him we learn that Lupicinus, who was sent by Julian to repress the inroads of the Scots and Picts, made Londinium his head quarters, and there concerted the plan of the campaign. In the reign of Valentinian Britain was again disturbed, not only by the northern barbarians, but also by the Franks and Saxons. Theodosius, who was appointed commander of the legions and cohorts selected for this service, came from Boulogne, by way of Rutupiæ, to Londinium, the same route taken a few years previously by Lupicinus, and there he also matured his plan for the restoration of the tranquillity of the province. It is on this occasion that Marcellinus speaks twice of Londinium as an ancient town, then called Augusta. By the anonymous chorographer of Ravenna it is called Londinium Augusta; and it is in this sense, a cognomen or distinguishing appellation, as applied to a pre-eminent town or capital, that we must probably understand the term as used by Marcellinus in relation to Londinium. … The extent of Londinium, from Ludgate on the west to the Tower on the east, was about a mile, and about half a mile from the wall on the north (London Wall) to the Thames, giving dimensions far greater than those of any other Roman town in Britain. These were the limits of the city when the Romans relinquished the dominion of the island."

Charles Roach Smith, Illustrations of Roman London, pages 11-12.

LONDON: 4th Century. The growth of the Roman city.

"That London gradually increased in importance beyond the dignity of a commercial city is plain, from the mention of it in the Itinera, which show the number of marching roads beginning and terminating there. … London then [in the times of Julian and Theodosius] bore the name of 'Augusta,' or 'Londinium Augusta,' and this title is only applied to cities of pre-eminent importance. The area of Roman London was considerable, and, from discoveries made at different times, appears to have extended with the growth of Roman power. The walls when the Romans left Britain reached from Ludgate, on the west, to the Tower on the east, about one mile in length, and from London Wall to the Thames. … It also extended across the river on the Kentish side."

H. M. Scarth, Roman Britain, chapter 15.

"Roman Loudon was built on the elevated ground on both sides of a stream, known in after time by the name of Wallbrook, which ran into the Thames not far from Southwark Bridge. … Its walls were identical with those which enclosed the mediæval city of London. … The northern and north-eastern parts of the town were occupied with extensive and—to judge by the remains which have been brought to light—magnificent mansions. … At the period to which our last chapter had brought us [A. D. 353], the city had extended to the other side of the Thames, and the borough of Southwark stands upon ground which covers the floors of Roman houses and the pavings of Roman streets."

T. Wright, Celt, Roman and Saxon, chapter 5.

ALSO IN: _C. Roach Smith, Antiquities of Roman London._

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LONDON: 6th-9th Centuries. During the Saxon conquest and settlement.

For nearly half a century after its conquest by the East-Saxons (which took place probably about the middle of the 6th century) London "wholly disappears from our view." "We know nothing of the circumstances of its conquest, of the fate of its citizens, or of the settlement of the conquerors within its walls. That some such settlement had taken place, at least as early as the close of the seventh century, is plain from the story of Mellitus, when placed as bishop within its walls [see ENGLAND: A. D. 597-685]; but it is equally plain that the settlement was an English one, that the provincials had here as elsewhere disappeared, and that the ruin of the city had been complete. Had London merely surrendered to the East-Saxons and retained its older population and municipal life, it is hard to imagine how, within less than half a century, its burghers could have so wholly lost all trace of Christianity that not even a ruined church, as at Canterbury, remained for the use of the Christian bishop, and that the first care of Mellitus was to set up a mission church in the midst of a heathen population. It is even harder to imagine how all trace of the municipal institutions to which the Roman towns clung so obstinately should have so utterly disappeared. But more direct proofs of the wreck of the town meet us in the stray glimpses which we are able to get of its earlier topographical history. The story of early London is not that of a settled community slowly putting off the forms of Roman for those of English life, but of a number of little groups scattered here and there over the area within the walls, each growing up with its own life and institutions, gilds, sokes, religious houses, and the like, and only slowly drawing together into a municipal union which remained weak and imperfect even at the Norman Conquest. … Its position indeed was such that traffic could not fail to recreate the town; for whether a bridge or a ferry existed at this time, it was here that the traveller from Kent or Gaul would still cross the Thames, and it was from London that the roads still diverged which, silent and desolate as they had become, furnished the means of communication to any part of Britain."

J. R. Green, The Conquest of England, pages 149 and 452-459.

"London may be said after this time [early in the 9th century] to be no longer the capital of one Saxon kingdom, but to be the special property of whichever king of whichever kingdom was then paramount in all England. When the supremacy of Mercia declined, and that of Wessex arose, London went to the conqueror. In 823, Egbert receives the submission of Essex, and in 827 he is in London, and in 833 a Witan is held there, at which he presides. Such are the scanty notes from which the history of London during the so-called Heptarchy must be compiled. … London had to bear the brunt of the attack [of the Danes] at first. Her walls wholly failed to protect her. Time after time the freebooters broke in. If the Saxons had spared anything of Roman London, it must have disappeared now. Massacre, slavery, and fire became familiar in her streets. At last the Danes seemed to have looked on her as their headquarters, and when, in 872, Alfred was forced to make truce with them, they actually retired to London as to their own city, to recruit. To Alfred, with his military experience and political sagacity, the possession of London was a necessity; but he had to wait long before he obtained it. His preparations were complete in 884. The story of the conflict is the story of his life. His first great success was the capture of London after a short siege: to hold it was the task of all his later years."

W. J. Loftie, History of London, chapter 3 (volume 1).

See, also, ENGLAND: A. D. 477-527.

LONDON: A. D. 1013-1016. Resistance to the Danes.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 979-1016.

LONDON: 12th Century. Magnitude and importance of the city.

"We find them [the Londoners] active in the civil war of Stephen and Matilda. The famous bishop of Winchester tells the Londoners that they are almost accounted as noblemen on account of the greatness of their city; into the community of which it appears that some barons had been received. Indeed, the citizens, themselves, or at least the principal of them, were called barons. It was certainly by far the greatest city in England. There have been different estimates of its population, some of which are extravagant; but I think it could hardly have contained less than 30,000 or 40,000 souls within its walls; and the suburbs were very populous."

H. Hallam, The Middle Ages, chapter 8, part 3 (volume 3).

LONDON: 14th Century. Guilds. Livery Companies.

See GUILDS.

LONDON: A. D. 1381. In the hands of the followers of Wat Tyler and John Ball.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1381.

LONDON: 16th Century. In Shakespeare's time.

"The London of those days did not present the gigantic uniformity of the modern metropolis, and had not as yet become wholly absorbed in the whirl of business life. It was not as yet a whole province covered with houses, but a city of moderate size, surveyable from end to end, with walls and gates, beyond which lay pleasant suburbs. … Compared with the London of today, it possessed colour and the stamp of originality; for, as in the southern climes, business and domestic operations were carried on in the streets—and then the red houses with their woodwork, high gables, oriel windows and terraces, and the inhabitants in picturesque and gay attire. The upper circles of society did not, as yet, live apart in other districts; the nobility still had their mansions among the burgher class and the working people. Queen Elizabeth might be seen driving in an unwieldy gilt coach to some solemn service in St. Paul's Cathedral, or riding through the city to the Tower, to her hunting grounds, to a review of her troops, or might be seen starting for Richmond or Greenwich, accompanied by a brilliant retinue, on one of her magnificent barges that were kept in readiness close to where the theatres stood. Such a scene, with but little stretch of the imagination, might have led Shakespeare to think of the brilliant picture of Cleopatra on the Cydnus. The Thames was crossed by one bridge only, and was still pure and clear as crystal; swans swam about on it, and gardens and meadows lined its banks where we now have dusty wharfs and warehouses. Hundreds of boats would be skimming up and down the stream, and incessant would be the calls between the boatmen of 'Westward ho!' or 'Eastward ho!' And yet the loungers in the Temple Gardens and at Queenhithe could amuse themselves by catching salmon. {2037} In the streets crowds would be passing to and fro; above all, the well-known and dreaded apprentices, whose business it was to attract customers by calling out in front of the shops: 'What d'ye lack, gentles? what d'ye lack? My ware is best! Here shall you have your choice!' &c. Foreigners, too, of every nationality, resident in London, would be met with. Amid all this life every now and again would be seen the perambulation of one or other of the guilds, wedding processions, groups of country folk, gay companies of train-bands and archers. … The city was rich in springs and gardens, and the inhabitants still had leisure to enjoy their existence; time had not yet come to be synonymous with money, and men enjoyed their gossip at the barbers' and tobacconists' shops; at the latter, instruction was even given in the art of smoking, and in 1614 it is said that there were no less than 7,000 such shops in London. St. Paul's was a rendezvous for promenaders and idle folk; and on certain days, Smithfield and its Fair would be the centre of attraction; also Bartholomew Fair, with its puppet-shows and exhibitions of curiosities, where Bankes and his dancing-horse Morocco created a great sensation for a long time; Southwark, too, with its Paris Garden, attracted visitors to see the bear-baiting; it was here that the famous bear Sackerson put the women in a pleasant state of flutter; Master Slender had seen the bear loose twenty times, and taken it by the chain. No less attractive were the bowling-alleys, the fights at the Cock-pit and the tent-pegging in the tiltyard; and yet all these amusements were even surpassed by the newly-risen star of the theatre. … The population of London during the reign of the Bloody Mary is estimated by the Venetian ambassador, Giovanni Micheli, at 150,000, or, according to other MS. reports of his, at 180,000 souls. The population must have increased at an almost inconceivable rate, if we are to trust the reports of a second Venetian ambassador, Marc Antonio Correr, who, in 1610, reckoned the number of inhabitants at 300,000 souls; however, according to Raumer, another Venetian, Molino, estimated the population at 300,000 in 1607. The number of foreigners in London was extremely large, and in 1621 the colony of foreigners of all nations found settled there amounted to no less than 10,000 persons. Commerce, trade, and the industries were in a very flourishing state. The Thames alone, according to John Norden in his MS. description of Essex (1594), gave occupation to 40,000 men as boatmen, sailors, fishermen, and others. Great political and historical events had put new life into the English nation, and given it an important impetus, which manifested itself in London more especially, and exercised a stimulating influence upon literature and poetry. Indeed, it may be said that Shakespeare had the good fortune of having his life cast in one of the greatest historical periods, the gravitating point of which lay principally in London."

K. Elze, William Shakespeare, chapter 3.

LONDON: A. D. 1647. Outbreak against the Independents and the Army.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1647 (APRIL-AUGUST).

LONDON: A. D. 1665 The Great Plague.

"The water supply, it is now generally acknowledged, is the first cause of epidemic disease. In London, at the beginning of the reign of James I., it was threefold. Some water came to public conduits, like those in Cheap, by underground pipes from Tyburn. Some was drawn by water-wheels and other similar means from the Thames, polluted as it was, at London Bridge. A third source of supply was still more dangerous: in all the suburbs, and probably also in most houses in the city itself, people depended on wells. What wells among habitations, and especially filthy habitations, become, we know now, but in the 17th century, and much later, the idea of their danger had not been started. Such being the conditions of existence in London; the plague now and then smouldering for a year or two, now and then breaking out as in 1603, 1625, and 1636, a long drouth, which means resort to half dry and stagnant reservoirs, was sufficient to call it forth in all its strength. The heat of the summer weather in 1665 was such that the very birds of the air were imagined to languish in their flight. The 7th of June, said Pepys, was the hottest day that ever he felt in his life. The deaths from the plague, which had begun at the end of the previous year, in the suburb of St. Giles' in the Fields, at a house in Long Acre, where two Frenchmen had died of it, rose during June from 112 to 268. The entries in the diary are for four months almost continuous as to the progress of the plague. Although it was calculated that not less than 200,000 people had followed the example of the king and court, and fled from the doomed city, yet the deaths increased daily. The lord mayor, Lawrence, held his ground, as did the brave earl of Craven and General Monk, now became duke of Albemarle. Craven provided a burial-ground, the Pest Field, with a kind of cottage-hospital in Soho; but the only remedy that could be devised by the united wisdom of the corporation, fortified by the presence of the duke and the earl, was to order fires in all the streets, as if the weather was not already hot enough. Medical art seems to have utterly broken down. Those of the sick who were treated by a physician, only died a more painful death by cupping, scarifying and blistering. The city rectors, too, who had come back with the king, fled from the danger, as might be expected from their antecedents, and the nonconformist lecturers who remained had overwhelming congregations wherever they preached repentence to the terror-stricken people. … The symptoms were very distressing. Fever and vomiting were among the first, and every little ailment was thought premonitory, so that it was said at the time that as many died of fright as of the disease itself. … The fatal signs were glandular swellings which ran their course in a few hours, the plague spots turning to gangrene almost as soon as they appeared. The patients frequently expired the same day that they were seized. … The most terrible stories of premature burial were circulated. All business was suspended. Grass grew in the streets. No one went about. The rumbling wheels of the cart, and the cry, 'Bring out your dead!' alone broke the stillness of the night. … In the first weeks of September the number of fatal cases rose to 1,500 a day, the bills of mortality recording 24,000 deaths between the 1st and 21st of that month. Then at last it began to decline, but rose again at the beginning of October. {2038} A change of weather at length occurred, and the average declined so rapidly that, by the beginning of November, the number of deaths was reduced to 1,200, and before Christmas came it had fallen to the usual number of former years. In all, the official statements enumerated 97,306 deaths during the year, and, if we add those unrecorded, a very moderate estimate of the whole mortality would place it at the appalling figure of 100,000 at least."

W. J. Loftie, History of London, chapter 11 (volume 1).

ALSO IN; _S. Pepys, Diary, 1665._

LONDON: A. D. 1666. The Great Fire.

"While the war [with the Dutch] continued without any decisive success on either side, a calamity happened in London which threw the people into great consternation. Fire, breaking out [September 2, 1666] in a baker's house near the bridge, spread itself on all sides with such rapidity that no efforts could extinguish it, till it laid in ashes a considerable part of the city. The inhabitants, without being able to provide effectually for their relief, were reduced to be spectators of their own ruin; and were pursued from street to street by the flames which unexpectedly gathered round them. Three days and nights did the fire advance; and it was only by the blowing up of houses that it was at last extinguished. … About 400 streets and 13,000 houses were reduced to ashes. The causes of the calamity were evident. The narrow streets of London, the houses built entirely of wood, the dry season, and a violent east wind which blew; these were so many concurring circumstances which rendered it easy to assign the reason of the destruction that ensued. But the people were not satisfied with this obvious account. Prompted by blind rage, some ascribed the guilt to the republicans, others to the Catholics. … The fire of London, though at that time a great calamity, has proved in the issue beneficial both to the city and the kingdom. The city was rebuilt in a very little time, and care was taken to make the streets wider and more regular than before. … London became much more healthy after the fire."

D. Hume, History of England, chapter 64.

"I went this morning [September 7] on foot from Whitehall as far as London Bridge, thro' the late Fleete-street, Ludgate hill, by St. Paules, Cheapeside, Exchange, Bishopsgate, Aldersgate, and out to Moorefields, thence through Cornehill, &c., with extraordinary difficulty, clambering over heaps of yet smoking rubbish, and frequently mistaking where I was. The ground under my feete so hot, that it even burnt the soles of my shoes. … At my returne I was infinitely concerned to find that goodly Church St. Paules now a sad ruine. … Thus lay in ashes that most venerable church, one of the most ancient pieces of early piety in ye Christian world, besides neere 100 more. … In five or six miles traversing about I did not see one loade of timber unconsum'd, nor many stones but what were calcin'd white as snow. … I then went towards Islington and Highgate, where one might have seen 200,000 people of all ranks and degrees dispers'd and lying along by their heaps of what they could save from the fire, deploring their losse, and tho' ready to perish for hunger and destitution, yet not asking one penny for reliefe, which to me appear'd a stranger sight than any I had yet beheld."

_J. Evelyn, Diary, September 7, 1666 (volume 2)._

ALSO IN: _S. Pepys, Diary, September 2-15, 1666 (volume 4)._

L. Phillimore, Sir Christopher Wren, chapters 6-7.

LONDON: A. D. 1685. The most populous capital in Europe. The first lighting of the streets.

"There is reason to believe that, in 1685, London had been, during about half a century, the most populous capital in Europe. The inhabitants, who are now [1848] at least 1,900,000, were then probably little more than half a million. London had in the world only one commercial rival, now long ago outstripped, the mighty and opulent Amsterdam. … There is, indeed, no doubt that the trade of the metropolis then bore a far greater proportion than at present to the whole trade of the country; yet to our generation the honest vaunting of our ancestors must appear almost ludicrous. The shipping which they thought incredibly great appears not to have exceeded 70,000 tons. This was, indeed, then more than a third of the whole tonnage of the kingdom. … It ought to be noticed that, in the last year of the reign of Charles II. [1685], began a great change in the police of London, a change which has perhaps added as much to the happiness of the body of the people as revolutions of much greater fame. An ingenious projector, named Edward Heming, obtained letters patent conveying to him, for a term of years, the exclusive right of lighting up London. He undertook, for a moderate consideration, to place a light before every tenth door, on moonless nights, from Michaelmas to Lady Day, and from six to twelve of the clock."

Lord Macaulay, History of England, chapter 3 (volume 1).

LONDON: A. D. 1688. The Irish Night.

The ignominious flight of James II. from his capital, on the morning of December 11, 1688, was followed by a wild outbreak of riot in London, which no effective authority existed to promptly repress. To the cry of "No Popery," Roman Catholic chapels and the residences of ambassadors of Roman Catholic States, were sacked and burned. "The morning of the 12th of December rose on a ghastly sight. The capital in many places presented the aspect of a city taken by storm. The Lords met at Whitehall, and exerted themselves to restore tranquillity. … In spite, however, of the well-meant efforts of the provisional government, the agitation grew hourly more formidable. … Another day of agitation and terror closed, and was followed by a night the strangest and most terrible that England had ever seen." Just before his flight, King James had sent an order for the disbanding of Ins army, which had been composed for the most part of troops brought over from Ireland. A terrifying rumor that this disbanded Irish soldiery was marching on London, and massacring men, women and children on the road, now spread through the city. "At one in the morning the drums of the militia beat to arms. Everywhere terrified women were weeping and wringing their hands, while their fathers and husbands were equipping themselves for fight. Before two the capital wore a face of stern preparedness which might well have daunted a real enemy, if such an enemy had been approaching. Candles were blazing at all the windows. The public places were as bright as at noonday. All the great avenues were barricaded. More than 20,000 pikes and muskets lined the streets. The late daybreak of the winter solstice found the whole City still in arms. During many years the Londoners retained a vivid recollection of what they called the Irish Night. … The panic had not been confined to London. The cry that disbanded Irish soldiers were coming to murder the Protestants had, with malignant ingenuity, been raised at once in many places widely distant from each other."

Lord Macaulay, History of England, chapter 10.

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LONDON: A. D. 1780. The Gordon No-Popery Riots.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1778-1780.

