II. POULTRY AND GAME BIRDS
=Application of Name.=--The term poultry for descriptive purposes may be applied to those classes of feathered domesticated birds used for human food. It, therefore, includes practically all of the domesticated fowls. The term game bird, for the purpose of this manual, is applied to feathered animals which are wild and which are used for human food. This also may apply to almost all wild birds, since at times they practically all have been used for food purposes. Here only those in common use, both domesticated and wild, will be referred to. In connection with poultry the eggs of the birds will be considered.
DOMESTICATED FOWLS.
The principal domesticated fowls which are used for human food are chickens, turkeys, geese, ducks, and guinea hens. The most common of all is the chicken,--the next perhaps are turkeys in this country and the goose in Europe. The others are more infrequently used but are highly prized.
=Chicken.=--The chicken scientifically is known as Gallus domesticus. For food purposes the chicken is eaten at various ages. The very young chicken is commonly called a broiler and is prepared for the table at varying ages from six to twelve weeks. Young chickens are also very commonly called spring chickens, since they occur in greater abundance in the spring than at any other time. Since the introduction of the modern method of incubation, however, the spring chicken may be had at all seasons of the year. The “broiler” and “spring chicken” may be regarded as synonymous terms, though the larger chicks are usually called spring chickens instead of broilers.
Full Grown Chickens.--The full grown chicken is better suited for food when still young. The flesh loses flavor and gains in toughness as the chicken grows older. There is no legal limit fixing the division of chickens into different classes with respect to age and the only criterion is the price and taste of the consumer. There is, perhaps, no objection to the use of old chickens for food purposes, provided they are not sold fraudulently as young chicks. The size and toughness of the pieces one often secures when ordering spring chicken is an indication that the age limit is not very definitely established. Both hens and roosters are used for food purposes, but especially the young roosters are devoted to food purposes while the young hens are often kept for the production of eggs.
Preparation of Chickens for Food Purposes.--In former times, when the chickens of commerce were derived chiefly from the farm, no special preparation was made before the chicken was marketed. The eggs were hatched in the old-fashioned way by the hens and the chicks sold to hucksters or in market, at various ages and without any special preparation or control. All this has been changed in later times by the introduction of scientific methods of breeding poultry. It has been demonstrated that the breeding and care of poultry require as much scientific and economic attention as is devoted to any other successful business.
The Incubator.--The introduction of the incubator for the hatching of eggs with the other necessary arrangements for the caring for young chicks has perhaps done more than any other one thing to revolutionize the method of preparing poultry for the market. By the use of the incubator the hatching of chicks is regulated with the utmost degree of nicety. A larger percentage of eggs produce chicks and the expense of the incubating process is greatly diminished. The incubator is in its widest significance a thermostat in which the eggs may be placed and maintained constantly at the temperature of the hen’s body, namely, about 102 degrees F. The arrangement of the chicken house and the other environments of the young chick are shown in Fig. 12.
Care of Young Chicks.--The principal points in the care of young chicks are fresh air, freedom from infection by epidemic or contagious diseases, exclusion of insect pests, even high temperature, and abundance of food. The young chick is especially sensitive to low temperatures and must be protected from cold, especially from cold rains. For this reason the chicks, after hatching, must be kept, if it is not summer time, in a room where the temperature can be regulated until they have acquired some degree of strength and vitality. The temperature of the chicken house for the young birds should not be lower than 85 or 90 degrees F.
A temperature of about 102 degrees F. is found very favorable to the development of the chicks in the eggs, although the temperature may sometimes fall to 101 or rise to 103 degrees F. without materially affecting the results. Experiments show that too low a temperature arrests the development of the chick. On the contrary there seems to be no indication that an increase of heat, up to 103 degrees F., has any tendency to kill the chick in the last stages of development. It is found best in all cases to set the eggs in the incubator as soon after they are laid as possible. Where the age of the egg is not known it should be carefully candled, that is, held up between the eye and a light in order to determine its condition. In old eggs, the yolk, on candling, becomes more or less diffused with the white and such eggs are to be rejected for incubator purposes as they are not likely to produce chickens. The fertility of the egg must also be assured before placing in the incubator. An unfertilized egg is so much loss in the incubator since it might have been used for food purposes, since the egg, for marketable purposes, when fresh is just as good as a fertilized egg. It is an observed fact that the complete fertilization of the egg, that is, the proper union of the male and female germ cells, is not always complete at the time the egg is laid, but the mingling of the two elements takes place under proper conditions afterwards. The development will also depend upon the vitality of the germ and its component parts. Just, for instance, as the color of the feathers, the size of the body and the general character of the chick may be inherited from either parent, so the vital qualities are much more strongly shown in some eggs than in others. The proper germination of the egg may also be improved by many of the conditions of environment. In the case of eggs, any slight change which would interfere with the functions of the yolk or albumin, both of which are extremely sensitive to change, would interfere with the growth of the embryo either by depriving it of food or subjecting it to other conditions in which its vitality would be diminished or destroyed. The fertilized egg may be separated from the non-fertilized also by candling. At the Rhode Island station it is found that a very good light for candling is the ordinary calcium carbide bicycle lamp, placed in a proper candling box. This is a strong white light quite equal in power to the electric incandescent light and is not so trying to the eyes.