LONDON: A. D. 1848. The last Chartist demonstration.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1848.

LONDON: A. D. 1851. The great Exhibition.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1851.

----------LONDON: End----------

LONDON COMPANY FOR VIRGINIA, A. D. 1606-1625. Charter and undertakings in Virginia.

See VIRGINIA: A. D. 1606-1607, and after.

LONDON COMPANY FOR VIRGINIA. D. 1619. The unused patent granted to the Pilgrims at Leyden.

See INDEPENDENTS OR SEPARATISTS: A. D. 1617-1620; and, also, MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1620, and 1621.

----------LONDONDERRY: Start--------

LONDONDERRY: Origin and Name.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1607-1611.

LONDONDERRY: A. D. 1688. The shutting of the gates by the Prentice Boys.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1685-1688.

LONDONDERRY: A. D. 1689. The Siege.

James II. fled in December, 1688, to France, from the Revolution in England which gave his throne to his daughter Mary, and her husband, William of Orange. He received aid from the French king and was landed in Ireland the following March, to attempt the maintenance of his sovereignty in that kingdom, if no more. Almost immediately upon his arrival he led his forces against Londonderry, where a great part of the Protestants of Ulster had taken refuge, and William and Mary had been proclaimed. "The city in 1689 was contained within the walls; and it rose by a gentle ascent from the base to the summit of a hill. The whole city was thus exposed to the fire of an enemy. There was no moat nor counterscarp. A ferry crossed the river Foyle from the east gate, and the north gate opened upon a quay. At the entrance of the Foyle was the strong fort of Culmore, with a smaller fort on the opposite bank. About two miles below the city were two forts—Charles Fort and Grange Fort. The trumpeter sent by the king with a summons to the obstinate city found the inhabitants 'in very great disorder, having turned out their governor Lundy, upon suspicion.' The cause of this unexpected reception was the presence of 'one Walker, a minister.' He was opposed to Lundy, who thought the place untenable, and counselled the townsmen to make conditions; 'but the fierce minister of the Gospel, being of the true Cromwellian or Cameronian stamp, inspired them with bolder resolutions.' The reverend George Walker and Major Baker were appointed governors during the siege. They mustered 7,020 soldiers, dividing them into regiments under eight colonels. In the town there were about 30,000 souls; but they were reduced to a less burdensome number, by 10,000 accepting an offer of the besieging commander to restore them to their dwellings. There were, according to Lundy's estimation, only provisions for ten days. The number of cannon possessed by the besieged was only twenty. On the 20th of April the city was invested, and the bombardment was begun. … No impression was made during nine days upon the determination to hold out; and on the 29th King James retraced his steps to Dublin, in considerable ill humour. The siege went on for six weeks with little change. Hamilton was now the commander of James's forces. The garrison of Londonderry and the inhabitants were gradually perishing from fatigue and insufficient food. But they bravely repelled an assault, in which 400 of the assailants fell. … Across the narrow part of the river, from Charles Fort to Grange Fort, the enemy stretched a great boom of fir-timber, joined by iron chains, and fastened on either shore by cables of a foot thick. On the 15th of June an English fleet of thirty sail was descried in the Lough. Signals were given and answered; but the ships lay at anchor for weeks. At the end of June, Baker, one of the heroic governors, died. Hamilton had been superseded in his command by Rosen, who issued a savage proclamation, declaring that unless the place were surrendered by the 1st of July, he would collect all the Protestants from the neighbouring districts, and drive them under the walls of the city to starve with those within the walls. A famished troop came thus beneath the walls of Londonderry, where they lay starving for three days. The besieged immediately threatened to hang all the prisoners within the city. This threat had its effect, and the famished crowd wended back their way to their solitary villages. It is but justice to James to say that he expressed his displeasure at this proceeding."

C. Knight, Crown History of England, chapter 34.

"The state of the city was, hour by hour, becoming more frightful. The number of the inhabitants had been thinned more by famine and disease than by the fire of the enemy. Yet that fire was sharper and more constant than ever. … Every attack was still repelled. But the fighting men of the garrison were so much exhausted that they could scarcely keep their legs. Several of them, in the act of striking at the enemy, fell down from mere weakness. A very small quantity of grain remained, and was doled out by mouthfuls. The stock of salted hides was considerable, and by gnawing them the garrison appeased the rage of hunger. Dogs, fattened on the blood of the slain who lay unburied round the town, were luxuries which few could afford to purchase. The price of a whelp's paw was five shillings and sixpence. Nine horses were still alive, and but barely alive. They were so lean that little meat was likely to be found upon them. It was, however, determined to slaughter them for food. … The whole city was poisoned by the stench exhaled from the bodies of the dead and of the half dead. … It was no slight aggravation of the sufferings of the garrison that all this time the English ships were seen far off in Lough Foyle." At length, positive orders from England compelled Kirke, the commander of the relieving expedition "to make an attempt which, as far as appears, he might have made, with at least an equally fair prospect of success, six weeks earlier." Two merchant ships, the Mountjoy and the Phœnix, loaded with provisions, and the Dartmouth, a frigate of thirty-six guns, made a bold dash up the river, broke the great boom, ran the gauntlet of forts and batteries, and reached the city at ten o'clock in the evening of the 28th of July. {2040} The captain of the Mountjoy was killed in the heroic undertaking, but Londonderry, his native town, was saved. The enemy continued their bombardment for three days more. "But, on the third night, flames were seen arising from the camp; and, when the first of August dawned, a line of smoking ruins marked the site lately occupied by the huts of the besiegers. … So ended this great siege, the most memorable in the annals of the British isles. It had lasted 105 days. The garrison had been reduced from about 7,000 effective men to about 3,000. The loss of the besiegers cannot be precisely ascertained. Walker estimated it at 8,000 men."

Lord Macaulay, History of England, chapter 12.

ALSO in: W. H. Torriano, William the Third, chapter 21.

See, also, IRELAND: A. D. 1689-1691.

----------LONDONDERRY: End--------

LONE JACK, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JULY-SEPTEMBER: MISSOURI-ARKANSAS).

LONE STAR, Order of the.

See CUBA: A. D. 1845-1860.

LONE STAR FLAG. LONE STAR STATE.

On assuming independence, in 1836, the republic of Texas adopted a flag bearing a single star, which was known as 'the flag of the lone Star.' With reference to this emblem, Texas is often called the Lone Star State.

----------LONG ISLAND: Start--------

LONG ISLAND: A. D. 1614. Explored by the Dutch.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1610-1614.

LONG ISLAND: A. D. 1624. Settlement of Brooklyn.

See BROOKLYN.

LONG ISLAND: A. D. 1634. Embraced in the Palatine grant of New Albion.

See NEW ALBION.

LONG ISLAND: A. D. 1650. Division between the Dutch of New Netherland and the English of Connecticut.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1650.

LONG ISLAND: A. D. 1664. Title acquired for the Duke of York.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1664.

LONG ISLAND: A. D. 1673. The Dutch reconquest.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1673.

LONG ISLAND: A. D. 1674. Annexed to New York.

See CONNECTICUT: A. D. 1674-1675.

LONG ISLAND: A. D. 1776. The defeat of the American army by Lord Howe.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776 (AUGUST).

----------LONG ISLAND: End--------

LONG KNIVES, The.

See YANKEE.

LONG PARLIAMENT.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1640-1641.

LONG WALLS OF ATHENS.

The walls which the Athenians built, B. C. 457, one, four miles long, to the harbor of Phalerum, and others, four and one half miles long, to the Piræus, to protect the communication of their city with its port, were called the Long Walls. The same name had been previously given to the walls built by the Athenians to protect the communication of Megara, then their ally, with its port of Nisæa; and Corinth had, also, its Long Walls, uniting it with the port Lechæum. The Long Walls of Athens were destroyed on the surrender of the city, at the termination of the Peloponnesian War, B. C. 404, and rebuilt, B. C. 393, by Conon, with Persian help.

See ATHENS: B. C. 466-454.

LONGJUMEAU, Peace of (1568).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1563-1570.

LONGSTREET, General James. Siege of Knoxville.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER: TENNESSEE).

LONGUEVILLE, The Duchess de, and the Fronde.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1649, to 1651-1653.

LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN, its position, and the battle on it.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER: TENNESSEE); and (OCTOBER-NOVEMBER: TENNESSEE).

LOOM, Cartwright's invention of the power.

See COTTON MANUFACTURE.

LOPEZ, The Tyranny of.

See PARAGUAY: A. D. 1608-1873.

LOPEZ FILIBUSTERING EXPEDITION (1851).

See CUBA: A. D. 1845-1860.

LORD.

"Every Teutonic King or other leader was surrounded by a band of chosen warriors, personally attached to him of their own free choice [see COMITATUS]. … The followers served their chief in peace and in war; they fought for him to the death, and rescued or avenged his life with their own. In return, they shared whatever gifts or honours the chief could distribute among them; and in our tongue at least it was his character of dispenser of gifts which gave the chief his official title. He was the 'Hlaford,' the 'Loaf-giver,' a name which, through a series of softenings and contractions, and with a complete forgetfulness of its primitive meaning, has settled down into the modern form of Lord."

E. A. Freeman, History Norman Conquests, chapter 3, section 2 (volume 1).

On the Latin equivalent, 'Dominus,'

See IMPERATOR: FINAL SIGNIFICATION.

LORD CHANCELLOR, The.

See CHANCELLOR.

LORD DUNMORE'S WAR.

See OHIO (VALLEY): A. D. 1774.

LORDS, British House of.

"The ancient National Assembly [of England] gradually ceased to be anything more than an assembly of the 'greater barons,' and ultimately developed into a hereditary House of Lords, the Upper House of the National Parliament. The hereditary character of the House of Lords—now long regarded as fixed and fundamental—accrued slowly and undesignedly, as a consequence of the hereditary descent of the baronial fiefs, practically inalienable, in right of which summonses to the national council were issued."

T. P. Taswell-Langmead, English Constitutional History, chapter 7.

"The English aristocracy is a typical example of the way in which a close corporation dies out. Its members are almost always wealthy in the first instance, and their estates have been constantly added to by favour from the Crown, by something like the monopoly of the best Government appointments, and by marriages with wealthy heiresses. They are able to command the field sports and open-air life that conduce to health, and the medical advice that combats disease. Nevertheless, they die out so rapidly that only five families out of nearly six hundred go back without a break, and in the male line, to the fifteenth century. … 155 peers were summoned to the first Parliament of James II. In 1825, only 140 years later, only forty-eight of these nobles were represented by lineal descendants in the male line. The family has in several instances been continued by collaterals begging the peerage, which they could not have claimed at law, and in this way the change may seem less than it has really been; but the broad result appears to be that left to itself from 1688, with new creations absolutely forbidden, the House of Lords would by this time have been practically extinguished. {2041} Of Charles II. 's six bastards, who were made dukes, only three have perpetuated the race. Three peerages have been lost to the Howard family, three to the Greys, two to the Mordaunts, two to the Hydes, two to the Gerards, and two to the Lucases. … It is in the lower strata of society that we have to seck for the springs of national life."

C. H. Pearson, National Life and Character, pages 70-73.

"The British peerage is something unique in the world. In England there is, strictly speaking, no nobility. This saying may indeed sound like a paradox. The English nobility, the British aristocracy, are phrases which are in everybody's mouth. Yet, in strictness, there is no such thing as an aristocracy or a nobility in England. There is undoubtedly an aristocratic element in the English constitution; the House of Lords is that aristocratic element. And there have been times in English history when there has been a strong tendency to aristocracy, when the lords have been stronger than either the king or the people. … But a real aristocracy, like that of Venice, an aristocracy not only stronger than either king or people, but which had driven out both king and people, an aristocracy from whose ranks no man can come down and into whose ranks no man can rise save by the act of the privileged body itself,—such an aristocracy as this England has never seen. Nor has England ever seen a nobility in the true sense, the sense which the word bears in every continental land, a body into which men may be raised by the king, but from which no man may come down, a body which hands on to all its members, to the latest generations, some kind of privilege or distinction, whether its privileges consist in substantial political power, or in bare titles and precedence. In England there is no nobility. The so-called noble family is not noble in the continental sense; privilege does not go on from generation to generation; titles and precedence are lost in the second or third generation; substantial privilege exists in only one member of the family at a time. The powers and privileges of the peer himself are many; but they belong to himself only; his children are legally commoners; his grandchildren are in most cases undistinguishable from other commoners. … A certain great position in the state is hereditary; but nobility in the strict sense there is none. The actual holder of the peerage has, as it were, drawn to his own person the whole nobility of the family."

E. A. Freeman, Practical Bearings of European History (Lectures to American Audiences), pages 305-307.

"At the end of 1892 there were 545 members of the House of Lords, made up thus: Peers, 469; Lords of Appeal and Ex-Lords of Appeal, 5; Representative Peers of Scotland, 16; Representative Peers of Ireland, 28; Lords Spiritual, 27.

The Lords of Appeal are lawyers of great distinction who are appointed by the Queen and hold office during good behavior. Their number is always about the same. Their work is mainly judicial; but these Law Lords, as they are called, also speak and vote in the deliberative and legislative proceedings of the Upper House. The position of a Lord of Appeal differs from that of an ordinary peer in that his office is not hereditary. As regards the representative peers, those from Ireland, who number 28, are elected for life; those from Scotland, who number 16, are elected at a meeting of Scotch peers, held in Holyrood Palace, Edinburgh, after each General Election, and hold office during the lifetime of a Parliament. The Lords Spiritual include (1) the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Archbishop of York, the Bishops of London, Durham, and Winchester; and (2) twenty-two out of the other twenty-nine bishops of the Church of England. The prelates whose titles have been given take their seats in the House immediately on appointment; the other bishops take their seats by order of seniority of consecration. The prelates who are without seats in the House of Lords are known as junior bishops. The Bishop of Sodor and Man has a seat in the House of Lords, but no vote."

E. Porritt, The Englishman at Home, chapter 6.

For an account of the transient abolition of the House of Lords in 1649,

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1649 (FEBRUARY).

See, also, PARLIAMENT, THE ENGLISH; and ESTATES, THE THREE.

LORDS OF ARTICLES.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1326-1603; and 1688-1690.

LORDS OF THE CONGREGATION.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1557; and 1558-1560.

LORDS OF THE ISLES.

See HEBRIDES: A. D. 1346-1504; and HARLAW, BATTLE OF.

LORDS SPIRITUAL AND TEMPORAL, The.

See ESTATES, THE THREE.

LORENZO DE' MEDICI (called The Magnificent), The rule of.

See FLORENCE: A. D. 1469-1492.

----------LORRAINE: Start--------

LORRAINE: A. D. 843-870. Formation and dissolution of the kingdom.

In the division of the empire of Charlemagne among his three grandsons, made by the treaty of Verdun, A. D. 843, the elder, Lothaire, bearing the title of Emperor, received the kingdom of Italy, and, with it, another kingdom, named, after himself, Lotharingia—afterwards called Lorraine. This latter was so formed as to be an extension northwestwardly of his Italian kingdom, and to stretch in a long belt between the Germanic dominion of his brother Ludwig and the Francia Nova, or France, of his brother Charles. It extended "from the mouth of the Rhine to Provence, bounded by that river on one frontier, by France on the other."

H. Hallam, The Middle Ages, chapter 1, part 1, note.

"Between these two states [of the Eastern and Western, or Germanic and Gallic Franks] the policy of the ninth century instinctively put a barrier, The Emperor Lothar, besides Italy, kept a long narrow strip of territory between the dominions of his Eastern and Western brothers. … This land, having … been the dominion of two Lothars, took the name of Lotharingia, Lothringen, or Lorraine, a name which part of it has kept to this day. This land, sometimes attached to the Eastern kingdom, sometimes to the Western, sometimes divided between the two, sometimes separated from both, always kept its character of a border-land. … Lotharingia took in the two duchies of the Ripuarian Lotharingia and Lotharingia on the Mosel. The former contains a large part of the modern Belgium and the neighboring lands on the Rhine, including the royal city of Aachen. Lotharingia on the Mosel answers roughly to the later duchy of that name, though its extent to the East is considerably larger."

E. A. Freeman, Historical Geography of Europe, chapter 6, section 1.

{2042}

"Upon the death of the Emperor Lothair [A. D. 855] his share of the Carlovingian inheritance, the Kingdom acquired by disobedience, violence, deceit and fraud, sustained further partitions: Lothair's piece of the rent garment was clutched and tattered again and again by his nearest of kin, his three sons, and their two uncles, and the sons and the sons' sons of his sons and uncles, till the lineage ended. … The Emperor Lothair had directed and confirmed the partition of his third of the Carlovingian Empire, appointed to him by the treaty of Verdun." His namesake, his second son, Lothair II., received the kingdom called "Lotharingia, Lothierregne, or Lorraine," and which is defined in the terms of modern geography as follows: "The thirteen Cantons of Switzerland with their allies and tributaries, East or Free Friesland, Oldenburgh, the whole of the United Netherlands, all other territories included in the Archbishopric of Utrecht, the Trois Evéchés, Metz, Toul and Verdun, the electorates of Trèves and of Cologne, the Palatine Bishopric of Liège, Alsace and Franche-Comté, Hainault and the Cambresis, Brabant (known in intermediate stages as Basse-Lorraine, or the Duchy of Lohier), Namur, Juliers and Cleves, Luxemburgh and Limburg, the Duchy of Bar and the Duchy which retained the name of Lorraine, the only memorial of the antient and dissolved kingdom. … After King Lothair's death [A. D. 869] nine family competitors successively came into the field for that much-coveted Lotharingia." Charles the Bald, one of the uncles of the deceased king,—he who held the Neustrian or French dominion,—took possession and got himself crowned king of Lotharingia. But the rival uncle, Louis the German, soon forced him (A. D. 870) to a division of the spoils. "The lot of Charles consisted of Burgundy and Provence, and most of those Lotharingian dominions where the French or Walloon tongue was and yet is spoken; … he also took some purely Belgic territories, especially that very important district successively known as Basse-Lorraine, the Duchy of Lohier, and Brabant. Modern history is dawning fast upon us. Louis-le-Germanique received Aix-la-Chapelle, Cologne, Treves, Utrecht, Strasburgh, Metz,—indeed nearly all the territories of the Belgic and German tongues."

Sir F. Palgrave, History of Normandy and England, volume 1, pages 361-370.

See, also, VERDUN, TREATY OF.

LORRAINE: A. D. 911-980. The dukedom established.

The definite separation of the East Franks, who ultimately constituted the Germany of modern history, from the West or Neustrian Franks, out of whose political organization sprang the kingdom of France, took place in 911, when the Franconian duke Conrad was elected king by the Germanic nations, and the rule of the Carolingian princes was ended for them. In this proceeding Lotharingia, or Lorraine, refused to concur. "Nobles and people held to the old imperial dynasty. … Opinions, customs, traditions, still rendered the Lotharingians mainly members of Romanized Gaul. They severed themselves from the Germans beyond the Rhine, separated by influences more powerful than the stream." The Lotharingians, accordingly, repudiated the sovereignty of Conrad and placed themselves under the rule of Charles the Simple, the Carolingian king then struggling to maintain his slender throne at Laon. "Twice did King Conrad attempt to win Lotharingia and reunite the Rhine-kingdom to the German realm: he succeeded in obtaining Alsace, but the remainder was resolutely retained by Charles." In 916 this remainder was constituted a duchy, by Charles, and conferred upon Gilbert, son of Rainier, Count of Hainault, who had been the leader of the movement against Conrad and the Germanic nations. A little later, when the Carolingian dynasty was near its end, Henry the Fowler and his son Otho, the great German king who revived the empire, recovered the suzerainty of Lorraine, and Otho gave it to his brother Bruno, Archbishop of Cologne. Under Bruno it was divided into two parts, Upper and Lower Lorraine. Lower Lorraine was subsequently conferred by Otho II. upon his cousin Charles, brother to Lothaire, the last of the French Carolingian kings. "The nature and extent of this same grant has been the subject of elaborate critical enquiry; but, for our purposes, it is sufficient to know, that Charles is accepted by all the historical disputants as first amongst the hereditary Dukes of the 'Basse-Lorraine'; and, having received investiture, he became a vassal of the Emperor." In 980, this disposition of Lower Lorraine was ratified by Lothaire, the French king, who, "abandoning all his rights and pretensions over Lorraine, openly and solemnly renounced the dominions, and granted the same to be held without let or interference from the French, and be subjected for ever to the German Empire."

Sir F. Palgrave, History of Normandy and England, book 1, part 2, chapter 1 and chapter 4, part 2.

"Lotharingia retained its Carolingian princes, but it retained them only by definitively becoming a fief of the Teutonic Kingdom. Charles died in prison, but his children continued to reign in Lotharingia as vassals of the Empire. Lotharingia was thus wholly lost to France; that portion of it which was retained by the descendants of Charles in the female line still preserves its freedom as part of the independent Kingdom of Belgium."

E. A. Freeman, History of the Norman Conquest of England, chapter 4, section 4 (volume 1).

LORRAINE: A. D. 1430. Acquisition of the duchy by René, Duke of Anjou and Count of Provence, afterwards King of Naples. Union with Bar.

See ANJOU: A. D. 1206-1442.

LORRAINE: A. D. 1476. Short-lived conquest by Charles the Bold.

See BURGUNDY: A. D. 1476-1477.

LORRAINE: A. D. 1505-1559. Rise of the Guises, a branch of the ducal house. Cession to France of Les Trois Evéchés.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1547-1559.

LORRAINE: A. D. 1624-1663. Quarrels and war of Duke Charles IV. with Richelieu and France. Ruin and depopulation of the duchy. Its possession by the French.

Early in Richelieu's administration of the French government, the first steps were taken towards the union of Lorraine with France. "Its situation, as well as its wealth and fertility, made it an acquisition specially valuable to that kingdom. … Lorraine had long been ruled by the present family of dukes, and in its government more had remained of feudal usages than in the monarchy that had grown up beside it. The character and career of the members of the house of Guise had brought Lorraine into very intimate connection with France, and the closeness of its relations added danger to its position as an independent state. Charles IV. became Duke of Lorraine in 1624 by virtue of the rights of his cousin and wife, the daughter of the last duke. … {2043} He soon began to take part in the intrigues of the French Court, and he enrolled himself among the lovers of Mme. de Chevreuse and the enemies of Richelieu. … Richelieu had long sought occasion for offence against the Duke Charles. The Duke of Lorraine was bound to do honor to the French king for the Duchy of Bar [which was a fief of the French crown, while Lorraine was an imperial fief], a duty which was often omitted, and the agents of Richelieu discovered that France had ancient and valid claims to other parts of his territory. His relations with France were rendered still more uncertain by his own untrustworthy character. To tell the truth or to keep his agreement were equally impossible for Duke Charles, and he was dealing with a man with whom it was dangerous to trifle. Gustavus Adolphus had invaded Germany, and the Duke of Lorraine was eager in defending the cause of the Emperor. In January, 1632, he was forced to make a peace with France, by which he agreed to make no treaty with any other prince or state without the knowledge and permission of the French king. Charles paid no attention to this treaty, and for all these causes in June, 1632, Louis [XIII.] invaded his dominions. They lay open to the French army, and no efficient opposition could be made. On June 26th Charles was forced to sign a second treaty, by which he surrendered the city and county of Clermont, and also yielded the possession for four years of the citadels of Stenay and Jametz. … This treaty made little change in the condition of affairs. Charles continued to act in hostility to the Swedes, to assist Gaston [Duke of Orleans, the rebellious and troublesome brother of Louis XIII., who had married Margaret of Lorraine, the Duke's sister], and in every way to violate the conditions of the treaty he had made. He seethed resolved to complete his own ruin, and he did not have to wait long for its accomplishment. In 1633 Louis a second time invaded Lorraine, and the Swedes, in return for the duke's hostility to them, also entered the province. Charles' forces were scattered and he was helpless, but he was as false as he was weak. He promised to surrender his sister Margaret, and he allowed her to escape. He sent his brother to make a treaty and then refused to ratify it. At last, he made the most disadvantageous treaty that was possible, and surrendered his capital, Nancy, the most strongly-fortified city of Lorraine, into Louis' possession until all difficulties should be settled between the king and the duke, which, as Richelieu said, might take till eternity. In January, 1634, Charles pursued his eccentric career by granting all his rights in the duchy to his brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine. The new duke also married a cousin in order to unite the rights of the two branches. … Charles adopted the life of a wandering soldier of fortune, which was most to his taste, and commanded the imperial forces at the battle of Nordlingen. He soon assumed again the rights which he had ceded, but his conduct rendered them constantly less valuable. The following years were filled with struggles with France, which resulted in her taking possession of still more of Lorraine, until its duke was entirely a fugitive. Such struggles brought upon its inhabitants a condition of constantly increasing want and misery. … It was ravaged by the hordes of the Duke of Weimar and the Swedes [see GERMANY: A. D. 1634-1639], and on every side were pillage and burning and murders. Famine followed, and the horrors perpetrated from it were said to be more than could be described. Richelieu himself wrote that the inhabitants of Lorraine were mostly dead, villages burned, cities deserted, and a century would not entirely restore the country. Vincent de Paul did much of his charitable work in that unhappy province. … The duke at last, in 1641, came as a suppliant to Richelieu to ask for his duchy, and it was granted him, but on the condition that Stenay, Dun, Jametz, and Clermont should be united to France, that Nancy should remain in the king's possession until the peace, and that the duke should assist France with his troops against all enemies whenever required. … Charles was hardly back in his dominions before he chose to regard the treaty he had made as of no validity, and in July he violated it openly, and shortly took refuge with the Spanish army. … Thereupon the French again invaded Lorraine, and by October, 1641, practically the whole province was in their hands. It so continued until 1663."

J. B. Perkins, France under [Richelieu and] Mazarin, chapter 5 (volume 1).

"The faithfulness with which he [the Duke of Lorraine] adhered to his alliance with Austria, in spite of threatened losses, formed in the end a strong bond of reciprocal attachment and sympathy between the Hapsburgs and the Princes of Lorraine, which, at a later day, became even firmer, and finally culminated in the marriage of Stephen of Lorraine and Maria Theresa."

A. Gindely, History of the Thirty Years' War, volume 2, chapter 6, section 3.

LORRAINE: A. D. 1648. Desertion of the cause of the duke in the Peace of Westphalia.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1648.

LORRAINE: A. D. 1659. Restored to the duke with some shearing of territory.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1659-1661.

LORRAINE: A. D. 1679. Restoration refused by the duke.

See NIMEGUEN, PEACE OF.

LORRAINE: A. D. 1680. Entire absorption of Les Trois Evêchés in France with boundaries extended by the Chamber of Reannexation.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1679-1681.

LORRAINE: A. D. 1697. Restored to the duke by the Treaty of Ryswick.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1697.

LORRAINE: A. D. 1735. Ceded to France. Reversion of Tuscany secured to the former duke.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1733-1735.

LORRAINE: A. D, 1871. One fifth ceded to the German empire by France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1871 (JANUARY-MAY).

LORRAINE: A. D. 1871-1879. Organization of the government of Alsace-Lorraine as a German imperial province.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1871-1879.

----------LORRAINE: End----------

LOSANTIVILLE.

See CINCINNATI: A. D. 1788.

LOSE-COAT FIELD, Battle of.

In 1470 an insurrection against the government of King Edward IV. broke out in Lincolnshire, England under the lead of Sir Robert Welles, who raised the Lancastrian standard of King Henry. The insurgents were vigorously attacked by Edward, at a place near Stamford, when the greater part of them "flung away their coats and took to flight, leaving their leader a prisoner in the hands of his enemies. The manner in which the rebels were dispersed caused the action to be spoken of as the battle of Lose-coat Field."

J. Gairdner, Houses of Lancaster and York, chapter 8.

The engagement is sometimes called the Battle of Stamford.

{2044}

LOST TEN TRIBES OF ISRAEL.

See JEWS: KINGDOMS OF ISRAEL AND JUDAH; also, SAMARIA.

LOTHAIRE, King of France, A. D. 954-986.

Lothaire I., King of Italy and Rhineland, 817-855; King of Lotharingia, and titular Emperor, 843-855.

Lothaire II., Emperor, 1133-1137; King of Germany, 1125-1137.

LOTHARINGIA.

See LORRAINE.

LOTHIAN.

See SCOTLAND: 10-11TH CENTURIES.

LOUIS, King of Portugal, A. D. 1861-1889.

Louis of Nassau, and the struggle in the Netherlands.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1562-1566, to 1573-1574.

Louis I. (called The Pious), Emperor of the West, A. D. 814-840; King of Aquitaine, 781-814; King of the Franks, 814-840.

Louis I. (called The Great), King of Hungary, 1342-1382; King of Poland, 1370-1382.

Louis I., King of Naples, 1382-1384; Count of Provence and Duke of Anjou, 1339-1384.

Louis I., King of Sicily, 1342-1355.

Louis II. (called The Stammerer), King of France, 877-879.

Louis II. (called The German), King of the East Franks (Germany), 843-875.

Louis II., King of Hungary and Bohemia, 1516-1526.

Louis II., King of Naples, 1389-1399; Duke of Anjou and Count of Provence, 1384-1417.

See ITALY: A. D. 1343-1389, and 1386-1414.

Louis III., King of the Franks (Northern France), 879-882; East Franks (Germany—in association with Carloman), 876-881.

Louis III. (called The Child), King of the East Franks (Germany), 899-910.

Louis III., King of Provence, 1417-1434.

Louis III., Duke of Anjou, Count of Provence, and titular King of Naples, 1417-1434.

Louis IV., King of France, 936-954.

Louis V. (of Bavaria), Emperor, 1327-1347; King of Germany (in rivalry with Frederick III.), 1313-1347; King of Italy, 1327-1347.

Louis V., King of France, 986-987.

Louis VI. (called The Fat), King of France, 1108-1137.

Louis VII., King of France, 1137-1180.

Louis VIII., King of France, 1223-1226.

Louis IX. (called Saint Louis), King of France, 1226-1270.

Louis X. (called Le Hutin, or The Brawler), King of France, 1314-1316; King of Navarre, 1305-1316.

Louis XI., King of France, 1461-1483.

Louis XII., King of France, 1498-1515.

Louis XIII., King of France, 1610-1643… .

Louis XIV. (called "The Grand Monarch "), King of France, 1643-1715.

Louis XV., King of France, 1715-1774.

Louis XVI., King of France, 1774-1793.

Louis XVII., nominal King of France, 1793-1796, during the Revolution; died in prison, aged twelve years.

Louis XVIII., King of France; 1814-1824.

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte.

See NAPOLEON III.

Louis Philippe, King of France (of the House of Orleans), 1830-1848.

LOUIS, Saint, Establishments of.

See WAGER OF BATTLE.

----------LOUISBOURG: Start--------

LOUISBOURG: A. D. 1720-1745. The fortification of the Harbor.

See CAPE BRETON: A. D. 1720-1745.

LOUISBOURG: A. D. 1745. Surrender to the New Englanders.

See NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1745.

LOUISBOURG: A. D. 1748. Restoration to France.

See NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1745-1748.

LOUISBOURG: A. D. 1757. English designs against, postponed.

See CANADA: A. D. 1756-1757.

LOUISBOURG: A. D. 1758-1760. Final capture and destruction of the place by the English.

See CAPE BRETON ISLAND: A. D. 1758-1760.

----------LOUISBOURG: End--------

LOUISIANA: The aboriginal inhabitants.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY, and PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1629. Mostly embraced in the Carolina grant to Sir Robert Heath, by Charles I. of England.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1629.

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1682. Named and possession taken for the king of France, by La Salle.

See CANADA: A. D. 1669-1687.

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1698-1712. Iberville's colonization. Separation in government from New France. Crozat's monopoly. The French territorial claim.

"The court of France had been engaged in wars and political intrigues, and nothing toward colonizing Louisiana had been effected since the disastrous expedition of La Salle. Twelve years had elapsed, but his discoveries and his unfortunate fate had not been forgotten. At length, in 1698, an expedition for colonizing the region of the Lower Mississippi was set on foot by the French king. It was placed under the command of M. D'Iberville, who had been an experienced and distinguished naval commander in the French wars of Canada, and a successful agent in establishing colonies in Canada, Acadie and Cape Breton. … With his little fleet of two frigates, rating 30 guns each, and two smaller vessels, bearing a company of marines and 200 colonists, including a few women and children, he prepared to set sail from France for the mouth of the Mississippi. The colonists were mostly soldiers who had served in the armies of France and had received an honorable discharge. They were well supplied with provisions and implements requisite for opening settlements in the wilderness. It was on the 24th day of September, 1698, that this colony sailed from Rochelle." On the 2d of the following March, after considerable exploration of the coast, west from the Spanish settlement at Pensacola, Iberville found the mouth of the Mississippi, being confirmed in the identification of it by discovery of a letter, in the hands of the Indians, which Tonti had written to La Salle thirteen years before. "Soon afterward, Iberville selected a site and began to erect a fort upon the northeast shore of the Bay of Biloxi, about fifteen miles north of Ship Island. Here, upon a sandy shore, and under a burning sun, upon a pine barren, he settled his colony, about 80 miles northeast from the present city of New Orleans. … Having thus located his colony, and protected them [by a fort] from the danger of Indian treachery and hostility, he made other provision for their comfort and security, and then set sail for France, leaving his two brothers, Sauvolle and Bienville, as his lieutenants." The following September an English corvette appeared in the river, intending to explore it, but was warned off by the French, and retired. During the summer of 1699 the colonists suffered terribly from the maladies of the region, and M. Sauvolle, with many others, died. {2045} "Early in December following D'Iberville returned with an additional colony and a detachment of troops, in company with several vessels of war. Up to this time, the principal settlements had been at Ship Island and on the Bay of Biloxi; others had been begun at the Bay of St. Louis and on the Bay of Mobile. These were made as a matter of convenience, to hold and occupy the country; for his principal object was to colonize the banks of the Mississippi itself." Iberville now built a fort and located a small colony at a point about 54 miles above the mouth of the river, and about 38 miles below the present city of New Orleans. The next year, having been joined by the veteran De Tonti with a party of French Canadians from the Illinois, Iberville ascended the river nearly 400 miles, formed a friendly alliance with the Natchez tribe of Indians, and selected for a future settlement the site of the present city of Natchez. "In the spring of 1702 war had been declared by England against France and Spain, and by order of the King of France the headquarters of the commandant were removed to the western bank of the Mobile River. This was the first European settlement within the present State of Alabama. The Spanish settlement at Pensacola was not remote; but as England was now the common enemy, the French and Spanish commandants arranged their boundary between Mobile and Pensacola Bays to be the Perdido River. … The whole colony of Southern Louisiana as yet did not number 30 families besides soldiers. Bilious fevers had cut off many of the first emigrants, and famine and Indian hostility now threatened the remainder." Two years later, Iberville was broken in health by an attack of yellow fever and retired to France. After six further years of hardship and suffering, the colony, in 1710, still "presented a population of only 380 souls, distributed into five settlements, remote from each other. These were on Ship Island, Cat Island, at Biloxi, Mobile, and on the Mississippi. … Heretofore the settlements of Louisiana had been a dependence on New France, or Canada, although separated by a wilderness of 2,000 miles in extent. Now it was to be made an independent government, responsible only to the crown, and comprising also the Illinois country under its jurisdiction. The government of Louisiana was accordingly placed [1711] in the hands of a governor-general. The headquarters, or seat of the colonial government, was established at Mobile, and a new fort was erected upon the site of the present city of Mobile. … In France it was still believed that Louisiana presented a rich field for enterprise and speculation. The court, therefore, determined to place the resources of the province under the influence of individual enterprise. For this purpose, a grant of exclusive privileges, in all the commerce of the province, for a term of 15 years, was made to Anthony Crozat, a rich and influential merchant of France. His charter was dated September 26th, 1712. At this time the limits of Louisiana, as claimed by France, were very extensive. As specified in the charter of Crozat, it was 'bounded by New Mexico on the west, by the English lands of Carolina on the east, including all the establishments, ports, havens, rivers, and principally the port and haven of the Isle of Dauphin, heretofore called Massacre; the River St. Louis, heretofore called Mississippi, from the edge of the sea as far as the Illinois together with the River St. Philip, heretofore called Missouri, the River St. Jerome, heretofore called Wabash, with all the lands, lakes, and rivers mediately or immediately flowing into any part of the River St. Louis or Mississippi.' Thus Louisiana, as claimed by France at that early period, embraced all the immense regions of the United States from the Alleghany Mountains on the east to the Rocky Mountains on the west, and northward to the great lakes of Canada."

J. W. Monette, History of the Discovery and Settlement of the Valley of the Mississippi, book 2, chapter 5 (volume 1).

Louisiana: A. D. 1717-1718. Crozat's failure and John Law's Mississippi Bubble. The founding of New Orleans.