When eggs which have been submitted to incubation permit light to shine through and show the yolk suspended in the upper half of the center as a clearly defined mass, which quickly reassumes its position in turning the egg with its long axis nearly horizontal, they are probably infertile or sterile. When, on the contrary, the yolk assumes indefinite outlines, approaching near the upper portion of the shell at the large end or appears with a thick spur upon its upper side, it may be regarded as having started to incubate. In the later stages the embryo can be plainly seen, because it becomes opaque and cuts off more of the light. In the incubation of eggs the candling is resorted to during the first few days of the experiment in order that the unfertilized eggs may be separated. The best time for the candling, if it is practiced only once, is on the sixth or seventh day of incubation. By that time all the eggs which are fertilized will be so changed as to be easily recognized by the candling process. Experience has shown that eggs which are more than two weeks old are not profitable for use in incubators since the percentage that does not hatch is so large. The incubating part of the plant is sometimes placed in the cellar over which the brooding house is built.
The brooding of young chicks is of the utmost significance. In Europe the changes in temperature are much less violent than in this country. The principal brooding houses in the United States are in the North where the temperature often falls in winter to below zero while in the summer it may rise to blood heat, a difference of over 100 degrees F. For this reason the incubating houses in the United States are often placed in cellars where the uniform conditions of temperature are more easily secured. There is no objection to this location provided proper care be taken to secure ventilation and the proper content of moisture in the atmosphere. In Great Britain the incubating houses are usually placed above ground instead of in cellars. The mean range of temperature in an incubating room in Great Britain, from March 12, 1903, to March 30, 1904, was 10 degrees. The highest temperature registered was 70 degrees on the 24th of June and the lowest 42 degrees in January. The humidity of the air was also quite constant, the lowest degree of humidity being 59 and the highest 94. These data show a very even temperature in the room itself. Of course the temperature in the incubator is necessarily greater, being that already referred to, namely 102 degrees.
Early Market.--One principal object in the raising of chicks is to force them to an early maturity in so far as size and palatability are concerned. The sooner the young broilers can be made ready for the market the more economy there is in their production. To this end they ought to receive a more abundant and specially prepared kind of food than if they were intended for ordinary farm purposes. In other words, the forcing process should be pushed as far as possible without interfering with the health and normal functions of the bird. Foods which are nutritious and stimulating and promote vigorous growth should be employed. Birds prepared in this way for the market are extremely tender and palatable and bring the highest prices where their merits are recognized.
Artificial Feeding.--Where chickens of greater age are prepared for the market they are subjected, during the last two or three weeks previous to sale, to a forcing process in order to produce more fat and make their flesh more palatable. To this end the chickens are fed from time to time mechanically by passing a tube into the craw and forcing the food therein. Fowls prepared in this way bring high prices in the market and the largest profits to the growers. It is a method, however, which is not used in the raising of the ordinary poultry found on the market.
Preparing Chickens for the Market.--Chickens are sold in four different conditions in the markets of this country. First, they are offered alive. A great many purchasers prefer to get their poultry in this way because they can then be certain that it has not been long killed and kept in cold storage or preserved by means of chemicals. It is a very common custom for consumers to have their own chicken coups and buy a number of birds at a time and fatten them particularly for their own use. Under the present system of law this method is highly to be commended as a certain way of knowing the age of the poultry consumed. With proper municipal and state regulations of the markets it would not be necessary for the consumer to go to this trouble since when rigid inspection and certification are established, the age of the chicken offered on the market can be easily ascertained. Until such time comes, however, on the part of the consumer, the desirability of securing chickens alive cannot be denied.
Freshly Killed Chickens.--Chickens which have been killed within twenty-four or forty-eight hours and properly kept may be regarded as freshly killed. There is a very wide-spread opinion, and probably founded on reliable experiments, that fowls are better if they are kept some time after slaughter, provided they are kept in a proper way. In the winter time it is customary, especially in Europe, to hang the fowl for a week or ten days exposed to the ordinary temperature, before consumption. This, of course, is a practice which could not be indulged in in warm weather. Fowls, however, can be hung in cold storage even in the summer time and with the same advantage which accrues by hanging them in ordinary temperature in the winter time. Just how long fowls should be kept after slaughter in this way in order to secure a maximum degree of palatability has not been scientifically determined. There is evidently a limit beyond which the keeping of slaughtered fowls should not be indulged in. If a low and even temperature could be secured it may be certain that the hanging of the fowl for a week or ten days is not too long. The temperature, however, should not be much above the freezing point.
Freshly killed chickens are offered in two forms, namely, drawn and undrawn. The proper method of keeping a slaughtered chicken has been the subject of very lively discussions. There are many who are advocates of the exposure of the chicken in the undrawn state asserting that in this condition it is less exposed to infection and keeps better during the necessary time elapsing between slaughter and consumption. This argument is advanced chiefly by dealers. On the other hand the consumer, as a rule, is in favor of having the chicken drawn before it is exposed for sale, that is, as soon as it is slaughtered. There is perhaps much to be said on both sides of this question. If, however, chickens are to be secured by the consumer within forty-eight hours after slaughter there can be no very great danger of infection by having them undrawn. The subject is one of sufficient importance to warrant an extended scientific investigation and upon this investigation the municipal and state regulations for the sale of poultry can be based. It is not wise in such cases to be swayed solely by prejudice or sentiment but rather by the facts which can be ascertained by unbiased scientific investigation. Because a chicken weighs more undrawn is probably one of the reasons why dealers prefer them in this state. It may be said, too, that the intestinal organs are so impenetrable to the diffusion of their contents as not to create any danger of contamination by remaining in the undrawn state. On the contrary, the keeping of chickens with the intestinal contents undisturbed does not appeal to the imagination of the consumer any more than the freezing of the carcass of a beef or hog with the viscera remaining would appeal to the consumer. If the carcass of a chicken can be better kept undrawn it is evident that the carcass of a steer or hog can also be better kept if subjected to the proper temperature. Upon the whole it appears that the safer way would be to have the poultry drawn at the time of slaughter and delivered to the consumer at an early date thereafter. In this way all danger of infection on the cut surfaces becomes avoided. At any rate the consumer should be allowed the choice in the matter which, at the present time, is not the case in many parts of this country where only undrawn poultry is exposed for sale.