"Crozat's failure was, in the nature of things, foreordained. His scheme, indeed, proved a stumbling-block to the colony and a loss to himself. In five years (1717) he was glad to surrender his monopoly to the crown. From its ashes sprung the gigantic Mississippi Scheme of John Law, to whom all Louisiana, now including the Illinois country, was granted for a term of years. Compared with this prodigality Crozat's concession was but a plaything. It not only gave Law's Company proprietary rights to the soil, but power was conferred to administer justice, make peace or war with the natives, build forts, levy troops and with consent of the crown to appoint such military governors as it should think fitting. These extraordinary privileges were put in force by a royal edict, dated in September, 1717. The new company [called the Western Company] granted lands along the river to individuals or associated persons, who were sometimes actual emigrants, sometimes great personages who sent out colonists at their own cost, or again the company itself undertook the building up of plantations on lands reserved by it for the purpose. One colony of Alsatians was sent out by Law to begin a plantation on the Arkansas. Others, more or less flourishing, were located at the mouth of the Yazoo, Natchez and Baton Rouge. All were agricultural plantations, though in most cases the plantations themselves consisted of a few poor huts covered with a thatch of palm-leaves. The earliest forts were usually a square earthwork, strengthened with palisades about the parapet. The company's agricultural system was founded upon African slave labor. Slaves were brought from St. Domingo or other of the West India islands. By some their employment was viewed with alarm, because it was thought the blacks would soon outnumber the whites, and might some day rise and overpower them; but we find only the feeblest protest entered against the moral wrong of slavery in any record of the time. Negroes could work in the fields, under the burning sun, when the whites could not. Their labor cost no more than their maintenance. The planters easily adopted what, indeed, already existed among their neighbors. Self-interest stilled conscience. The new company wisely appointed Bienville governor. Three ships brought munitions, troops, and stores of every sort from France, with which to put new life into the expiring colony. It was at this time (February, 1718) that Bienville began the foundation of the destined metropolis of Louisiana. The spot chosen by him was clearly but a fragment of the delta which the river had been for ages silently building of its own mud and driftwood. {2046} It had literally risen from the sea. Elevated only a few feet above sea-level, threatened with frequent inundation, and in its primitive estate a cypress swamp, it seemed little suited for the abode of men, yet time has confirmed the wisdom of the choice. Here, then, a hundred miles from the Gulf, on the alluvial banks of the great river, twenty-five convicts and as many carpenters were set to work clearing the ground and building the humble log cabins, which were to constitute the capital, in its infancy. The settlement was named New Orleans, in honor of the Regent, Orleans, who ruled France during the minority of Louis XV.

S. A. Drake, The Making of the Great West, pages 126-128.

ALSO IN: A. McF. Davis, Canada and Louisiana (Narrative and Critical History of America, volume 5, chapter 1).

A. Thiers, The Mississippi Bubble, chapters 3-8.

C. Mackay, Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular Delusions, volume 1, chapter 1.

See, also, FRANCE: A. D. 1717-1720.

LOUISIANA: A. D 1719-1750. Surrendered to the Crown. Massacre of French by the Natchez, and destruction of that tribe. Unsuccessful war with the Chickasaws.

"The same prodigality and folly which prevailed in France during the government of John Law, over credit and commerce, found their way to his western possessions; and though the colony then planted survived, and the city then founded became in time what had been hoped,—it was long before the influence of the gambling mania of 1718-19-20 passed a way. Indeed the returns from Louisiana never repaid the cost and trouble of protecting it, and, in 1732, the Company asked leave to surrender their privileges to the crown, a favor which was granted them. But though the Company of the West did little for the enduring welfare of the Mississippi valley, it did something; the cultivation of tobacco, indigo, rice, and silk, was introduced, the lead mines of Missouri were opened, though at vast expense and in hope of finding silver; and, in Illinois, the culture of wheat began to assume some degree of stability and of importance. In the neighborhood of the river Kaskaskia, Charlevoix found three villages, and about Fort Chartres, the head quarters of the Company in that region, the French were rapidly settling. All the time, however, during which the great monopoly lasted, was, in Louisiana, a time of contest and trouble. The English, who, from an early period, had opened commercial relations with the Chickasaws, through them constantly interfered with the trade of the Mississippi. Along the coast, from Pensacola to the Rio del Norte, Spain disputed the claims of her northern neighbor: and at length the war of the Natchez struck terror into the hearts of both white and red men. Amid that nation … D'Iberville had marked out Fort Rosalie [on the site of the present city of Natchez], in 1700, and fourteen years later its erection had been commenced. The French, placed in the midst of the natives, and deeming them worthy only of contempt, increased their demands and injuries until they required even the abandonment of the chief town of the Natchez, that the intruders might use its site for a plantation. The inimical Chickasaws heard the murmurs of their wronged brethren, and breathed into their ears counsels of vengeance; the sufferers determined on the extermination of their tyrants. On the 28th of November, 1729, every Frenchman in that colony died by the hands of the natives, with the exception of two mechanics: the women and children were spared. It was a fearful revenge, and fearfully did the avengers suffer for their murders. Two months passed by, and the French and Choctaws in one day took 60 of their scalps; in three months they were driven from their country and scattered among the neighboring tribes; and within two years the remnants of the nation, chiefs and people, were sent to St. Domingo and sold into slavery. So perished this ancient and peculiar race, in the same year in which the Company of the West yielded its grants into the royal hands. When Louisiana came again into the charge of the government of France, it was determined, as a first step, to strike terror into the Chickasaws, who, devoted to the English, constantly interfered with the trade on the Mississippi. For this purpose the forces of New France, from New Orleans to Detroit, were ordered to meet in the country of the inimical Indians, upon the 10th of May, 1736, to strike a blow which should be final." D'Artaguette, governor of Illinois, was promptly at the rendezvous, with a large force of Indians, and a small body of French, but Bienville, from the southern province, proved dilatory. After waiting ten days, D'Artaguette attacked the Chickasaws, carried two of their defenses, but fell and was taken prisoner in the assault of a third; whereupon his Indian allies fled. Bienville, coming up five days afterwards, was repulsed in his turn and retreated, leaving D'Artaguette and his captive companions to a fearful fate. "Three years more passed away, and again a French army of nearly 4,000 white, red and black men, was gathered upon the banks of the Mississippi, to chastise the Chickasaws. From the summer of 1739 to the spring of 1740, this body of men sickened and wasted at Fort Assumption, upon the site of Memphis. In March of the last named year, without a blow struck, peace was concluded, and the province of Louisiana once more sunk into inactivity. Of the ten years which followed we know but little that is interesting."

J. H. Perkins, Annals of the West, pages 61-63.

ALSO IN: _M. Dumont, Historical Memoirs (French's Historical Collections of Louisiana, part 5)._

_C. Gayarre, Louisiana; its Colonial History and Romance, 2d series, lectures 5-7._

S. G. Drake, Aboriginal Races of North America, book 4, chapter 5.

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1728. The Casket Girls. Wives for the colonists.

"In the beginning of 1728 there came a vessel of the company with a considerable number of young girls, who had not been taken, like their predecessors, from houses of correction. The company had given to each of them a casket containing some articles of dress. From that circumstance they became known in the colony under the nickname of the 'filles à la cassette', or 'the casket girls.' … Subsequently, it became a matter of importance in the colony to derive one's origin from the casket girls, rather than from the correction girls."

C. Gayarre, Louisiana; its Colonial History and Romance, page 396.

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1755. Settlement of exiled Acadians.

See NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1755.

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1763. East of the Mississippi, except New Orleans, ceded to Great Britain, and west of the Mississippi, with New Orleans, to Spain.

See SEVEN YEARS WAR.

{2047}

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1766-1768. Spanish occupation and the revolt against it. The short-lived republic of New Orleans.

"Spain accepted Louisiana [west of the Mississippi, with New Orleans] with reluctance, for she lost France as her bulwark, and, to keep the territory from England, assumed new expenses and dangers. Its inhabitants loved the land of their ancestry; by every law of nature and human freedom, they had the right to protest against the transfer of their allegiance." Their protests were unavailing, however, and their appeals met the response: "France cannot bear the charge of supporting the colony's precarious existence." In March, 1766, Antonio de Ulloa arrived at New Orleans from Havana, to take possession for the Spanish king. "Ulloa landed with civil officers, three capuchin monks, and 80 soldiers. His reception was cold and gloomy. He brought no orders to redeem the seven million livres of French paper money, which weighed down a colony of less than 6,000 white men. The French garrison of 300 refused to enter the Spanish service, the people to give up their nationality, and Ulloa was obliged to administer the government under the French flag by the old French officers, at the cost of Spain. In May of the same year, the Spanish restrictive system was applied to Louisiana; in September, an ordinance compelled French vessels having special permits to accept the paper currency in pay for their cargoes, at an arbitrary tariff of prices. … The ordinance was suspended, but not till the alarm had destroyed all commerce. Ulloa retired from New Orleans to the Balise. Only there, and opposite Natchez, and at the river Iberville, was Spanish jurisdiction directly exercised. This state of things continued for a little more than two years. But the arbitrary and passionate conduct of Ulloa, the depreciation of the currency with the prospect of its becoming an almost total loss, the disputes respecting the expenses incurred since the session of 1762, the interruption of commerce, a captious ordinance which made a private monopoly of the traffic with the Indians, uncertainty of jurisdiction and allegiance, agitated the colony from one end to the other. It was proposed to make of New Orleans a republic, like Amsterdam or Venice, with a legislative body of 40 men, and a single executive. The people of the country parishes crowded in a mass into the city, joined those of New Orleans, and formed a numerous assembly, in which Lafrénière, John Milhet, Joseph Milhet, and the lawyer Doucet were conspicuous. … On the 25th of October, 1768, they adopted an address to the superior council, written by Lafrénière and Caresse, rehearsing their griefs; and, in their petition of rights, they claimed freedom of commerce with the ports of France and America, and the expulsion of Ulloa from the colony. The address, signed by 500 or 600 persons, was adopted the next day by the council … ; when the French flag was displayed on the public square, children and women ran up to kiss its folds, and it was raised by 900 men, amid shouts of 'Long live the king of France! we will have no king but him.' Ulloa retreated to Havana, and sent his representations to Spain. The inhabitants elected their own treasurer and syndics, sent envoys to Paris, … and memorialized the French monarch to stand as intercessor between them and the Catholic king, offering no alternative but to be a colony of France or a free commonwealth."

_G. Bancroft, History of the United States (Author's last revision), volume 3, pages 316-318._

ALSO IN: M. Thompson, Story of Louisiana, chapter 4.

C. Gayarré, History of Louisiana: French Domination, volume 2, lecture 3-6.

LOUISIANA: A. D., 1769. Spanish authority established by "Cruel O'Reilly."

"It was the fate of the Creoles—possibly a climatic result—to be slack-handed and dilatory. Month after month followed the October uprising without one of those incidents that would have succeeded in the history of an earnest people. In March, 1769, Foucault [French intendant] covertly deserted his associates, and denounced them, by letter, to the French cabinet. In April the Spanish frigate sailed from New Orleans. Three intrepid men (Loyola, Gayarre, and Navarro), the governmental staff which Ulloa had left in the province, still remained, unmolested. Not a fort was taken, though it is probable not one could have withstood assault. Not a spade was struck into the ground, or an obstruction planted, at any strategic point, throughout that whole 'Creole' spring time which stretches in its exuberant perfection from January to June. … One morning toward the end of July, 1769, the people of New Orleans were brought suddenly to their feet by the news that the Spaniards were at the mouth of the river in overwhelming force. There was no longer any room to postpone choice of action. Marquis, the Swiss captain, with a white cockade in his hat (he had been the leading advocate for a republic), and Petit, with a pistol in either hand, came out upon the ragged, sunburnt grass of the Place d'Armes and called upon the people to defend their liberties. About 100 men joined them; but the town was struck motionless with dismay; the few who had gathered soon disappeared, and by the next day the resolution of the leaders was distinctly taken, to submit. But no one fled. … Lafrénière, Marquis, and Milhet descended the river, appeared before the commander of the Spaniards, and by the mouth of Lafrénière in a submissive but brave and manly address presented the homage of the people. The captain-general in his reply let fall the word seditious. Marquis boldly but respectfully objected. He was answered with gracious dignity and the assurance of ultimate justice, and the insurgent leaders returned to New Orleans and to their homes. The Spanish fleet numbered 24 sail. For more than three weeks it slowly pushed its way around the bends of the Mississippi, and on the 18th of August it finally furled its canvas before the town. Aubry [commanding the small force of French soldiers which had remained in the colony under Spanish pay] drew up his French troops with the colonial militia at the bottom of the Place d'Armes, a gun was fired from the flagship of the fleet, and Don Alexandro O'Reilly, accompanied by 2,600 chosen Spanish troops, and with 50 pieces of artillery, landed in unprecedented pomp, and took formal possession of the province. On the 21st, twelve of the principal insurrectionists were arrested. … Villeré [a planter, of prominence] either 'died raving mad on the day of his arrest,' as stated in the Spanish official report, or met his end in the act of resisting the guard on board the frigate where he had been placed in confinement. Lafrénière [former attorney-general and leader of the revolt], Noyan [a young ex-captain of cavalry], Caresse [a merchant], Marquis, and Joseph Milhet [a merchant] were condemned to be hanged. {2048} The supplications both of colonists and Spanish officials saved them only from the gallows, and they fell before the fire of a file of Spanish grenadiers." The remaining prisoners were sent to Havana and kept in confinement for a year. "'Cruel O'Reilly'—the captain-general was justly named. … O'Reilly had come to set up a government, but not to remain and govern. On organizing the cabildo [a feebly constituted body—'like a crane, all feathers,' 'which, for the third part of a century, ruled the pettier destinies of the Louisiana Creoles '], he announced the appointment of Don Louis de Unzaga, colonel of the regiment of Havana, as governor of the province, and yielded him the chair. But under his own higher commission of captain-general he continued for a time in control. He established in force the laws of Castile and the Indies and the use of the Spanish tongue in the courts and the public offices. … Spanish rule in Louisiana was better, at least, than French, which, it is true, scarcely deserved the name of government. As to the laws themselves, it is worthy of notice that Louisiana 'is at this time the only State, of the vast territories acquired from France, Spain, and Mexico, in which the civil law has been retained, and forms a large portion of its jurisprudence.' On the 29th of October, 1770, O'Reilly sailed from New Orleans with most of his troops, leaving the Spanish power entirely and peacefully established. The force left by him in the colony amounted to 1,200 men. He had dealt a sudden and terrible blow; but he had followed it only with velvet strokes."

G. W. Cable, The Creoles of Louisiana, chapter 10-11.

ALSO IN: _G. E. Waring, Jr., and G. W. Cable, History and Present Condition of New Orleans (United States Tenth Census, volume 19)._

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1779-1781. Spanish reconquest of West Florida.

See FLORIDA: A. D.1779-1781.

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1785-1800. The question of the Navigation of the Mississippi, in dispute between Spain and the United States. Discontent of settlers in Kentucky and Tennessee. Wilkinson's intrigues.

"Settlers in considerable numbers had crossed the mountains into Kentucky and Tennessee while the war of Independence was in progress. … At once it became a question of vital importance how these people were to find avenues of commerce with the outer world. … Immigration to the interior must cross the mountains; but the natural highway for commerce was the Mississippi River. If the use of this river were left free, nothing better could be desired. Unfortunately it was not free. The east bank of the river, as far south as the north boundary of Florida [which included some part of the present states of Alabama and Mississippi, but with the northern boundary in dispute—see FLORIDA: A. D. 1783-1787], was the property of the United States, but the west bank, together with the island of Orleans, was held by Spain. That power, while conceding to the people of the United States the free navigation of the Mississippi as far down as the American ownership of the left bank extended, claimed exclusive jurisdiction below that line, and proposed to exact customs duties from such American commerce as should pass in or out of the mouth of the river. This pretension if yielded to would place all that commerce at the mercy of Spain, and render not merely the navigation of the river of little value, but the very land from which the commerce sprung. It was inconceivable that such pretensions should be tolerated if successful resistance were possible, but the settlers were able to combat it on two grounds, either of which seemed, according to recognized rules of international law, conclusive. First, As citizens of the country owning one of the banks on the upper portion of the stream, they claimed the free navigation to the sea with the privilege of a landing place at its mouth as a natural right; and they were able to fortify this claim—if it needed support—with the opinions of publicists of acknowledged authority. Second, They claimed under the treaty of 1763 between Great Britain and France, whereby the latter, then the owner of Louisiana, had conceded to the former the free navigation of the Mississippi in its whole breadth and length, with passage in and out of its mouth, subject to the payment of no duty whatsoever. … Thus both in natural right and by treaty concession the claim of the American settlers seemed incontrovertible, and perhaps it may fairly be said that the whole country agreed in this view. When Mr. Jay, while the war of independence was still in progress, was sent to Spain to negotiate a treaty of amity and assistance, he was specially charged with the duty to see that the free navigation of the Mississippi was conceded. All his endeavors to that end, however, resulted in failure, and he was compelled to return home with the American claim still disputed. In 1785 the negotiation was transferred to this country, and Mr. Jay renewed his effort to obtain concessions, but without avail. The tenacity with which Spain held to its claim was so persistent that Congress in its anxiety to obtain a treaty of commerce finally instructed Mr. Jay on its behalf to consent that for twenty-five years the United States should forbear to claim the right in dispute. The instruction was given by the vote of the seven Northern States against a united South; and the action was so distinctly sectional as to threaten the stability of the Union. … In the West the feeling of dissatisfaction was most intense and uncompromising. The settlers of Kentucky already deemed themselves sufficiently numerous and powerful to be entitled to set up a state government of their own, and to have a voice in the councils of the Confederation. … In Tennessee as well as in Kentucky settlements had been going on rapidly; and perhaps in the former even more distinctly than in the latter a growing indifference to the national bond was manifest. … One of the difficult questions which confronted the new government, formed under the Federal constitution, was how to deal with this feeling and control or remove it. Spanish levies on American commerce were in some cases almost prohibitory, reaching fifty or seventy-five per cent. ad valorem, and it was quite out of the question that hardy backwoodsmen trained to arms should for any considerable time submit to pay them. If the national government failed to secure their rights by diplomacy, they would seek redress in such other way as might be open to them. … Among the most prominent of the Kentucky settlers was General James Wilkinson, who had gone there as a merchant in 1784. He was shortly found advocating, though somewhat covertly, the setting up of an independent State Government. {2049} In 1787 he opened trade with New Orleans, and endeavored to impress upon the Spanish authorities the importance of an amicable understanding with the settlers in the Ohio valley. His representations for a time had considerable effect, and the trade was not only relieved of oppressive burdens, but Americans were invited to make settlements within Spanish limits in Louisiana and West Florida. A considerable settlement was actually made at New Madrid under this invitation. But there is no reason to believe that genuine good feeling inspired this policy; the purpose plainly in view was to build up a Spanish party among the American settlers and eventually to detach them from the United States. But the course pursued was variable, being characterized in turn by liberality and by rigor. Wilkinson appears to have been allowed special privileges in trade, and this, together with the fact that he was known to receive a heavy remittance from New Orleans, begat a suspicion that he was under Spanish pay; a suspicion from which he was never wholly relieved, and which probably to some extent affected the judgment of men when he came under further suspicion in consequence of equivocal relations with Aaron Burr. In 1789 a British emissary made his appearance in Kentucky, whose mission seemed to be to sound the sentiments of the people respecting union with Canada. He came at a bad time for his purposes; for the feeling of the country against Great Britain was then at its height, and was particularly strong in the West, where the failure to deliver up the posts within American limits was known to have been influential in encouraging Indian hostilities. The British agent, therefore, met with anything but friendly reception. … Meantime Spain had become so far complicated in European wars as to be solicitous regarding the preservation of her own American possessions, then bordered by a hostile people, and at her suggestion an envoy was sent by the United States to Madrid, with whom in October 1795 a treaty was made, whereby among other things it was agreed that Spain should permit the people of the United States for the term of three years to make use of the port of New Orleans as a place of deposit for their produce and merchandise, and to export the same free from all duty or charge except for storage and incidental expenses. At the end of the three years the treaty contemplated further negotiations, and it was hoped by the American authorities that a decisive step had been taken towards the complete recognition of American claims. The treaty, however, was far from satisfying the people of Kentucky and Tennessee, who looked upon the assent of Spain to it as a mere makeshift for the protection of her territory from invasion. Projects for taking forcible possession of the mouth of the Mississippi continued therefore to be agitated. … The schemes of Don Francisco de Miranda for the overthrow of Spanish authority in America now became important. Miranda was of Spanish-American birth, and had been in the United States while the war of Independence was pending and formed acquaintance among the American officers. Conceiving the idea of liberating the Spanish colonies, he sought assistance from England and Russia, but when the French Revolution occurred he enlisted in the French service and for a time held important military positions. Driven from France in 1797 he took up his old scheme again: looking now to England and America for the necessary assistance. Several leading American statesmen were approached on the subject, Hamilton among them; and while the relations between France and the United States seemed likely to result in war, that great man, who had no fear of evils likely to result from the extension of territory, listened with approval to the project of a combined attack by British and American forces on the Spanish Colonies, and would have been willing, with the approval of the government, to personally take part in it. President Adams, however, frowned upon the scheme, and it was necessarily but with great reluctance abandoned. And now occurred an event of highest interest to the people of the United States. Spain, aware of her precarious hold upon Louisiana, in 1800 retroceded it to France."