Poultry in Cold Storage.--Whenever a fowl is kept for a longer period than the week or ten days above referred to for the purpose of improving its flavor and palatability it is necessary that it be placed in cold storage. This method of keeping poultry or other foods is wholly unobjectionable unless carried to excess. Poultry is a food product which under the present scientific methods of production can be furnished in a fresh state all the year. The necessity for cold storage, therefore, is not so apparent in this case as in that of fruit and other perishable foods. It appears then that cold storage only should be extended to that limit necessary to secure its delivery to the consumer. There can scarcely be any excuse for the placing of poultry in cold storage at certain seasons of the year when they are slightly less in price by reason of the abundant production than at other seasons. The methods of producing poultry are such at the present time that this excess in supply can easily be avoided on the part of the producer and thus maintain an even price and an even supply the year round. The producer as well as the consumer is benefited by such a condition. The necessity, often, for cold storage in the limited sense above referred to is acknowledged by all and a reasonable degree of time in cold storage cannot be regarded as in any way measurably harmful with reference to the character of the product. It is probable that as long as four or six months may be regarded as a justifiable limit for securing a proper market for poultry in cold storage though the exact length of time in which it may be left in cold storage will be determined only by careful scientific investigation. There seems to be no necessity whatever for carrying fowls for a longer period and especially, as has been known, for a year or even two years. The deterioration, even if the temperature is far below the freezing point, is very marked during these long periods of time and actual danger may accrue to the consumer in the possible development of poisonous degradation products in the flesh. Municipal, state, and national regulations should be of a character to inform the consumer of the exact length of time which the poultry he proposes to purchase has been in cold storage. This is the least which the consumer has the right to know and is a right which the producer and packer should concede without discussion. The unwillingness which has been manifested on the part of dealers in poultry to make public the length of time which it has been in cold storage is of itself a suspicious condition. The argument is constantly heard that the length of time poultry has been in cold storage does not impair its palatability or wholesomeness. If this be true then a statement of the length of time cannot in any way injure the market. But to this reply is made to the effect that if the consumer is told the fowl has been in cold storage a certain length of time he will not purchase it. To this the evident answer is,--why should you deceive the consumer by selling him an article which if he knew its character he would not buy? It is evident that such deception is nothing more nor less than obtaining money under false pretenses. The remedy for the evil of cold storage is the label which will indicate the length of time which has elapsed since the slaughter of the fowl.
There is, perhaps, no greater blessing which has been conferred upon mankind during the last quarter of a century than the development of cold storage methods of preserving food. The continued prosperity and benefits of this business depend upon a thorough study of the conditions attendant thereon and the elimination of any evil which may be incident thereto. When this is accomplished the absolute confidence which the consumer will have in cold storage will be such that the magnitude of the business will be immensely increased. Thus the interests of the consumer and the dealer are one and they should work together to promote their common good.
Composition of the White Meat of a Chicken.--The meat of a chicken, carefully prepared in the laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry, was analyzed by separation into the white and dark portions. The composition of the two meats is as follows:
WATER IN FAT-FREE MEAT WATER. SUBSTANCE. FAT. PROTEIN. BASES. Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent. White meat, 61.38 75.08 18.25 17.06 .37 Dark meat, 59.48 78.44 24.16 15.94 1.03
The above data show that there is a notable difference in the composition of the white and the dark meat. The white meat has much less fat and a correspondingly larger quantity of protein. The quantity of water in the two classes of meat is not very different although there is a slightly less quantity in the dark meat. The dark meat has a much larger proportion of meat bases but as these bases are often considered of little value and sometimes degenerate into poisonous constituents it is seen from this point of view that the white meat is to be preferred to the dark meat.
Preserved Chicken.--Practically the only methods of preserving chickens are the canning processes which have already been described and cold storage. Chickens may be canned in the same way as has been described for beef and in that way may be kept for a certain length of time without notable deterioration. The pickling of chicken is not very extensively practiced nor is it cured in the ordinary sense of the word, that is, by the addition of salt, sugar, vinegar, spices, and wood smoke. Chicken may also be put up in the form of potted chicken, which has already been described. Practically the only methods which are in vogue and which can be commended for preserving chicken are sterilizing or canning and cold storage. These methods, when not unduly prolonged, are open to no reasonable objection. The preserving of chickens with spices and condiments may also, perhaps, be considered as desirable provided no harmful chemical preservatives are employed. The temptation, however, to employ such preservatives is so great as not to be always resisted.
Adulteration of Potted Chicken and Turkey.--Perhaps there is no other form of potted meat, with the possible exception of pâté de foie gras, where such an opulent field for sophistication is found as in the case of potted chicken and turkey. The average composition of ten samples of alleged potted chicken and turkey, found upon the market, is shown in the following table:
Water, 58.52 percent Water in fat-free substance, 71.24 „ Fat, 17.98 „ Protein, 19.12 „ Meat bases, .96 „ Glycogen, .26 „ Total ash, 2.67 „ Of which sodium chlorid, 1.05 „
All but one of the ten samples contained starch but not in very considerable quantities, the largest amount being 4.13 percent.