_T. M. Cooley, The Acquisition of Louisiana (Indiana Historical Society Pamphlets, no. 3)._

ALSO IN: W. H. Safford, The Blennerhassett Papers, chapter 5.

H. Marshall, History of Kentucky, volume 1, chapters 12-15.

J. H. Monette, Discovery and Settlement of the Valley of the Mississippi, book 5, chapter 6 (volume 2).

_J. M. Brown, The Political Beginnings of Kentucky._

_T. M. Green, The Spanish Conspiracy._

LOUISIANA: D. 1798-1803. The last days of Spanish rule. The great domain transferred to France, and sold by Napoleon to the United States. The bounds of the purchase.

"During the years 1796-97 the Spanish authorities exhausted every means for delaying a confirmation of the boundary line as set forth in the treaty of 1783. By one pretext and another, they avoided the surrender of the Natchez territory and continued to hold the military posts therein. Not until the 23d of March, 1798, was the final step taken by which the Federal Government was permitted to occupy in full the province of Mississippi. … Soon after this we find the newly made territory of Mississippi occupied by a Federal force, and, strange to say, with General Wilkinson in command. The man who but lately had been playing the rôle of traitor, spy, insurrectionist and smuggler, was now chief commander on the border and was building a fort at Loftus Heights just above the boundary line. The new governor of Louisiana [Gayoso de Lemos], seeing the hope of detaching Kentucky and Tennessee fall dead at his feet, finally turned back to the old policy of restricting immigration and of discriminating against Protestants. By the treaty signed at Madrid in 1795, it had been stipulated that the citizens of the United States should not only have free navigation of the Mississippi River, but that they should also have the right to deposit in New Orleans all their produce during the space of three years. This limit, it was agreed, was to be extended by the Spanish Government, or, instead of an extension of time, a new point on the island of New Orleans was to be designated for depot. But at the expiration of the three years Morales, the Spanish intendant at New Orleans, declined to permit further deposits there, and refused to designate another place in accordance with the stipulation. This action aroused the people of the West; a storm of resentment broke forth and the government of the United States was forced to make a threatening demonstration in the direction of Louisiana. {2050} Three regiments of the regular army were at once dispatched to the Ohio. The people flew to arms. Invasion appeared imminent." But the Spanish authorities gave way, and a new intendant at New Orleans "received from his Government orders to remove the interdict issued by Gayoso and to restore to the Western people the right of deposit at New Orleans. These orders he promptly obeyed, thus reviving good feelings between his province and the United States. Trade revived; immigration increased. … The deluge of immigration startled the Spaniards. They saw to what it was swiftly tending. A few more years and this tide would rise too high to be resisted and Louisiana would be lost to the king, lost to the holy religion, given over to freedom, republicanism and ruin. … On the 18th of July … [1802] the king ordered that no more grants of land be given to citizens of the United States. This effectually killed the commerce of the Mississippi River, and the indignation of the Western people knew no bounds. … Rumors, apparently well founded, were afloat that the irresistible genius of Napoleon was wringing the province from Spain and that this meant a division of the territories between France and the United States. To a large majority of Louisiana's population these were thrillingly welcome rumors. The very thought of once more becoming the subjects of France was enough to intoxicate them with delight. The treaty of Ildefonso, however, which had been ratified at Madrid on the 21st of March, 1801, had been kept a secret. Napoleon had hoped to occupy Louisiana with a strong army, consisting of 25,000 men, together with a fleet to guard the coast; but his implacable and ever watchful foe, England, discovered his design and thwarted it. But by the terms of the treaty, the colony and province of Louisiana had gone into his hands. He must take possession and hold it, or he must see England become its master. Pressed on every side at that time by wars and political complications and well understanding that it would endanger his power for him to undertake a grand American enterprise, he gladly opened negotiations with the United States looking to the cession of Louisiana to that Government. … Napoleon had agreed with Spain that Louisiana should not be ceded to any other power. … Diplomacy very quickly surmounted so small an obstacle. … The treaty of cession was signed on the 30th of April, 1803, the United States agreeing to pay France 60,000,000 francs as the purchase price of the territory. … In addition, the sum due American citizens … was assumed by the United States. The treaty of April was ratified by Napoleon in May, 1803, and by the Senate of the United States in October. … Pausing to glance at this strange transaction, by which one republic sells outright to another republic a whole country without in the least consulting the wishes of the inhabitants, whose allegiance and all of whose political and civil rights are changed thereby, we are tempted to wonder if the republic of the United States could to-day sell Louisiana with the same impunity that attended the purchase! She bought the country and its people, just as she might have bought a desert island with its goats."

M. Thompson, The Story of Louisiana, chapter 6, with foot-note.

"No one could say what was the southwest boundary of the territory acquired; whether it should be the Sabine or the Rio del Norte; and a controversy with Spain on the subject might at any time arise. The northwest boundary was also somewhat vague and uncertain, and would be open to controversy with Great Britain. [That] the territory extended west to the Rocky Mountains was not questioned, but it might be claimed that it extended to the Pacific. An impression that it did so extend has since prevailed in some quarters, and in some public papers and documents it has been assumed as an undoubted fact. But neither Mr. Jefferson nor the French, whose right he purchased, ever claimed for Louisiana any such extent, and our title to Oregon has been safely deduced from other sources. Mr. Jefferson said expressly: 'To the waters of the Pacific we can found no claim in right of Louisiana.'"

_Judge T. M. Cooley, The Acquisition of Louisiana (Indiana History Society Pamphlets, number 3)._

"By the charter of Louis XIV., the country purchased to the north included all that was contiguous to the waters that flowed into the Mississippi. Consequently its northern boundary was the summit of the highlands in which its northern waters rise. By the tenth article of the treaty of Utrecht, France and England agreed to appoint commissioners to settle the boundary, and these commissioners, as such boundary, marked this summit on the 49th parallel of north latitude. This would not carry the rights of the United States beyond the Rocky Mountains. The claim to the territory beyond was based upon the principle of continuity, the prolongation of the territory to the adjacent great body of water. As against Great Britain, the claim was founded on the treaty of 1763, between France and Great Britain, by which the latter power ceded to the former all its rights west of the Mississippi River. The United States succeeded to all the rights of France. Besides this, there was an independent claim created by the discovery of the Columbia River by Gray, in 1792, and its exploration by Lewis and Clarke. All this was added to by the cession by Spain, in 1819, of any title that it had to all territory north of the 42d degree."

Rt. Rev. C. F. Robertson, The Louisiana Purchase (Papers of American Historical Association, volume 1, page 259).

As its southwestern and southeastern boundaries were eventually settled by treaty with Spain [see FLORIDA: A. D. 1819-1821], the Louisiana purchase embraced 2,300 square miles in the present state of Alabama, west of the Perdido and on the gulf, below latitude 31° north; 3,600 square miles in the present state of Mississippi, south of the same latitude; the whole of the present states of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, and the Dakotas; Minnesota, west of the Mississippi; Kansas, all but the southwest corner; the whole of the Indian Territory, and so much of Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana as lies on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains. If it is held that the French claim was good to the Pacific, then we may say that we owe the remainder of Montana, with Idaho, Oregon and Washington to the same great purchase.

T. Donaldson, The Public Domain, page 105.

On the constitutional and political aspects of the Louisiana purchase,

See UNITED STATES: A. D. 1803.

Detailed accounts of the interesting circumstances and incidents connected with the negotiation at Paris will be found in the following works:—

H. Adams, History of the United States: First Administration of Jefferson; volume 2, chapters 1-3.

D. O. Gilman, James Monroe, chapter 4.

B. Marbois, History of Louisiana, part 2.

American State Papers: Foreign Relations, volume 2, pages 506-583.

{2051}

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1804-1805. Lewis and Clark's exploration of the northwestern region of the purchase, to the Pacific.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1804-1805.

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1804-1812. The purchase divided into the Territories of Orleans and Louisiana. The first named becomes the State of Louisiana; the second becomes the Territory of Missouri.

"On the 26th of March, 1804, Congress passed an act dividing the province into two parts on the 33d parallel of latitude, the present northern boundary of Louisiana, and establishing for the lower portion a distinct territorial government, under the title of the territory of Orleans. The act was to go into effect in the following October. One of its provisions was the interdiction of the slave-trade. … The labors of the legislative council began on the 4th of December. A charter of incorporation was given by it to the city of New Orleans."

_G: E. Waring, Jr., and G. W. Cable, History and Present Condition of New Orleans (United States Tenth Census, volume 19). pages 32-33._

"All north of the 33d parallel of north latitude was formed into a district, and styled the District of Louisiana. For judicial and administrative purposes this district, or upper Louisiana as we shall continue to call it, was attached to the territory of Indiana." But in March, 1805, Congress passed an act "which erected the district into a territory of the first or lowest grade, and changed its title from the District to the Territory of Louisiana." Seven years later, in June 1812, the Territory of Orleans (the lower Louisiana of old) having been received into the federal Union as the State of Louisiana, the territory which bore the ancient name was advanced by act of Congress "from the first to the second grade of territories, and its name changed to Missouri."

L. Carr, Missouri, chapter 5.

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1806-1807. Burr's Filibustering conspiracy.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1806-1807.

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1812. The Territory of Orleans admitted to the Union as the State of Louisiana.

"The population of the Territory of Orleans had been augmented annually by emigration from the United States. According to the census of 1810, the whole territory, exclusive of the Florida parishes, contained an aggregate of 76,550 souls. Of this number, the city of New Orleans and its precincts contained 24,552 persons, leaving 52,000 souls for the remainder of the territory. Besides these, the inhabitants of the Florida parishes amounted, probably, to not less than 2,500, including slaves. … Congress, by an act approved February 11th, 1811, … authorized the election of a convention to adopt a Constitution, preparatory to the admission of the Territory into the Union as an independent state. The convention, consisting of 60 delegates from the original parishes, met according to law, on the first Monday in November, and concluded its labors on the 22d day of January following, having adopted a Constitution for the proposed new 'State of Louisiana.' … The Constitution was accepted by Congress, and the State of Louisiana was formally admitted into the Union on the 8th day of April, 1812, upon an equal footing with the original states, from and after the 30th day of April, it being the ninth anniversary of the treaty of Paris. A few days subsequently, a 'supplemental act' of Congress extended the limits of the new state by the addition of the Florida parishes.

See FLORIDA: A. D. 1810-1813.

This gave it the boundaries it has at present."

J. W. Monette, Discovery and Settlement of the Valley of the Mississippi, book 5, chapter 15 (volume 2).

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1813-1814. The Creek War.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1813-1814 (AUGUST-APRIL).

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1815. Jackson's defense of New Orleans.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1815 (JANUARY).

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1861 (January). Secession from the Union.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY).

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1862 (April). Farragut's capture of New Orleans.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (APRIL: ON THE MISSISSIPPI).

LOUISIANA: A. D.1862 (May-December). New Orleans under General Butler.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (MAY-DECEMBER: LOUISIANA).

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1862 (June). Appointment of a Military Governor.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (MARCH-JUNE).

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1864. Reconstruction of the state under President Lincoln's plan.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863-1864 (DECEMBER-JULY).

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1864. The Red River Expedition.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (MARCH-MAY: LOUISIANA).

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1865. President Johnson's recognition of the reconstructed state government.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (MAY-JULY).

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1865-1867. The first Reconstruction experiment. The Riot at New Orleans. Establishment of military rule.

"In 1865 the returned Confederates, restored to citizenship by the President's amnesty proclamation soon got control of almost all the State [as reorganized under the constitution framed and adopted in 1864].

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (MAY-JULY).

The Legislature was in their hands, as well as most of the State and municipal offices; so, when the President, on the 20th of August, 1866, by proclamation, extended his previous instructions regarding civil affairs in Texas so as to have them apply to all the seceded States, there at once began in Louisiana a system of discriminative legislation directed against the freedmen, that led to flagrant wrongs in the enforcement of labor contracts, and in the remote parishes to numbers of outrages and murders. To remedy this deplorable condition of things, it was proposed, by those who had established the government of 1864, to remodel the constitution of the State; and they sought to do this by reassembling the convention, that body before its adjournment having provided for reconvening under certain conditions, in obedience to the call of its president. Therefore, early in the summer of 1866, many members of this convention met in conference at New Orleans, and decided that a necessity existed for reconvening the delegates, and a proclamation was issued accordingly by B. K. Howell, President pro tempore. {2052} Mayor John T. Monroe and the other officials of New Orleans looked upon this proposed action as revolutionary, and by the time the convention assembled (July 30) such bitterness of feeling prevailed that efforts were made by the mayor and city police to suppress the meeting. A bloody riot followed, resulting in the killing and wounding of about 160 persons. I happened [the writer is General Sheridan, then in command of the Military Division of the Gulf] to be absent from the city at the time, returning from Texas, where I had been called by affairs on the Rio Grande. On my way up from the mouth of the Mississippi I was met on the night of July 30 by one of my staff, who reported what had occurred, giving the details of the massacre—no milder term is fitting—and informing me that, to prevent further slaughter, General Baird, the senior military officer present, had assumed control of the municipal government. On reaching the city I made an investigation, and that night sent [a brief report, which was followed, on the 6th of August, by an extended account of the facts of the riot, containing the following statements]: … 'The convention assembled at 12 M. on the 30th, the timid members absenting themselves because the tone of the general public was ominous of trouble. … About 1 P. M. a procession of say from 60 to 130 colored men marched up Burgundy Street and across Canal Street toward the convention, carrying an American flag. These men had about one pistol to every ten men, and canes and clubs in addition. While crossing Canal Street a row occurred. … On arrival at the front of the Institute [where the convention was held] there was some throwing of brickbats by both sides. The police, who had been held well in hand, were vigorously marched to the scene of disorder. The procession entered the Institute with the flag, about 6 or 8 remaining outside. A row occurred between a policeman and one of these colored mob, and a shot was again fired by one of the parties, which led to an indiscriminate fire on the building through the windows by the policemen. This had been going on for a short time, when a white flag was displayed from the windows of the Institute, whereupon the firing ceased, and the police rushed into the building. From the testimony of wounded men, and others who were inside the building, the policemen opened an indiscriminate fire upon the audience until they had emptied their revolvers, when they retired, and those inside barricaded the doors. The door was broken in, and the firing again commenced, when many of the colored and white people either escaped throughout the door or were passed out by the policemen inside; but as they came out the policemen who formed the circle nearest the building fired upon them, and they were again fired upon by the citizens that formed the outer circle. Many of those wounded and taken prisoners, and others who were prisoners and not wounded, were fired upon by their captors and by citizens. The wounded were stabbed while lying on the ground, and their heads beaten with brickbats. … Some were killed and wounded several squares from the scene.' … Subsequently a military commission investigated the subject of the riot, taking a great deal of testimony. The commission substantially confirmed the conclusions given in my despatches, and still later there as an investigation by a select committee of the House of Representatives. … A list of the killed and wounded was embraced in the committee's report, and among other conclusions reached were the following: … 'This riotous attack upon the convention, with its terrible results of massacre and murder, was not an accident. It was the determined purpose of the mayor of the city of New Orleans to break up this convention by armed force.' … The committee held that no legal government existed in Louisiana, and recommended the temporary establishment of a provisional government therein." In the following March the Military Reconstruction Acts were passed by Congress.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1867 (MARCH).

General Sheridan was assigned to the command of the fifth military district therein defined, consisting of Louisiana and Texas.

P. H. Sheridan, Personal Memoirs, volume 2, chapters 10-11.

ALSO IN: _Report of Select Committee on New Orleans Riot, 39th Congress, 2d Session, H. R. Report, Number 16._

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1868. Reconstruction complete. Restored representation in Congress.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1868-1870.

----------LOUISIANA: End----------

LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY: Threatened by the Rebel Army under Bragg.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JUNE-OCTOBER: TENNESSEE-KENTUCKY).

----------LOUVAIN: Start--------

LOUVAIN: A. D. 1635. Unsuccessful siege by the French.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1635-1638.

LOUVAIN: A. D. 1706. Taken by Marlborough and the Allies.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1706-1707.

----------LOUVAIN: End--------

LOUVAIN, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (FEBRUARY-APRIL).

LOUVRE, The.

"The early history of the Louvre is involved in great obscurity. The name of its founder and the period of its erection are alike unknown; the first notice of it we meet with upon record is in the 7th century, when Dagobert kept here his horses and hounds. The kings [Merovingeans] called 'fainéans' often visited it, when after dinner they rode in a sort of coach through the forest, which covered this side of the river, and in the evening returned in a boat, fishing by the way, to the city, where they supped and slept. There is no mention of this royal dwelling under the second, nor even under the third race of kings, till the reign of Philip Augustus. About the year 1204, that prince converted it into a kind of citadel, surrounded with wide ditches and flanked with towers. … The walls erected by Philip Augustus did not take in the Louvre, but after having remained outside of Paris more than six centuries, it was enclosed by the walls begun in 1367, under Charles V., and finished in 1383, under Charles VI. … Charles IX., Henry III., Henry IV., and Louis XIII., inhabited the Louvre and added to its buildings. Nothing remains of the old château of Philip Augustus, which Charles V. repaired; the most ancient part now in existence is that called 'le Vieux Louvre,' begun by Francis I. in 1539, and finished by Henry II. in 1548."

_History of Paris (London, 1827), chapter 2 (volume 2)._

{2053}

The origin of the word Louvre is believed to be a Saxon word, 'Leowar' or 'Lower,' which meant a fortified camp. … Francis I. did little more than decide the fate of the old Louvre by introducing the new fashion. His successors went on with the work; and the progress of it may be followed, reign after reign, till the last visible fragment of the Gothic castle had been ruthlessly carted away. … Vast as is the Louvre that we know, it is as nothing in comparison with the prodigious scheme imagined by Richelieu and Louis XIII.; a scheme which, though never carried out, gave a very strong impulse to the works, and ensured the completion of the present building, at least in a subsequent reign. … Happily for the Louvre Louis XIV. interested himself in it before he engulfed his millions at Marly and Versailles. … The sums of money expended on the Louvre and Tuileries defy all calculation. … The greatest spender on these palaces was Napoleon III."

_P. G. Hamerton. Paris in Old and Present Times, chapter 6. _

LOVERS, War of the.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1578-1580.

LOW CHURCH.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1689 (APRIL-AUGUST).

LOW COUNTRIES, The.

See NETHERLANDS.

LOWLANDS OF SCOTLAND.

See SCOTCH HIGHLAND and LOWLAND.

LOWOSITZ, OR LOBOSITZ, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1756.

LOYALISTS, American.

See TORIES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.

LOYOLA, and the founding of the Order of Jesus.

See JESUITS: A. D. 1540-1556.

----------LUBECK: Start--------

LUBECK: Origin and rise.

"Near the mouth of the river Trave there had long existed a small settlement of pirates or fishermen. The convenience of the harbour had led to this settlement and it had been much frequented by Christian merchants. The unsettled state of the country, however, afforded them little security, and it had been often taken and plundered by the Pagan freebooters. When Henry acquired the dominion of the soil [Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, who subdued the heathen Wendish tribe of the Oborites, A. D. 1165, and added their country to his dominions] he paid particular attention to this infant establishment, and under the shadow of his power the city of Lubeck (for so it became) arose on a broad and permanent basis. He made it … the seat of a bishop; he also established a mint and a custom-house, and by the grant of a municipal government, he secured the personal, while he prepared the way for the political, rights of its burghers. The ancient name of the harbour was Wisby, and by a proclamation addressed to the Danes, Norwegians, Swedes, and Russians, he invited them to frequent it, with an assurance that the ways should be open and secure by land and water. … This judicious policy was rewarded by a rapid and large increase to the wealth and commerce of Lubeck."

Sir A. Halliday, Annals of the House of Hanover, volume 1, pages 229-230.

See, also, HANSA TOWNS.

LUBECK: A. D. 1801-1803. One of six free cities which survived the Peace of Luneville.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1801-1803.

LUBECK: A. D. 1806. Battle of French and Prussians.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1806 (OCTOBER).

LUBECK: A. D. 1810. Annexation to France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1810 (FEBRUARY-DECEMBER).

LUBECK: A. D. 1810-1815. Loss and recovery of autonomy as a "free city."

See CITIES, IMPERIAL AND FREE, OF GERMANY; and VIENNA, CONGRESS OF.

LUBECK: A. D. 1866. Surrender of free privileges. Entrance into the Zollverein.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1888.

----------LUBECK: End--------

LUBECK, Treaty of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1627-1629.

LUCANIANS, The.

See SABINES; also, SAMNITES.

----------LUCCA: Start--------

LUCCA: The founding of the city.

See MUTINA AND PARMA.

LUCCA: 8th Century. The seat of Tuscan government.

See TUSCANY: A. D. 685-1115.

LUCCA: A. D. 1248-1278. In the wars of the Guelfs and Ghibellines.

See FLORENCE: A. D. 1248-1278.

LUCCA: A. D. 1284-1293. War with Pisa.

See PISA: A. D. 1063-1293.

LUCCA: A. D. 1314-1328. The brief tyranny of Uguccione della Faggiuola, and the longer despotism of Castruccio Castracani. Erected into an imperial duchy.

See ITALY: A. D. 1313-1330.

LUCCA: A. D. 1335-1341. Acquired by Mastino della Scala of Verona. Sold to Florence. Taken by Pisa.

See FLORENCE: A. D. 1341-1343.

LUCCA: A. D. 1805. Conferred on the sister of Napoleon.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1804-1805.

LUCCA: A. D. 1814-1860.

After the fall of Napoleon Lucca was briefly occupied by the Neapolitans; then, in the new arrangements, figured for some time as a distinct duchy; afterwards became part of Tuscany, until its absorption in the kingdom of Italy.

----------LUCCA: End--------

LUCENA, Battle of (1483).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1476-1492.

LUCERES, The.

See ROME: BEGINNING AND NAME.

LUCHANA, Battle of (1836).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1833-1846.

LUCIUS II., Pope, A. D. 1144-1145.

Lucius III., Pope, 1181-1185.

LUCKA, Battle of (1308).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1273-1308.

LUCKNOW, The siege of.

See INDIA: A. D. 1857 (MAY-AUGUST), and 1857-1858 (JULY-JUNE).

LUCOTECIA.

See LUTETIA.

LUD. Ancient Lydia.

LUDDITES, Rioting of the.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1812-1813.

LUDI. LUDI CIRCENSES, ETC.

"Public games (Ludi) formed an important feature in the worship of the gods [in ancient Rome], and in the earlier ages were always regarded as religious rites; so that the words Ludi, Feriae and Dies Festi are frequently employed as synonymous. Games celebrated every year upon a fixed day were denominated Ludi Stati. Such were the Ludi Romani s. Magni, held invariably on the 21st of September; the Megalesia on 4th April; the Floralia on 28th April, and many others. … Another classification of Ludi was derived from the place where they were exhibited and the nature of the exhibition …

1. Ludi Circenses, chariot races and other games exhibited in a circus. 2. Ludi Scenici, dramatic entertainments exhibited in a theatre. 3. Munera Gladiatoria, prize-fights, which were usually exhibited in an amphitheatre."

W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman Antiquity, chapter 10.

{2054}

LUDI MAXIMI ROMANI.

See ROMAN CITY FESTIVAL.

LUDI SÆCULARES, The.

See SECULAR GAMES.

LUDOVICO (called Il Moro), Duke of Milan, A. D. 1494-1500.

LUDWIG.

See LOUIS.

LUGDUNENSIS AND LUGDUNUM.

See LYONS: UNDER THE ROMANS.

LUGUVALLIUM.

The Roman military station at the western extremity of the Roman wall in Britain; the site of the modern city of Carlisle.

_H. M. Scarth, Roman Britain, chapter 8. _

LUITPERTUS, King of the Lombards, A. D. 700-701.

LUKETIA.

See LUTETIA.

LUNA: Destruction by the Northmen.

See NORMANS: A. D. 849-860.

LUND, Battle of (1676).

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1644-1697.

LUNDY, Benjamin, and the rise of the Abolitionists.

See SLAVERY, NEGRO: A. D. 1828-1832.

LUNDY'S LANE, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1814 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).

LUNEBURG, Duchy of.

See SAXONY: THE OLD DUCHY; and A. D. 1178-1183.

LUNEBURG HEATH, Battle of (A. D. 880).

See EBBSDORF.

LUNEVILLE, The Treaty of (1801).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1801-1803.

LUPERCAL. LUPERCALIA.

The Lupercal was the wolf cave in which, according to Roman legend, the twins, Romulus and Remus, were nursed by a she-wolf. It was supposed to be situated at the foot of the Palatine Hill. "The Lupercal is described by Dionysius as having once been a large grotto, shaded with thick bushes and large trees, and containing a copious spring of water. This grotto was dedicated to Lupercus, an ancient Latin pastoral divinity, who was worshipped by shepherds as the protector of their flocks against wolves. A festival was held every year, on the 15th of February, in the Lupercal, in honour of Lupercus; the place contained an altar and a grove sacred to the god. … Gibbon tells us the festival of the Lupercalia, whose origin had preceded the foundation of Rome, was still celebrated in the reign of Anthemus, 472 A.D."

H. M. Westropp, Early and Imperial Rome, page 35.

"At the Lupercalia youths ran through the streets dressed in goats' skins, beating all those they met with strips of goats' leather."

W. Ihne, History of Rome, book 1, chapter 13.

LURIS.

See GYPSIES.

LUSIGNAN, House of.

See JERUSALEM: A. D. 1149-1187, 1192-1229, and 1291; also, CYPRUS: A. D. 1191, and 1192-1489.

LUSITANIA. LUSITANIANS.

The Lusitani or Lusitanians were the people who resisted the Roman conquest of Spain most obstinately—with even more resolution than their neighbors and kinsmen, the Celtiberians. In 153 B. C. they defeated a Roman army, which lost 6,000 men. The following year they inflicted another defeat, on the prætor Mummius, who lost 9,000 of his soldiers. Again, in 151, the prætor Galba suffered a loss of 7,000 men at their hands. But, in 150, Galba ravaged the Lusitanian country so effectually that they sued for peace. Pretending to arrange terms of friendship with them, this infamous Roman persuaded three large bands of the Lusitanians to lay down their arms, which being done he surrounded them with his troops and massacred them in cold blood. One of the few who escaped was a man named Viriathus, who became thenceforth the leader of his surviving countrymen in a guerrilla warfare which lasted for ten years, and which cost the Romans thousands of men. In the end they could not vanquish Viriathus, but basely bribed some traitors in his own camp to murder him. The Roman province which was afterwards formed out of the country of the Lusitanians, and which took their name, has been mistakenly identified with the modern kingdom of Portugal, which it coincided with only in part.

W. Ihne, History of Rome, book 5, chapter 6 (volume 3).

ALSO IN: H. M. Stephens, The Story of Portugal, chapter 1.

See PORTUGAL: EARLY HISTORY.

On the settlement of the Alans,

See SPAIN: A. D. 409-414.

LUSTRUM.

After the [Roman] Censors had concluded the various duties committed to their charge, they proceeded in the last place to offer up, on behalf of the whole Roman people, the great expiatory sacrifice called Lustrum, and this being offered up once only in the space of five years, the term Lustrum is frequently employed to denote that space of time. … On the day fixed, the whole body of the people were summoned to assemble in the Campus Martius in martial order (exercitus) ranked according to their Classes and Centuries, horse and foot. The victims, consisting of a sow, a sheep, and a bull, whence the sacrifice was termed Suovetaurilia, before being led to the altar, were carried thrice round the multitude, who were then held to be purified and absolved from sin, and while the immolation took place the Censor recited a set form of prayer for the preservation and aggrandizement of the Roman State."

W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman Antiquity, chapter 5.

LUTETIA, LUKETIA, LUCOTECIA.

The beginning of the great city of Paris was represented by a small town named as above—the stronghold of the Gallic people called the Parisii—built on one of the islands in the Seine which Paris now covers and surrounds.

See PARIS, BEGINNING OF.

LUTHER, Martin, and the Reformation.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1516-1517, 1517, 1517-1521, 1521-1522, 1522-1525, 1525-1529, 1530-1531; also, GERMANY: A. D. 1530-1532.

LUTHER: On Education.

See EDUCATION, RENAISSANCE: GERMANY.

LUTTER, Battle of (1626).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1624-1626.

LÜTZEN, Battle of (1632). Death of Gustavus Adolphus.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1631-1632.

LÜTZEN, OR GROSS GÖRSCHEN, Battle of (1813).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1813 (APRIL-MAY).

LUXEMBURG, The House of: Its aggrandizement in the Empire, in Bohemia, Hungary, and Brandenburg.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1308-1313, and 1347-1493; also, HUNGARY: A. D. 1301-1442; and BRANDENBURG: A. D. 1168=1417.

----------LUXEMBURG: Start--------

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LUXEMBURG: A. D. 1713. Ceded to Holland.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

LUXEMBURG: A. D. 1795. Siege and capture by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1795 (JUNE-DECEMBER).

LUXEMBURG: A. D. 1867. Separated from Germany and formed into a neutral state.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1866-1870.

----------LUXEMBURG: End--------

LUZZARA, Battle of (1702).

See ITALY: A. D. 1701-1713.

LYCEUM, The Athenian.

See ACADEMY, THE ATHENIAN; and GYMNASIA, GREEK; also, relative to the suppression of the Lyceum, see ATHENS: A. D. 529.

LYCIAN LEAGUE, The.

"Probably the best constructed Federal Government that the ancient world beheld. The account given by Strabo, our sole authority, is so full, clear, and brief, that I cannot do better than translate it. The 'ancestral constitution of the Lykian League' is described by the great geographer in these words: 'There are three and twenty cities which have a share in the suffrage, and they come together from each city in the common Federal Assembly, choosing for their place of meeting any city which they think best. And, among the cities, the greatest are possessed of three votes apiece, the middle ones of two, and the rest of one; and in the same proportion they pay taxes, and take their share of other public burthens. … And, in the Federal Assembly, first the Lykiarch is chosen and then the other Magistrates of the League, and bodies of Federal Judges are appointed; and formerly they used to consult about war, and peace, and alliance; this now, of course, they cannot do, but these things must needs rest with the Romans.' … On the practical working of this constitution Strabo bestows the highest praise. Lykia was, in his day, a Roman dependency, but it retained its own laws and internal government."

E. A. Freeman, History of Federal Government, chapter 4, section 4.

LYCIANS, The.

The people who occupied in ancient times the extreme southern peninsula of Asia Minor. "The ancients knew of no unmixed population in this district. The Phœnicians explored the Lycian Taurus as well as the Cilician; and by land also Semitic tribes seem to have immigrated out of Syria and Cilicia; and these tribes formed the tribe of the Solymi. Another influx of population was conducted to this coast by means of the Rhodian chain of islands: men of Crete came across, who called themselves Termili or Trameli, and venerated Sarpedon as their Hero. After an arduous struggle, they gradually made themselves masters of the land encircled by sea and rock. … From the mouth of the Xanthus the Cretans entered the land. There Leto had first found a hospitable reception; in Patara, near by, arose the first great temple of Apollo, the god of light, or Lycius, with the worship of whom the inhabitants of the land became subsequently to such a degree identified as to receive themselves from the Greeks on whose coasts they landed the same name as the god, viz., Lycians. … We know that the Lycians, in courage and knowledge of the sea fully the equals of the most seafaring nation of the Archipelago, from a desire of an orderly political life, renounced at an early period the public practice of piracy, which their neighbours in Pisidia and Cilicia never relinquished. Their patriotism they proved in heroic struggles, and in the quiet of home developed a greater refinement of manners, to which the special honour in which they held the female sex bears marked testimony."

E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 1, chapter 3 (volume 1).

LYCURGUS, Constitution of.

See SPARTA: THE CONSTITUTION.

LYDIANS, The.

"On the western coast of Asia Minor the nation of the Lydians, which possessed the vallies of the Hermus and Mæander, had early arrived at a monarchy and a point of civilization far in advance of the stages of primitive life. … When the Greeks forced the Phenicians from the islands of the Ægean sea, and then, about the end of the eleventh and beginning of the tenth century, B. C., landed on the western coast of Asia Minor, the Lydians were not able any more than the Teucrians and Mysians in the North, or the Carians in the South, to prevent the establishment of the Greeks on their coasts, the loss of the ancient native sanctuaries at Smyrna, Colophon, Ephesus, and the founding of Greek cities in their land on the mouths of the Lydian rivers, the Hermus and the Cayster, though the Greek emigrants came in isolated expeditions over the sea. It was on the Lydian coasts that the most important Greek cities rose: Cyme, Phocæa, Smyrna, Colophon, Ephesus. Priene, Myus, and Miletus were on the land of the Carians."

M. Duncker, History of Antiquity, book 4, chapter 17.

"On the basis of a population related to the Phrygians and Armenians arose the nation of the Lydians, which through its original ancestor, Lud, would appear in Eastern tradition also to be reckoned as a member of the Semitic family. As long as we remain unacquainted with the spoken and written language of the Lydians, it will be impossible to define with any accuracy the mixture of peoples which here took place. But, speaking generally, there is no doubt of the double relationship of this people, and of its consequent important place in civilization among the groups of the nations of Asia Minor. The Lydians became on land, as the Phœnicians by sea, the mediators between Hellas and Anterior Asia. … The Lydians are the first among the nations of Asia Minor of whom we have any intimate knowledge as a political community."

E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 1, chapter 3 (volume 1).

The first, perhaps legendary, dynasty of Lydia, called the Atyadæ, was followed by one called the Herakleidæ by the Greeks, which is said to have ruled over 500 years. The last king of that family, Kandaules, was murdered, about B. C. 715, by Gyges, who founded the dynasty of the Mermnadæ, under whom the Lydian dominion was extended over most of Asia Minor, and its kings contended on fairly equal terms with the power of the Medes. But their monarchy was overthrown by Cyrus, B. C. 546, and the famous Crœsus, last of their line, ended his days as an attendant and counselor of the Persian king.

G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapters 17 and 32.

Recent discoveries tend to the conclusion that the primitive inhabitants of Lydia were of a race to which the Hittites belonged.

A. H. Sayce, editor, Ancient Empires of the East, appendix 4.

See, also, ASIA MINOR: B. C. 724-539; and PERSIA: B. C. 549-521.

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LYGIANS, The.

"Of all the invaders of Gaul [in the reign of Probus, A. D.277] the most formidable were the Lygians, a distant people who reigned over a wide domain on the frontiers of Poland and Silesia. In the Lygian nation the Arii held the first rank by their numbers and fierceness. 'The Arii' (it is thus that they are described by the energy of Tacitus) 'study to improve by art and circumstances the innate terrors of their barbarism. Their shields are black, their bodies are painted black. They choose for the combat the darkest hour of the night.' … Yet the arms and discipline of the Romans easily discomfited these horrid phantoms. The Lygii were defeated in a general engagement, and Semno, the most renowned of their chiefs, fell alive into the hands of Probus. That prudent emperor, unwilling to reduce a brave people to despair, granted them an honourable capitulation and permitted them to return in safety to their native country. But the losses which they suffered in the march, the battle, and the retreat, broke the power of the nation; nor is the Lygian name ever repeated in the history either of Germany or of the empire."

E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 12.

"Lygii appears to have been the generic name of the Slavonians on the Vistula. They are the same people as those called Lekhs by Nestor, the Russian chronicler of the twelfth century. These Lekhs are the ancestors of the Poles."

See Latham, The Germania of Tacitus, page 158.

_W. Smith, Note to above, from Gibbon_.

"The Ligii were a widely-spread tribe, comprehending several clans. Tacitus names the Harii [or Arii], Helvecones, Manimi, Elisii, and Nahanarvali. Their territory was between the Oder and Vistula, and would include the greater part of Poland, and probably a portion of Silesia."