None of the samples contained saltpeter. This is an interesting point because of the claim of the packers that saltpeter is used solely for preservation purposes. When a meat is expected to be of a white color no saltpeter is found while, on the contrary, where the meat is of a red character it is frequently found. Tin was present in four samples, doubtless due to some contamination with the solder or by corrosion of the tin can itself. Where tin is present due to the corrosion of the can itself it is always in greater abundance in the old than in the newly canned sample. It is quite certain that the contents of these packages were not made up of chicken and turkey exclusively. The characteristic odor and taste of smoked meats which are found in these packages would indicate that they are used to give flavor and aroma to the mixture. The addition of flavoring materials of this kind, or “force” meats as they are sometimes called, is not objectionable from any sanitary or dietetic point of view. It is, however, an offense against an ethical principle which must be closely followed in a case of this kind if the doors of fraud and adulteration are not to be left wide open. This principle is that no false idea by inference, omission or otherwise, should be conveyed to the consumer by the label. Some form of expression for potted meat should be used in which the label gives the principal or dominant meat in the mixture, accompanied by the statement that it is a mixture with other meats also named, spiced and flavored. Under the present condition of affairs a manufacturer who really wishes to put into potted form chicken and turkey with only spices and condiments has to undergo an unfair competition with another manufacturer who uses the same label and reduces the quantity of expensive meat to a minimum or may possibly leave it out altogether. Under the new food law this unfair competition will be prevented.
Adulteration of Chicken.--The flesh of chicken is not subjected to any very extensive adulterations. It has been claimed that preservatives are applied externally to fresh fowls but the evidence on this point is not very conclusive. There is, perhaps, little doubt that other methods have been practiced but probably without any very great vogue. The use of chemical preservatives in potted chicken is also reprehensible. In general it may be said that there is no very extensive adulteration of chicken meat. The principal objection to the commerce in preserved chicken meat is the use of old chickens, the unlimited cold storage, the failure to draw at time of slaughter, and exposure in the market in an unsanitary condition and for an indefinite time. Cheaper meats are sometimes substituted for the genuine article in potted chicken. Turkey and pork are said to be used in chicken salad.
Capons.--The castration of the male bird produces the capon, the flesh of which is very highly valued as being superior to that of the male or female chicken. Capons are much more extensively used in Europe than in the United States but are gradually coming into favor in this country. It is difficult to describe the difference between the taste of the flesh of the capon and the rooster and hen. A greater degree of tenderness and a more delicate taste characterize the flesh of the capon. In France, especially, the production of capons has been carried to its highest perfection. Caponizing should be practiced at an early date in the life of the young bird. In fact, as soon as the distinction in sex is well marked in the young chicken the removal of the testes should take place. The young fowl is laid upon its left side and the skin is exposed by pulling back the feathers and trimming them off at the proper place until the space between the first and second ribs of the right side is laid bare. An incision is then carefully made and the testes removed by instruments particularly adapted for that purpose. The operation should be done by an expert although theoretically it appears easy of accomplishment. In practice, however, it requires an expert to avoid any injury to the bird and to insure a speedy recovery. When done in the proper way, apparently no great inconvenience attends the operation. There is little blood shed and usually no inflammation when the proper antiseptic measures are provided.
The capon develops a bird that apparently has little to do except grow fat and prepare itself for the market. The caponized bird often develops brooding instincts and when eggs are hatched by the heat of the bird the capon makes a better brooder than the hen because of the greater spread of the wings and the larger number of eggs that can be covered in the operation. The larger breeds of birds make the best capons such as the brahmas and plymouth rocks. The capons are fattened and prepared for the market as in the case of other birds. When skimmed milk is made a large portion of the diet the flesh is considered to be of greater value. The best age for marketing a capon is at about twelve months. At that time they have attained their full size and their maximum degree of excellence as a food bird. The feeding should be done upon the principles already described, namely, to keep the birds growing in the usual way until about three or four weeks before the market when the extra food is given in as large quantities as possible for quick fattening. In Europe this extra food is usually given mechanically under the forced system though in this country the mechanical method of feeding capons has not generally been introduced.
Capons bring a higher price upon the market than the other varieties of chicken, sometimes the difference being as much as four or five cents a pound. For this reason the growth of capons becomes more profitable to the farmer than that of the ordinary chicken.
=Duck= (Anas boschas).--The domesticated duck is used very largely for food in all parts of the world. Its flavor is not so highly prized as that of the wild duck but it is an excellent article of diet. The production of ducks is conducted in the same manner as the production of poultry in general. They are still chiefly grown upon the farm without any special care but the best results are obtained by the systematic growth of ducks under scientific conditions in poultry houses. The duck is not so extensively used for food as the turkey and chicken but perhaps in this country much more extensively than the goose. The price of the wild duck, however, is still sufficiently low to limit to a certain extent the production of the domesticated article.
Varieties of Ducks.--There are many varieties of ducks cultivated for the market. The Pekin is perhaps the most abundant of all. It is creamy white in color, has a long and graceful body and has been particularly bred for the market. When ready for the market the average weight of the drake is about eight pounds and the duck seven. The Aylesbury is also a favorite variety. It is said to be somewhat whiter than the Pekin in color. It is specially valued in England as a market duck. It is somewhat larger than the Pekin. Other varieties of ducks are the Rover, the Cayuga, the Gray and White Call, the East Indian, the Crested White, the colored and white Muscovy, and the Indian runner. The latter is a very small duck, being only about one-half the size of the Pekin. Usually the ducks on the market are not designated by any particular variety and, in fact, most consumers are not sufficiently acquainted with the different varieties of duck to be able to ask for any particular one. The mallard, canvas-back, and teal are common varieties of the wild duck.
Composition of the Flesh of Ducks.--The flesh of two varieties of ducks, namely the Pekin duck and the Mallard duck, was carefully separated in the Bureau of Chemistry and subjected to analysis. The composition of the meat of these two ducks is shown in the following table:
WATER IN FAT-FREE MEAT WATER. SUBSTANCE. FAT. PROTEIN. BASES. Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent. Pekin duck, 47.46 78.20 39.31 13.37 .43 Mallard duck, 69.06 75.98 7.11 19.25 .65
The above data show a striking difference between these two varieties of ducks. The Pekin duck has a large excess of fat while the Mallard duck, which is a wild duck and evidently not very fat, has a small percentage of fat and a large percentage of protein. It is evident that the flesh of wild fowl would not, except at a certain season of the year, approach that of domesticated fowls in the percentage of fat which it contains.
=Goose= (Anser anser).--The goose is not so commonly used as a food product in this country as in Europe,--the turkey to some extent has taken its place. The remarks which are applicable to the production of chickens are also applicable to the production of geese. They, perhaps, are grown more extensively in the old-fashioned way in this country than chickens or turkeys at the present time since they are used chiefly for the feathers which they produce and not for food. Goose is also considered a winter dish both in this country and in Europe. It is customary in Europe that the goose be hung even for a longer period before consumption than the chicken. Its flesh is made more tender and more palatable by this preliminary exposure. From one to two weeks is not considered too long a time in the winter for hanging in the old country. The remarks relative to cold storage of turkey and chicken apply also to the goose. The goose is, perhaps, the most easily artificially fattened of any other poultry birds. This is especially true in those regions where fatty goose livers are so highly prized in the manufacture of pâté de foie gras. By long-continued artificial feeding the goose is made excessively fat and the liver especially is changed in its composition by this treatment so as to make it peculiarly suitable for the production of this delicacy.
Varieties of Geese.--The varieties of geese upon the market comprise the following leading breeds. The Toulouse is perhaps the most extensively raised. It is highly prized on account of its hardihood, its size and the general appearance of its body. It is of a gray to white color and the wings are a deeper gray or brown. The legs are usually of a deep orange. When ready for the market the average weight of the gander is 20 pounds and the goose 18. Of the other common varieties there are the Embden, the African, the brown and white Chinese, the white or Canada, and the Egyptian. The latter is a small goose only weighing about half as much as the Toulouse when ready for the market. The wild goose is highly esteemed as a game bird.
Feeding of Young Geese for the Market.--The feeding of geese for the market begins as soon as the hatching is complete. The first meal of the young chicks consists of oat meal, middlings, finely chopped dandelions, lettuce or some similar green stuff, and milk. The goslings during the first week are kept indoors and should be fed four or five times a day on the mixture above named. After this they may go into a yard where there is plenty of grass, not overgrown, and they will thrive on this very well for a time without hand feeding. Not more than two feedings a day are necessary between the ages of one and six weeks where plenty of grass is at hand. During this time no better food than ground oats and skimmed milk can be used. During all this period great care is taken that the goslings are not subjected to any disease or to cold. They should be carefully housed in sanitary coups where the temperature does not sink too low and where they are protected from cold rains. After the goslings are eight weeks old they are usually able to take care of themselves in respect of food and need, perhaps only one feeding a day. If these goslings are hatched in the early spring they may be ready for fattening for the Christmas market. The geese until shortly before the time for market are allowed to run free in a field, not too large, where there are ponds or troughs of water in abundance. In this way the frame of the goose will be sufficiently developed by the time the fattening period comes but there will have been no unusual expense in the production of the fowl until it is prepared for the market. The large frame is necessary in order that the goose may properly fatten. It usually requires about three weeks of artificial feeding to bring a goose into proper condition for the market. If the geese are for the Christmas market about the 25th of November they are put up in sheds for fattening for though they have been well fed during the summer and autumn they cannot be called fat geese until they have gone through a special course of nutrition. While they are confined for fattening, geese require plenty of fresh air but very little light and these conditions are procured by housing them in large airy sheds without windows. Before the fattening season these sheds are thoroughly cleaned and whitewashed and the floor covered with cinders, ashes, and charcoal. This mixture is not only a good bedding but is also a good deodorizer, which is quite important. Food troughs are arranged along the walls inside the shed and troughs for water outside in such a way that the birds can reach the water but cannot get into it. Clean charcoal is to be put into the shed every day as it is constantly eaten by the geese and is valuable. The foods used are oat meal, boiled potatoes, linseed meal or other oil cakes, and plenty of milk, usually skimmed. The birds should have all of this that they can eat, for in the process we are now describing the artificial forcing of food into the craw is not practiced. In three weeks a good goose will increase four or five pounds in weight and this increase brings the goose up from an ordinary bird in good condition to one which is properly fed for the market.
The killing of geese is practiced in practically the same manner as that which is described for slaughtering fowls. A goose is a bird of large vitality and dies hard as is the case with most fowls. The feathers should be taken off the body clean, as they are valuable for commercial purposes. Any pin feathers should be cut with a sharp knife so as to make the bird look as clean as possible when brought to the market. The carcass of the goose should not be packed to send to market until it is entirely cold and in this country, especially, where the distances are great, it is advisable to send it packed in ice or in a cold storage car. The average weight of a goose about nine months old thus prepared for the market is about fourteen pounds and the flesh is certain to be more palatable at this age when fattened in the manner above described.