_Church and Brodribb, Geographical Notes to the Germany of Tacitus._

"The Elysii are supposed to have given name to Silesia."

Note to the Oxford Translation of Tacitus: Germany, chapter 43.

LYKIANS, The.

See LYCIANS.

LYMNE, in Roman times.

See PORTUS LEMANIS.

LYON, General Nathaniel: Campaign in Missouri, and death.

See MISSOURI; A. D. 1861 (FEBRUARY-JULY); and UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (JULY-SEPTEMBER; MISSOURI).

----------LYONS: Start--------

LYONS: Under the Romans.

Minutius Plancus, Roman governor of Gallia Comata, or the Gaul of Cæsar's conquest, founded, B. C. 43, a city called Lugdunum, at the confluence of the Rhone and the Saone. A few years later, under Augustus, it was made the capital of a province to which it gave its name—Lugdunensis—and which comprised the whole of central Gaul, between the Loire and the Seine with the Armorican peninsula. In time the name Lugdunum became softened and shorn to Lyons. "Lyons, which stood on the west side of the Rhone, not so near the confluence of the Sâone as now, appears to have been settled by fugitive Romans driven out of Vienne by another party. It grew with as marvelous a rapidity as some of our western cities, for in fifteen years it swelled from a simple colony into a metropolis of considerable splendor. … Lugdun appears to have been a Keltic designation, and, as the 'g' in that speech took the sound of 'y' and 'd' was silent, we can easily see how the name became Lyon."

P. Godwin, History of France: Ancient Gaul, book 2, chapter 5, with foot-note.

"Not having originated out of a Celtic canton, and hence always with a territory of narrow limits, but from the outset composed of Italians and in possession of the full Roman franchise, it [Lyons] stood forth unique in its kind among the communities of the three Gauls—as respects its legal relations, in some measure resembling Washington in the North American federation. … Only the governor of the middle or Lugudunensian province had his seat there; but when emperors or princes stayed in Gaul they as a rule resided in Lyons. Lyons was, alongside of Carthage, the only city of the Latin half of the empire which obtained a standing garrison, after the model of that of the capital. The only mint for imperial money which we can point to with certainty, for the earlier period of the empire, is that of Lyons. Here was the headquarters of the transit-dues which embraced all Gaul; and to this as a centre the Gallic network of roads converged. … Thus Lugudunum rapidly rose into prosperity. … In the later period of the empire, no doubt, it fell behind Treves."

T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 8, chapter 3.

LYONS: A. D. 500. Under the Burgundians.

See BURGUNDIANS: A. D. 500.

LYONS: 10th Century. In the kingdom of Aries.

See BURGUNDY: A. D. 843—933.

LYONS: 12th Century. The Poor Men of Lyons."

See WALDENSES.

LYONS: A. D. 1685-1698. Loss in the silk weaving industry by the Huguenot exodus.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1681-1698.

LYONS: A. D. 1793-1794. Revolt against the Revolutionary government at Paris. Siege and capture and fearful vengeance by the Terrorists.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JUNE), (JULY-DECEMBER); and 1793—1794 (OCTOBER-APRIL).

LYONS: A. D. 1795. Reaction against the Reign of Terror. The White Terror.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1794-1795 (JULY-APRIL).

----------LYONS: End----------

LYONS, Battle of (A. D. 197).

See ROME: A. D. 192-284.

LYSIMACHUS, and the wars of the Diadochi.

See MACEDONIA: B. C. 323-316, to 297-280.

LYTTON, Lord, The Indian administration of.

See INDIA: A. D. 1876, 1877; and AFGHANISTAN: A. D. 1869-1881.

MAARMORS.

See MORMAERS.

MACÆ, The.

See LIBYANS.

McALLISTER, Fort, The storming of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (NOVEMBER-DECEMBER: GEORGIA).

MACALO, Battle of (1427).

See ITALY: A. D. 1412-1447.

MACBETH, King of Scotland: A. D. 1039-1054.

MACCABEES, The.

See JEWS: B. C. 166-40.

MACCIOWICE, Battle of (1794).

See POLAND: A. D. 1793-1796.

McCLELLAN, General George B. Campaign in West Virginia.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (JUNE-JULY: WEST VIRGINIA).

McCLELLAN, General George B: Appointment to chief command. Organization of the Army of the Potomac.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (JULY-NOVEMBER).

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McCLELLAN, General George B: Protracted inaction through the winter of 1861-62.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861-1862 (DECEMBER-MARCH: VIRGINIA).

McCLELLAN, General George B: Peninsular campaign.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (MARCH-MAY: VIRGINIA), (JULY-AUGUST: VIRGINIA).

McCLELLAN, General George B: During General Pope's campaign.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JULY-AUGUST: VIRGINIA), to (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER, VIRGINIA).

McCLELLAN, General George B: Antietam Campaign, and removal from command.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (SEPTEMBER: MARYLAND); and (OCTOBER-DECEMBER: VIRGINIA).

McCLELLAN, General George B: Defeat in Presidential election.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (MAY-NOVEMBER).

MACDONALD, Marshal. Campaigns of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1798-1799 (AUGUST-APRIL), 1799 (APRIL-SEPTEMBER); GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JULY-SEPTEMBER); 1813 (APRIL-MAY), (AUGUST), (OCTOBER), (OCTOBER-DECEMBER); and RUSSIA: A. D. 1812 (JUNE-SEPTEMBER).

MACDONOUGH, Commodore Thomas, and his victory on Lake Champlain.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1814 (SEPTEMBER).

McDOWELL, Battle at.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862. (MAY-JUNE: VIRGINIA).

MACE, as a symbol of authority, The.

"The club or mace, formed originally of hard wood, and the latter, subsequently either wholly or in part of metal, would naturally be adopted as one of the earliest weapons of primitive man, but it soon came to be regarded as a symbol of authority. … In the Middle Ages the mace was a common weapon with ecclesiastics, who, in consequence of their tenures, frequently took the field, but were, by a canon of the Church, forbidden to wield the sword. It strikes me as not improbable that in this custom we have the origin of the use of the mace as a symbol of authority by our cathedral and other ancient religious bodies. … In all probability its use by lay corporations may be traced to the corps of sergeants-at-mace, instituted as a body-guard both by Philip Augustus of France and our own Richard I., whilst with the Crusaders in Palestine. We learn that when the former monarch was in the Holy Land he found it necessary to secure his person from the emissaries of a sheik, called 'the Old Man of the Mountain,' who bound themselves to assassinate whomsoever he assigned. 'When the king,' says an ancient chronicler, 'heard of this he began to reflect seriously, and took counsel how he might best guard his person. He therefore instituted a guard of serjeants-à-maces who night and day were to be about his person in order to protect him.' These sergens-à-maces were 'afterwards called sergeants-at-arms, for Jean Bouteiller, … who lived in the time of Charles VI., that is, at the conclusion of the fourteenth century tells us, "The sergens d'armes are the mace-bearers that the king has to perform his duty, and who carry maces before the king; these are called sergeants-at-arms, because they are sergeants for the king's body.'" We learn further that Richard I. of England soon imitated the conduct of the French king, but he seems to have given his corps of sergeants-at-arms a more extensive power. Not only were they to watch round the king's tent in complete armour, with a mace, a sword, a bow and arrows, but were occasionally to arrest traitors and other offenders about the court, for which the mace was deemed a sufficient authority. … Hence, in all probability, was derived the custom of the chief magistrate of a municipality, who, as such, is the representative of the sovereign, being attended by his mace-bearer, as a symbol of the royal authority thus delegated to him."

_W. Kelly, The Great Mace (Royal Historical Society Transactions, volume 3)._

----------MACEDONIA: Start--------

MACEDONIA AND MACEDONIANS, The.

"The Macedonians of the fourth century B. C. acquired, from the ability and enterprise of two successive kings, a great perfection in Greek military organization, without any of the loftier Hellenic qualities. Their career in Greece is purely destructive, extinguishing the free movement of the separate cities, and disarming the citizen-soldier to make room for the foreign mercenary whose sword was unhallowed by any feelings of patriotism—yet totally incompetent to substitute any good system of central or pacific administration. But the Macedonians of the seventh and sixth centuries B. C. are an aggregate only of rude inland tribes, subdivided into distinct petty principalities, and separated from the Greeks by a wider ethnical difference even than the Epirots; since Herodotus, who considers the Epirotic Molossians and Thesprotians as children of Hellen, decidedly thinks the contrary respecting the Macedonians. In the main, however, they seem at this early period analogous to the Epirots in character and civilization. They had some few towns, but they were chiefly village residents, extremely brave and pugnacious. … The original seats of the Macedonians were in the regions east of the chain of Skardus (the northerly continuation of Pindus)—north of the chain called the Cambunian mountains, which connects Olympus with Pindus, and which forms the north-western boundary of Thessaly; but they did not reach so far eastward as the Thermaic Gulf. … The Macedonian language was different from Illyrian, from Thracian, and seemingly also from Pæonian. It was also different from Greek, yet apparently not more widely distinct than that of the Epirots; so that the acquisition of Greek was comparatively easy to the chiefs and people. … The large and comparatively productive region covered by the various sections of Macedonians, helps to explain that increase of ascendency which they successively acquired over all their neighbours. It was not however until a late period that they became united under one government. At first, each section—how many we do not know—had its own prince or chief. The Elymiots, or inhabitants of Elymeia, the southernmost portion of Macedonia, were thus originally distinct and independent; also the Orestæ, in mountain-seats somewhat north-west of the Elymiots. … The section of the Macedonian name who afterwards swallowed up all the rest and became known as 'The Macedonians' had their original centre at Ægæ or Edessa—the lofty, commanding and picturesque site of the modern Vodhena."

G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 25 (volume 3).

MACEDONIA: B. C. 508. Subjection to Persia.

See PERSIA: B. C. 521-493.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 383-379. Overthrow of the Olynthian Confederacy by Sparta.

See GREECE: B. C. 383-379.

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MACEDONIA: B. C. 359-358. Accession and first proceedings of King Philip. His acquisition of Amphipolis.

See GREECE: B. C. 359-358.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 353-336. Philip's conquest of Thessaly. Intervention in the Sacred War. Victory at Chæronea. Mastery of Greece. Preparation to invade Persia. Assassination.

See GREECE: B. C. 357-336.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 351-348. War with the Olynthian Confederacy. Destruction of Olynthus.

See GREECE: B. C. 351-348.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 340. Philip's unsuccessful siege of Byzantium.

See GREECE: B. C. 340.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 336-335. Alexander's campaigns at the north. Revolt and destruction of Thebes.

See GREECE: B. C. 336-335.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 334-330. Invasion and conquest of the Persian empire by Alexander the Great.

Philip of Macedonia fell under the hand of an assassin in the midst of his preparations (B. C. 336) for the invasion of the Persian Empire. He was succeeded by his son, Alexander, who applied himself first, with significant energy, to the chastisement of the troublesome barbarians on his northern frontier, and to the crushing of revolt in Greece (see GREECE: B. C. 336-335). He had not yet been a year on the throne "when he stood forth a greater and more powerful sovereign than his father, with his empire united in the bonds of fear and admiration, and ready to carry out the long premeditated attack of the Greeks on the dominion of the Great king. … He had indeed a splendid army of all branches, heavy infantry, light infantry, slingers and archers, artillery such as the ancients could produce without gunpowder, and cavalry, both Thessalian and Macedonian, fit for both skirmishing and the shock of battle. If its numbers were not above 40,000, this moderate force was surely as much as any commander could handle in a rapid campaign with long marches through a hostile country. … After a Homeric landing on the coast near Ilium, and sacrifices to the Ilian goddess at her ancient shrine, with feasts and games, the king started East to meet the Persian satraps, who had collected their cavalry and Greek mercenary infantry on the plain of Zeleia, behind the river Granicus (B. C. 334). Here he fought his first great battle, and showed the nature of his tactics. He used his heavy infantry, divided into two columns or phalanxes as his left wing, flanked by Thessalian cavalry, to threaten the right of the enemy, and keep him engaged while he delivered his main attack. Developing this movement by a rapid advance in echelonned squadrons thrown forward to the right, threatening to outflank the enemy, he induced them to spread their forces towards their left wing, and so weaken their left centre. No sooner had he succeeded in this than he threw his heavy cavalry on this weak point, and after a very severe struggle in crossing the river, and climbing its rugged banks, he completely broke the enemy's line. … He did not strike straight into Asia, for this would have left it possible for Mentor and Memnon, the able Rhodians who commanded on the coast for Darius, either to have raised all Asia Minor against him, or to have transferred the war back to Macedon. … So then he seized Sardis, the key of all the highroads eastwards; he laid siege to Halicarnassus, which made a very long and stubborn resistance, and did not advance till he had his rear safe from attack. Even with all these precautions, the Persian fleet, under Memnon, was producing serious difficulties, and had not that able general died at the critical moment (B. C. 333), the Spartan revolt, which was put down the following year in Greece, would have assumed serious proportions. Alexander now saw that he could press on, and strike at the headquarters of the enemies' power—Phœnicia and the Great king himself. He crossed the difficult range of the Taurus, the southern bulwark of the Persian Empire, and occupied Cilicia. Even the sea was supposed to have retreated to allow his army to pass along a narrow strand under precipitous cliffs. The Great king was awaiting him with a vast army—grossly exaggerated, moreover, in our Greek accounts—in the plain of Syria, near Damascus. Foolish advisers persuaded him, owing to some delay in Alexander's advance, to leave his favourable position, where the advantage of his hosts of cavalry was clear. He therefore actually crossed Alexander, who had passed on the sea side of Mount Amanus, southward, and occupied Issus on his rear. The Macedonian army was thus cut off from home, and a victory necessary to its very existence. The great battle of Issus was fought on such narrow ground, between the sea and the mountains, that neither side had room for outflanking its opponent, except by occupying the high ground on the inland side of the plain (B. C. 333). This was done by the Persians, and the banks of a little river (the Pinarus) crossing their front were fortified as at the Granicus. Alexander was obliged to advance with a large reserve to protect his right flank. As usual he attacked with his right centre, and as soon as he had shaken the troops opposed to him, wheeled to the left, and made straight for the king himself, who occupied the centre in his chariot. Had Darius withstood him bravely and for some time, the defeat of the Macedonians' left wing would probably have been complete, for the Persian cavalry on the coast, attacking the Thessalians on Alexander's left wing, were decidedly superior, and the Greek infantry was at this time a match for the phalanx. But the flight of Darius, and the panic which ensued about him, left Alexander leisure to turn to the assistance of his hard-pressed left wing, and recover the victory. … The greatness of this victory completely paralyzed all the revolt prepared in his rear by the Persian fleet. Alexander was now strong enough to go on without any base of operation, and he boldly (in the manifesto he addressed to Darius after the battle) proclaimed himself King of' Persia by right of conquest, who would brook no equal. Nevertheless, he delayed many months (which the siege of Tyre [see TYRE: B. C. 332] cost him, B. C. 332), and then, passing through Jerusalem, and showing consideration for the Jews, he again paused at the siege of Gaza [see GAZA: B. C. 332], merely, we may suppose, to prove that he was invincible, and to settle once for all the question of the world's mastery. He delayed again for a short while in Egypt [see EGYPT: B. C. 332], when he regulated the country as a province under his sway, with kindness towards the inhabitants, and respect for their religion, and founded Alexandria; nay, he even here made his first essay in claiming divinity; and then, at last, set out to conquer the Eastern provinces of Darius' empire. {2059} The great decisive battle in the plains of Mesopotamia (B. C. 331)—it is called either Arbela or Gaugamela—was spoken of as a trial of strength, and the enormous number of the Persian cavalry, acting on open ground, gave timid people room to fear; but Alexander had long since found out, what the British have found in their many Eastern wars, that even a valiant cavalry is helpless, if undisciplined, against an army of regulars under a competent commander. … The Macedonian had again, however, failed to capture his opponent, for which he blamed Parmenio. … So then, though the issue of the war was not doubtful, there was still a real and legitimate rival to the throne, commanding the sympathies of most of his subjects. For the present, however, Alexander turned his attention to occupying the great capitals of the Persian empire—capitals of older kingdoms, embodied in the empire. … These great cities, Babylon in Mesopotamia, Susa (Shushan) in Elam, Persepolis in Persia proper, and Ecbatana in Media, were all full of ancient wealth and splendour, adorned with great palaces, and famed for monstrous treasures. The actual amount of gold and silver seized in these hoards (not less than £30,000,000 of English money, and perhaps a great deal more) had a far larger effect on the world than the discovery of gold and silver mines in recent times. Every adventurer in the army became suddenly rich; all the means and materials for luxury which the long civilization of the East had discovered and employed, were suddenly thrown into the hands of comparatively rude and even barbarous soldiers. It was a prey such as the Spaniards found in Mexico and Peru, but had a far stronger civilization, which must react upon the conquerors. And already Alexander showed clear signs that he regarded himself as no mere Macedonian or Greek king, but as the Emperor of the East, and successor in every sense of the unfortunate Darius. He made superhuman efforts to overtake Darius in his retreat from Ecbatana through the Parthian passes to the northern provinces—Balkh and Samarcand. The narrative of this famous pursuit is as wonderful as anything in Alexander's campaign. He only reached the fleeing Persian as he was dying of the wounds dealt him by the traitor Bessus, his satrap in Bactria, who had aspired to the crown (B. C. 330). Alexander signally executed the regicide, and himself married the daughter of Darius—who had no son—thus assuming, as far as possible, the character of Darius' legitimate successor."

J. P. Mahaffy, The Story of Alexander's Empire, chapters 2-3.

ALSO IN: C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, chapters 49-50 (volume 6).

_E. S. Creasy, Fifteen Decisive Battles: Arabela._

T. A. Dodge, Alexander, chapters 18-31.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 330-323. Alexander's conquest of Afghanistan, Bactria and Sogdiana. His invasion of India. His death at Babylon. His character and aims.