=Domesticated Pigeon= (Columba livia).--In the last few years the production of domesticated pigeons has been extensively practiced in this country, and especially the production of young pigeons which are known as squabs. They are rapidly taking the place of game birds at the hotels and restaurants of the country. The conditions of production, preparation, etc., are the same as those for the ordinary domesticated fowl. There are many varieties of the bird grown; some, as the carrier, for special purposes. The other principal varieties are barbs, fantails, jacobins, runts, trumpeters, tumblers, and turbits.
=Turkey= (Meleagris americana).--In general the statement which has been made regarding the production of fowls or chickens may be applied also to the production of turkeys. No further comment, therefore, is to be made under that head. The old-fashioned method of securing turkeys grown under natural conditions has, to a great extent, given way to the production of turkeys on a large scale and under scientific conditions. Turkeys, as a rule, are not eaten young, but practically full-grown. In this country the turkey is a dish which is particularly affected for festive occasions such as Thanksgiving and Christmas, though they are eaten largely throughout the whole year. The market, however, for turkeys is particularly a November and December market and the large introduction of turkeys in the market is so timed as to furnish them in proper condition for consumption during those two months.
The methods of preparing turkeys for the market, keeping them in cold storage, of hanging them previous to consumption and exposing them drawn or undrawn for sale, are subject to the same remarks as has been made in the case of chickens. Turkeys are said to be more difficult to care for, both on the farm and in the professional poultry factory, than chickens. They are more subject to disease and more difficult to bring to maturity than chickens.
Composition of Meat of Turkey.--The flesh of the turkey was separated into two portions, the white and dark meats, and these were found to have the following composition:
WATER IN FAT-FREE MEAT WATER. SUBSTANCE. FAT. PROTEIN. BASES. White meat, 55.50 74.70 25.71 18.31 1.31 Dark meat, 54.13 75.76 27.76 16.75 1.15
A comparison of these two analyses show that there is little difference in the content of water in the white and dark meat. The dark meat, as in the case of chicken, has more fat and a correspondingly less amount of protein. The quantity of protein in the meat of turkey is about the same as that of chicken. The white meat of turkey differs from the white meat of chicken more in its content of meat bases than in any other way, except that the meat of turkey contains more fat, especially the white meat, than that of chicken.
=Composition of the Meat of Chicken, Turkey, Duck, and Goose.=--The composition of the chicken, turkey, duck, goose, and pigeon as given by König is found in the following table:
WATER. PROTEIN. FAT. ASH. Chicken (lean), 76.22 19.72 1.42 1.37 Chicken (fat), 70.06 18.49 9.34 .91 Young cock (fat), 70.03 23.32 3.15 1.01 Turkey, 65.60 24.70 8.50 1.20 Duck (wild), 70.80 22.65 3.11 1.09 Goose (fat), 38.02 15.91 49.59 .48
The above data show that with the exception of the goose the percentage of fat given in the flesh of the animals is very much less than that found in our own work. Even in the fat chicken only a little over 9 percent of fat was found. It is believed that the composition of these fowls as given by the work of the Bureau of Chemistry more nearly represents the average composition in this country than the data taken from König.
=Importance of Animal Food in the Growth of Poultry.=--Many people suppose that poultry can live upon vegetables alone and this is probably true. Experience, however, shows that poultry does not thrive and fatten well on purely vegetable food. This fact was brought out very prominently in the experiments at the Cornell station where poultry of the same origin and character was fed two kinds of diet, one being partly of animal food and the other purely vegetable foods. The ration of the animal food consisted of Indian corn meal, wheat flour, ground oats, wheat bran, wheat middlings, pea meal, linseed meal, meat, and fresh bone. The vegetable ration consisted of pea meal, linseed meal, wheat bran, ground oats, Indian corn meal, wheat middlings, gluten meal, and skimmed milk. Before the experiment had been long under way it was noticed that the birds receiving the meat food were developing rapidly and evenly while those that received the purely vegetable diet were becoming thin and uneven in size. The authors of the bulletin say that it was sometimes almost pitiful to see the long-necked, scrawny, vegetable-fed birds, with troughs full of abundant good, wholesome food before them, stand on the alert and scamper in hot haste after the unlucky grasshopper or fly which ventured into their pen, while the contented looking meat-fed ducks lay lazily in the sun and paid no attention to the buzzing bee or crawling beetle. The vegetable-fed birds literally starved to death, at least many of them, so that only twenty of the thirty-three with which the experiment was commenced were alive at the close of the fifteen weeks of feeding.
=The Forced Fattening of Poultry.=--Allusion has already been made to the forced fattening of poultry secured by injecting food into the craw in larger quantities than would naturally be taken by the fowl if left to itself. There is much to be said both for and against this method of fattening. In favor of this method it may be stated that the birds fattened in this way are more highly prized by the connoisseur, are naturally fatter by reason of the enforced idleness of the birds during the fattening process, thus diminishing muscular activity, and more tender than the birds left at freedom and forced to secure their own food. From the point of view of the seller, also, the birds are heavier and the artificially fattened fowl usually brings a higher price, pound for pound, on the market. Against the method it is urged that it is barbarous, imposing upon the birds a diet far beyond normal capacity and thus tending to damage and injure the organs of the body charged with the assimilation of food and the secretion of the waste products.
The above indictment is doubtless true is almost every respect. In explanation it may be said that the period of forcing food is always a short one, rarely extending beyond three weeks, and, therefore, any injury to the organs which might be induced is not of sufficient duration to establish any real form of disease. In other words, the birds are slaughtered before any lesions of the organs are produced. The livers of the animals, especially geese, thus artificially fattened, take on an extra quantity of fat during this period but it cannot be said that they become really diseased. The fatty livers, as is well known, are used particularly in the manufacture of a mixed spiced meat known as pâté de foie gras.
Upon the whole it is believed that no injury is done the bird by this process of feeding which could in any way be regarded as detrimental to the flesh as a food product. In regard to the apparent barbarity of the process little need be said. The slaughter of animals for human food in itself is a barbarous practice from one point of view but if this practice is justified, as it doubtless is, by the exigencies of human nutrition, the slight degree of force which is employed in artificial fattening cannot be condemned. Moreover the artificial fattening of the fowl is of necessity a somewhat limited operation and confined to those establishments that are devoted exclusively to the production of high-grade and high-priced poultry for the market. The fattening is done by experts and, in so far as the experience of feeding men in the same way is concerned, is not attended with any pain or discomfort other than that incident to a chronically full craw.
Increase in Weight.--There is a larger increase in the weight of artificially fattened poultry over those fed in the ordinary way and allowed to run free than is usually supposed. It is stated by some authors that the average increase in weight of artificially fattened birds is as much as 35 percent. There is no secret connected with the method of artificial fattening as is sometimes supposed. There are perhaps proprietary methods for preparing foods for fattening purposes but there is no secret in the mechanism of the process. In fact the process is so simple that it might be easily taught in a general way so that the farm hand would become an expert in its use and the farmer’s poultry instead of being sent to market in a half-emaciated condition might be offered to the public in the best possible shape. Poultry running at large use up a large part of the value of their food in the heat and energy developed in the ordinary search for food. When confined and fed artificially this excess of heat and energy is naturally stored as fat.
Experience has shown that the artificial feeding must be a limited one and the bird must be sent to market as soon as it has reached its maximum of perfection under the process. Experience has also shown that in the artificial feeding it is best to have each bird in a small compartment to itself with the cage so arranged that the bird can put its head through a slat in front and thus receive the food from the machine without disturbing any of its neighbors. That the birds are perfectly willing to take the food in this way is evidenced by the fact that they voluntarily put their heads through the apertures to receive their food. Each individual coup must be kept scrupulously clean and disinfected and the air in the room kept perfectly fresh and sweet. Lime should be used freely in all parts of the coup house in the form of whitewash or sprinkled about the floor or upon the floors of the coups. Gypsum or ordinary land plaster is also highly prized as another form of lime which is found to be very valuable. The whitewash must be freely indulged in and at frequent intervals.
There are various forms of fattening food used in this country. Indian corn meal forms an important part. The presence of certain animal products must not be neglected in the food as it has been shown that fowls thrive better when given, in their food, a certain amount of animal matter, both of flesh and finely ground bone. The fattening food must be in the form of a finely ground paste of the proper consistency to be handled well in the machine. It is a universal practice which custom has shown to be necessary to mix with the food a certain quantity of finely pulverized charcoal, usually about three pounds of the charcoal to 97 pounds of food. Some feeders prefer to mix the paste about twenty-four hours before it is administered, believing that the slight fermentation thus produced is beneficial.
The Cramming Machine.--Various forms of machines are employed for introducing the food into the craw. The tube carrying the food is introduced into the esophagus of the bird in a manner to avoid any pain and the apparatus is so adjusted that with a single movement of the machine, usually operated by the foot, the proper amount of food is injected. The birds should be arranged according to size so that all of a certain size may have exactly the same quantity of food administered. The operator would thus be saved the difficulty of guessing the different sizes. The arrangement of the coups and the kind of the cramming machine vary greatly. In the beginning of artificial feeding the birds should not be pushed to their full capacity. An increasing quantity of food should be given up to the end of the first week or ten days before the full maximum dose is administered. In general it is found best to take the bird out of the coup for feeding, holding it under the arm so that the neck can be made perfectly straight and gently inserting the flexible tube which carries the food and thus with the single movement of a lever, filling the craw. The use of the machine, however, is found to be advantageous from a point of economy although it is claimed that the cramming of birds by means of a funnel has been found very efficacious. With a good machine an expert operator can feed about 250 birds in an hour. An important point in the fattening is that the food should be given regularly.
=Slaughtering Fowls for the Market.=--It is important that a uniform and proper method be used for killing fowls intended for the market. There are two methods in common vogue, namely, by bleeding and by dislocation of the neck. The method of killing is important in order that the proper method of dressing for the market may be secured. A fowl which is offered for sale ought to be attractively dressed and any brutal or defacing method of slaughter makes it impossible afterwards to render the fowl attractive to the customer.
In killing by the dislocation of the neck the operator takes the bird by the thigh and top of the wing in the left hand and the head in the right and then draws it steadily until dislocation takes place. The skin remains unbroken and no bruised effect is produced but all the blood in the body drains into the neck and remains there. This method is one especially practiced in England (Journal, Board of Agriculture, 1904-5, page 306). Where the bird is very large, as is the case with turkeys, it may require the full strength of a man in order to produce the dislocation in the manner mentioned. In this case it is often necessary to first hang the bird up by the leg to secure the best results.
In killing a fowl by bleeding it is strung up by the legs with its head hanging downward. The operator then gives it a sharp blow with a stick on the back of the head and when he has stunned it by this means he inserts a sharp knife into the roof of the mouth, penetrating the brain. He also severs the large artery of the throat by rotating the knife and the bird rapidly bleeds to death. This method of killing, it is seen, is not a very humane one. If, for instance, the sensation of the bird is not destroyed by the first blow the other process must be needlessly painful. This process, simplified somewhat by omitting the hanging, is the one commonly followed by professionals in this country. In England turkeys which are prepared for the market are plucked but not drawn. One of the newest methods of plucking is known as the Devonshire style and consists in stripping the feathers clean off the breast and thighs but leaving the neck, back and wings covered. The fowls are then tied around the legs with a strong cord in such a manner as to show the plumpness of the breast prominently.