"After reducing the country at the south of the Caspian, Alexander marched east and south, through what is now Persia and Afghanistan. On his way he founded the colony of Alexandria Arion, now Herat, an important military position on the western border of Afghanistan. At Prophthasia (Furrah), a little further south, he stayed two months. … Thence he went on eastwards and founded a city, said to be the modern Candahar, and then turned north and crossed the Hindo Koosh mountains, founding another colony near what is now Cabul. Bessus had intended to resist Alexander in Bactria (Balkh), but he fled northwards, and was taken and put to death. Alexander kept on marching northwards, and took Mara Kanda, now Samarcand, the capital of Bokhara (B. C. 329). He crossed the river Jaxartes (Sir), running into the sea of Aral, and defeated the Scythians beyond it, but did not penetrate their country. He intended the Jaxartes to be the northern frontier of his empire. … The conquest of Sogdiana (Bokhara) gave Alexander some trouble, and occupied him till the year B. C. 327. In B. C. 327 Alexander set out from Bactria to conquer India [see INDIA: B. C. 327-312]. … Alexander was as eager for discovery as for conquest; and from the mouth of the Indus he sent his fleet, under the admiral Nearchus, to make their way along the coast to the mouth of the Euphrates. He himself marched westwards with the army through the deserts of Beloochistan, and brought them after terrible sufferings, through thirst, disease, and fatigue, again to Persepolis (B. C. 324). From this he went to Susa, where he stayed some months, investigating the conduct of his satraps, and punishing some of them severely. Since the battle of Arbela, Alexander had become more and more like a Persian king in his way of living, although he did not allow it to interfere with his activity. He dressed in the Persian manner, and took up the ceremonies of the Persian court. The soldiers were displeased at his giving up the habits of Macedonia, and at Susa he provoked them still more by making eighty of his chief officers marry Persian wives. The object of Alexander was to break down distinctions of race and country in his empire, and to abolish the great gulf that there had hitherto been between the Greeks and the Asiatics. He also enrolled many Persians in the regiments which had hitherto contained none but Macedonians, and levied 30,000 troops from the most warlike districts of Asia, whom he armed in the Macedonian manner. Since the voyage of Nearchus, Alexander had determined on an expedition against Arabia by sea, and had given orders for ships to be built in Phœnicia, and then taken to pieces and carried by land to Thapsakus on the Euphrates. At Thapsakus they were to be put together again, and so make their way to Babylon, from which the expedition was to start. In the spring of B. C. 323, Alexander set out from Susa for Babylon. On his journey he was met by embassies from nearly all the States of the known world. At Babylon he found the ships ready: fresh troops had arrived, both Greek and Asiatic; and the expedition was on the point of starting, when Alexander was seized with fever and died (June, B. C. 323). He was only thirty-two years old."

C. A. Fyffe, History of Greece (Primer), chapter 7.

"Three great battles and several great sieges made Alexander master of the Persian empire. And it is worth remark that the immediate results of the three battles, Granikos, Issos, and Gaugamela, coincide with lasting results in the history of the world. The victory of the Granikos made Alexander master of Asia Minor, of a region which in the course of a few centuries was thoroughly hellenized, and which remained Greek, Christian, and Orthodox, down to the Turkish invasions of the 11th century. {2060} The territory which Alexander thus won, the lands from the Danube to Mount Tauros, answered very nearly to the extent of the Byzantine Empire for several centuries, and it might very possibly have been ruled by him, as it was in Byzantine times, from an European centre. The field of Issos gave him Syria and Egypt, lands which the Macedonian and the Roman kept for nearly a thousand years, and which for ages contained, in Alexandria and Antioch, the two greatest of Grecian cities. But Syria and Egypt themselves never became Greek; when they became Christian, they failed to become Orthodox, and they fell away at the first touch of the victorious Saracen. Their government called for an Asiatic or Egyptian capital, but their ruler might himself still have remained European and Hellenic. His third triumph at Gaugamela gave him the possession of the whole East; but it was but a momentary possession: he had now pressed onward into lands where neither Grecian culture, Roman dominion, nor Christian theology proved in the end able to strike any lasting root. … He had gone too far for his original objects. Lasting possession of his conquests beyond the Tigris could be kept only in the character of King of the Medes and Persians. Policy bade him put on that character. We can also fully believe that he was himself really dazzled with the splendour of his superhuman success. … His own deeds had outdone those which were told of any of his divine forefathers or their comrades; Achilleus, Herakles, Theseus, Dionysos, had done and suffered less than Alexander. Was it then wonderful that he should seriously believe that one who had outdone their acts must come of a stock equal to their own? Was it wonderful if, not merely in pride or policy, but in genuine faith, he disclaimed a human parent in Philip, and looked for the real father of the conqueror and lord of earth in the conqueror and lord of the heavenly world? We believe then that policy, passion, and genuine superstition were all joined together in the demand which Alexander made for divine, or at least for unusual, honours. He had taken the place of the Great King, and he demanded the homage which was held to be due to him who held that place. Such homage his barbarian' subjects were perfectly ready to pay; they would most likely have had but little respect for a king who forgot to call for it. But the homage which to a Persian seemed only the natural expression of respect for the royal dignity, seemed to Greeks and Macedonians an invasion of the honour due only to the immortal Gods. … He not only sent round to all the cities of Greece to demand divine honours, which were perhaps not worth refusing, but he ordered each city to bring back its political exiles. This last was an interference with the internal government of the cities which certainly was not warranted by Alexander's position as head of the Greek Confederacy. And, in other respects also, from this unhappy time all the worst failings of Alexander become more strongly developed. … The unfulfilled designs of Alexander must ever remain in darkness; no man can tell what might have been done by one of such mighty powers who was cut off at so early a stage of his career. That he looked forward to still further conquests seems beyond doubt. The only question is, Did his conquests, alike those which were won and those which were still to be won, spring from mere ambition and love of adventure, or is he to be looked on as in any degree the intentional missionary of Hellenic culture? That such he was is set forth with much warmth and some extravagance in a special treatise of Plutarch; it is argued more soberly, but with true vigour and eloquence, in the seventh volume of Bishop Thirlwall. Mr. Grote denies him all merit of the kind."

_E. A. Freeman, Alexander (Historical Essays, series 2)._

ALSO IN: C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, chapters 51-55 (volumes 6-7).

MACEDONIA: B. C. 323-322. Revolt in Greece. The Lamian War. Subjugation of Athens.

See GREECE: B. C. 323-322.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 323-316. The Partition of the Empire of Alexander. First Period of the Wars of the Diadochi or Successors of Alexander.

Alexander "left his wife Roxana pregnant, who at the end of three months brought into the world the rightful heir to the sceptre, Alexander; he left likewise an illegitimate son, Hercules; a bastard half-brother, Arrhidæus; his mother, the haughty and cruel Olympias, and a sister, Cleopatra, both widows; the artful Eurydice, (daughter to Cyane, one of Philip's sisters,) subsequently married to the king, Arrhidæus; and Thessalonica, Philip's daughter, afterwards united to Cassander of Macedonia. The weak Arrhidæus, under the name of Philip, and the infant Alexander, were at last proclaimed kings, the regency being placed in the hands of Perdiccas, Leonnatus, and Meleager; the last of whom was quickly cut off at the instigation of Perdiccas." The provinces of the Empire which Alexander had conquered were now divided between the generals of his army, who are known in history as the Diadochi, that is, the Successors. The division was as follows: "Ptolemy son of Lagus received Egypt [see EGYPT: B. C. 323-30]; Leonnatus, Mysia; Antigonus, Phyrgia, Lycia, and Pamphylia; Lysymachus, Macedonian Thrace; Antipater and Craterus remained in possession of Macedonia. … The remaining provinces either did not come under the new division [see SELEUCIDAE], or else their governors are unworthy of notice,"

A. H. L. Heeren, Manual of Ancient History, page 222.

Meantime, "the body of Alexander lay unburied and neglected, and it was not until two years after his death that his remains were consigned to the tomb. But his followers still shewed their respect for his memory by retaining the feeble Arrhidæus on the throne, and preventing the marriage of Perdiccas with Cleopatra, the daughter of Philip; a union which manifestly was projected to open a way to the throne. But while this project of marriage occupied the attention of the regent, a league had secretly been formed for his destruction; and the storm burst forth from a quarter whence it was least expected. … The barbarous tribes of the Cappadocians and Paphlagonians … asserted their independence after the death of Alexander, and chose Ariarathes for their leader. Perdiccas sent against them Eumenes, who had hitherto fulfilled the peaceful duties of a secretary; and sent orders to Antigonus and Leonatns, the governors of Western Asia, to join the expedition with all their forces. These commands were disobeyed; and Perdiccas was forced to march with the royal army against the insurgents. He easily defeated these undisciplined troops, but sullied his victory by unnecessary cruelty. {2061} On his return he summoned the satraps of Western Asia to appear before his tribunal, and answer for their disobedience. Antigonus, seeing his danger, entered into a league with Ptolemy the satrap of Egypt, Antipater the governor of Macedon, and several other noblemen, to crush the regency. Perdiccas, on the other hand, leaving Eumenes to guard Lower Asia, marched with the choicest divisions of the royal army against Ptolemy, whose craft and ability he dreaded even more than his power. Antipater and Craterus were early in the field; they crossed the Hellespont with the army that had been left for the defence of Macedon. … Seduced by … false information, they divided their forces; Antipater hastening through Phrygia in pursuit of Perdiccas, while Craterus and Neoptolemus marched against Eumenes. They encountered him in the Trojan plain, and were completely defeated. … Eumenes sent intelligence of his success to Perdiccas; but two days before the messenger reached the royal camp the regent was no more. His army, wearied by the long siege of Pelusium, became dissatisfied; their mutinous dispositions were secretly encouraged by the emissaries of Ptolemy … and Perdiccas was murdered in his tent (B. C. 321). … In the meantime a brief struggle for independence had taken place in Greece, which is commonly called the Lamian war [see GREECE: B. C. 323-322]. … As soon as Ptolemy had been informed of the murder of Perdiccas, he came to the royal army with a large supply of wine and provisions. His kindness and courteous manners so won upon these turbulent soldiers, that they unanimously offered him the regency; but he had the prudence to decline so dangerous an office. On his refusal, the feeble Arrhidæus and the traitor Python were appointed to the regency, just as the news arrived of the recent victory of Eumenes. This intelligence filled the royal army with indignation. … They hastily passed a vote proclaiming Eumenes and his adherents public enemies. … The advance of an army to give effect to these decrees was delayed by a new revolution. Eurydice, the wife of Arrhidæus, a woman of great ambition and considerable talent for intrigue, wrested the regency from her feeble husband and Python, but was stripped of power on the arrival of Antipater, who reproached the Macedonians for submitting to the government of a woman; and, being ably supported by Antigonus and Seleucus, obtained for himself the office of regent. No sooner had Antipater been invested with supreme power than he sent Arrhidæus and Eurydice prisoners to Pella, and entrusted the conduct of the war against Eumenes to the crafty and ambitious Antigonus. … Eumenes was unable to cope with the forces sent against him; having been defeated in the open field, he took shelter in Nora, a Cappadocian city, and maintained a vigorous defence, rejecting the many tempting offers by which Antigonus endeavoured to win him to the support of his designs (B. C. 318). The death of Antipater produced a new revolution in the empire; and Eumenes in the meantime escaped from Nora, accompanied by his principal friends. … Antipater, at his death, bequeathed the regency to Polysperchon, excluding his son Cassander from power on account of his criminal intrigues with the wicked and ambitious Eurydice. Though a brave general, Polysperchon had not the qualifications of a statesman; he provoked the powerful resentment of Antigonus by entering into a close alliance with Eumenes; and he permitted Cassander to strengthen himself in southern Greece, where he seized the strong fortress of Munychia. … Polysperchon, unable to drive Cassander from Attica, entered the Peloponnesus to punish the Arcadians, and engaged in a fruitless siege of Megalopolis. In the meantime Olympias, to whom he had confided the government of Macedon, seized Arrhidæus and Eurydice, whom she had murdered in prison. Cassander hasted, at the head of all his forces, to avenge the death of his mistress: Olympias, unable to meet him in the field, fled to Pydna; but the city was forced to surrender after a brief defence, and Olympias was immediately put to death. Among the captives were Roxana the widow, Alexander Ægus the posthumous son, and Thessalonica the youngest daughter, of Alexander the Great. Cassander sought and obtained the hand of the latter princess, and thus consoled himself for the loss of his beloved Eurydice. By this marriage he acquired such influence, that Polysperchon did not venture to return home, but continued in the Peloponnesus, where he retained for some time a shadow of authority over the few Macedonians who still clung to the family of Alexander. In Asia, Eumenes maintained the royal cause against Antigonus, though deserted by all the satraps, and harassed by the mutinous dispositions of his troops, especially the Argyraspides, a body of guards that Alexander had raised to attend his own person, and presented with the silver shields from which they derived their name. After a long struggle, both armies joined in a decisive engagement; the Argyraspides broke the hostile infantry, but learning that their baggage had in the meantime been captured by the light troops of the enemy, they mutinied in the very moment of victory, and delivered their leader, bound with his own sash, into the hands of his merciless enemy (B. C. 315). The faithful Eumenes was put to death by the traitorous Antigonus; but he punished the Argyraspides for their treachery."

W. C. Taylor, The Student's Manual of Ancient History, chapter 11, section 3.

ALSO IN: P. Smith, History of the World: Ancient, chapter 17 (volume 2).

G. Grote, History of Greece, chapter 96 (volume 12).

See, also, GREECE: B. C. 321-312.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 315-310. The first league and war against Antigonus. Extermination of the heirs of Alexander.

"Antigonus was now unquestionably the most powerful of the successors of Alexander the Great. As master of Asia, he ruled over those vast and rich lands that extended from India to the Mediterranean Sea. … Although nearly seventy years old, and blind in one eye, he still preserved the vigor of his forces. … He was fortunate in being assisted by a son, the famous Demetrius, who, though possessed of a very passionate nature, yet from early youth displayed wonderful military ability. Above all, the prominent representatives of the royal family had disappeared, and there remained only the youthful Alexander, Herakles, the illegitimate son of Alexander the Great, who had no lawful claim whatever to the sovereignty, and two daughters of Philip, Kleopatra, who lived at Sardis, and Thessalonike, whom Kassander had recently married—none of whom were sufficiently strong to assert their rights to the throne. {2062} Thus Antigonus seemed indeed destined to become vicar and master of the entire Alexandrian kingdom, and to restore the unity of the empire. But not only was this union not realized, but even the great realm which Antigonus had established in Asia was doomed to inevitable destruction. The generals who possessed the various satrapies of the empire could not bear his supremacy, and accordingly entered into a convention, which gradually ripened into an active alliance against him. The principal organ of this movement was Seleukus, who, having escaped to Ptolemy of Egypt, first of all persuaded the latter to form an alliance—which Kassander of Macedonia and Lysimachus of Thrace readily joined—against the formidable power of Antigonus. The war lasted for four years, and was carried on in Asia, Europe, and Africa. Its fortunes were various [the most noteworthy event being a bloody defeat inflicted upon Demetrius the son of Antigonus, by Ptolemy, at Gaza, in 312], but the result was not decisive. … In 311 B. C. a compact was made between Antigonus on one side, and Kassander, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus on the other, whereby 'the supreme command in Europe was guaranteed to Kassander, until the maturity of Alexander, son of Roxana; Thrace being at the same time assured to Lysimachus, Egypt to Ptolemy, and the whole of Asia to Antigonus. It was at the same time covenanted by all that the Hellenic cities should be free.' Evidently this peace contained the seeds of new disputes and increasing jealousies. The first act of Kassander was to cause the death of Roxana and her child in the fortress of Amphipolis, where they had been confined; and thus disappeared forever the only link which apparently maintained the union of the empire, and a ready career now lay open to the ambition of the successors. Again, the name of Seleukus was not even mentioned in the peace, while it was well known at the time it was concluded that he had firmly established his rule over the eastern satrapies of Asia. … The troops also of Antigonus, notwithstanding the treaty, still remained in Hellas, under command of his nephew Ptolemy. Ptolemy of Egypt, therefore, accusing Antigonus of having contravened the treaty by garrisoning various Hellenic cities, renewed the war and the triple alliance against him." A series of assassinations soon followed, which put out of the way the young prince Herakles, bastard son of Alexander the Great, and Kleopatra, the sister of Alexander, who was preparing to wed Ptolemy of Egypt when Antigonus brought about her murder, to prevent the marriage. Another victim of the jealousies that were rife among the Diadochi was Antigonus' nephew Ptolemy, who had deserted his uncle's side, but who was killed by the Egyptian Ptolemy. "For more than ten years … Antigonus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Kassander successively promised to leave the Greeks independent, free, and unguarded; but the latter never ceased to be guarded, taxed, and ruled by Macedonian despots. We may, indeed, say that the cities of Hellas never before had suffered so much as during the time when such great promises were made about their liberty. The Ætolians alone still possessed their independence. Rough, courageous, warlike, and fond of freedom, they continued fighting against the Macedonian rule."

T. T. Timayenis, History of Greece, part 9, chapter 5 (volume 2).

ALSO IN: J. P. Mahaffy, Story of Alexander's Empire, chapters 5-6.

[Image: Four maps of the Empire of Alexander the Great and his successors.]

MACEDONIA: B. C. 310-301. Demetrius Poliorcetes at Athens. His siege of Rhodes. The last combination against Antigonus. His defeat and death at Ipsus. Partition of his dominions.

After the war which was renewed in 310 B. C. had lasted three years, "Antigonus' resolved to make a vigorous effort to wrest Greece from the hands of Cassander and Ptolemy, who held all the principal towns in it. Accordingly, in the summer of 307 B. C., he despatched his son Demetrius from Ephesus to Athens, with a fleet of 250 sail, and 5,000 talents in money. Demetrius, who afterwards obtained the surname of 'Poliorcetes,' or 'Besieger of Cities,' was a young man of ardent temperament and great abilities. Upon arriving at the Piræus, he immediately proclaimed the object of his expedition to be the liberation of Athens and the expulsion of the Macedonian garrison. Supported by the Macedonians, Demetrius the Phalerean had now ruled Athens for a period of more than ten years. … During the first period of his administration he appears to have governed wisely and equitably, to have improved the Athenian laws, and to have adorned the city with useful buildings. But in spite of his pretensions to philosophy, the possession of uncontrolled power soon altered his character for the worse, and he became remarkable for luxury, ostentation, und sensuality. Hence he gradually lost the popularity which he had once enjoyed. … The Athenians heard with pleasure the proclamations of the son of Antigonus; his namesake, the Phalerean, was obliged to surrender the city to him, and to close his political career by retiring to Thebes. … Demetrius Poliorcetes then formally announced to the Athenian assembly the restoration of their ancient constitution, and promised them a large donative of corn and ship-timber. This munificence was repaid by the Athenians with the basest and most abject flattery

See GREECE: B. C. 307-197.

… Demetrius Poliorcetes did not remain long at Athens. Early in 306 B. C. he was recalled by his father, and, sailing to Cyprus, undertook the siege of Salamis. Ptolemy hastened to its relief with 140 vessels and 10,000 troops. The battle that ensued was one of the most memorable in the annals of ancient naval warfare, more particularly on account of the vast size of the vessels engaged. Ptolemy was completely defeated; and so important was the victory deemed by Antigonus, that on the strength of it he assumed the title of king, which he also conferred upon his son. This example was followed by Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus. Encouraged by their success at Cyprus, Antigonus and Demetrius made a vain attempt upon Egypt, which, however, proved a disastrous failure. By way of revenge, Demetrius undertook an expedition against Rhodes, which had refused its aid in the attack upon Ptolemy. It was from the memorable siege of Rhodes that Demetrius obtained his name of Poliorcetes. … After a year spent in the vain attempt to take the town, Demetrius was forced to retire and grant the Rhodians peace.

See RHODES: B. C. 305-304.

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