The methods of preparation of the fowls depend largely on the demands of the market to which they are going. Some require the fowls to be clean plucked and others prefer some of the feathers left on.
=Eggs.=--Eggs are a common article of diet throughout the world. The eggs of domesticated fowls are those which are principally used for food, though the eggs of wild fowls, and birds and reptiles are also edible but on account of the difficulty of getting them and their rarity are not to be considered as a commercial article. The chief sources of supply are the eggs of chickens, ducks, and geese. Chicken eggs are by far the most important, duck eggs the next important, and goose eggs the least important. The eggs of fish also constitute an article of food of considerable value and are extensively used. For instance the fresh eggs of shad are used in large quantities during the whole of the shad season and are often kept in cold storage for use at other times. The eggs of sturgeon are used extensively in the fresh state and when pickled as caviar are highly esteemed throughout the world. These two kinds of eggs are probably the most important of fish eggs used for food purposes. Chicken eggs vary greatly in size according to the age and variety of the fowl. The average weight of chicken eggs is 680 grams per dozen. They vary also in color from pure white to a brownish yellow. Duck eggs are larger and also variegated in color. The average weight of duck eggs is 847.2 grams per dozen. Goose eggs are the largest of the three varieties, varying also in color. They weigh on an average 2284.8 grams per dozen. Eggs also vary greatly in shape, being generally ovoid but some being much more spherical than others according to the species of the fowl and variety. The number of eggs which a chicken will lay varies greatly. Attempts have been made, with great success, at experiment stations, to develop chickens with high laying powers. A hen which will produce over 200 eggs a year is regarded as a high-grade fowl for egg-producing purposes. Eggs are produced more abundantly during the early spring and summer than during the winter months. One of the purposes of scientific egg producing is the development of fowls that will produce eggs more evenly throughout the whole year, thus avoiding the very great depression in the price of eggs in the spring and the excessively high price of eggs in the winter.
Composition of Eggs.--A large number of eggs have been analyzed in all quarters of the world and found to vary but little in composition in different localities, and very little also in regard to the variety of the fowl. The egg consists essentially of two portions,--an external highly albuminous portion known as the white and an internal colored portion, yellow or reddish in tint, known as the yolk. The white of an egg is composed almost entirely of albumin partially dissolved in water. The yolk of the egg is composed of albumin, fat, and a phosphorus-bearing material of high nutritive value known as lecithin. The yolk of an egg is a much richer food product than the white, containing in addition to the nitrogenous element the fat and mineral bodies necessary to nutrition. Both the white and yolk of an egg are composed principally of water as will be seen by the following analytical data:
COMPOSITION OF EDIBLE PART OF EGGS.
WATER. PROTEIN. FAT. ASH. CALORIES. Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent. Per pound. Hen, 73.7 13.4 10.5 1.0 .... Duck, 70.5 13.3 14.5 1.0 985 Goose, 69.5 13.8 14.4 1.0 985 Turkey, 73.3 13.4 11.2 0.9 850
Preservation of Eggs.--Freshly laid eggs may be preserved for several days without any notable deterioration by keeping in a cool place. The temperature of preservation should be as nearly the freezing point as can be secured. The vital processes are continually going on in a fresh egg and hence there is a development of a certain degree of heat due to these activities. For this reason eggs can be placed in an atmosphere below the freezing point of water without being frozen. An additional reason for this is found in the fact that the water which is present in eggs holds the albumin and other bodies in solution and the freezing point of a solution is always lower than that of the solvent alone. For domestic purposes where refrigerating establishments are not available the fresh eggs should be kept in a cool dark place where the temperature is not allowed to go above 50 or 60 degrees. At a higher temperature than this fresh eggs lose their freshness in a remarkably short time. The porous nature of the shell is a condition which favors the deterioration of the egg by the admission of air and microbes into the substance of the egg itself.
The preservation of eggs is, therefore, materially assisted by coating the egg artificially with a varnish or film of some kind which renders the egg impervious to air and water. One of the cheapest, simplest, and best of these coatings, as has already been noted, is soluble glass. This is produced by dissolving the chemical substance known as silicate of soda in water, and dipping the egg into the solution, removing and allowing to dry. The silicate of soda which is thus left in a thin film over the surface of the egg penetrates and stops the pores and renders the egg shell practically impervious both to air and water. This material has the property of becoming totally insoluble in water when it has once been dried so that even if the egg is afterwards subjected to rain or water in any form the film is not removed. Many other methods of coating eggs have been employed and are dependent upon the same principle but are perhaps not so effectual and simple as the inexpensive method above described.
Cold Storage.--Eggs either with or without the coating of the surface, usually without, may be kept for a considerable length of time without deterioration in cold storage. In this case it is advisable to reduce the temperature to the lowest possible point to retain the semi-fresh condition of the contents. Water freezes at 32 degrees, but for the reasons above mentioned the temperature at which the egg is stored may be reduced notably below 32 degrees without danger of solidifying. The eggs kept in cold storage gradually acquire a taste and aroma which are quite different from the fresh article and the period of preservation should never be prolonged, probably a month or six weeks is the extreme limit for keeping eggs which can still be regarded as having the qualities of the fresh article. In practice, eggs are kept often a very much longer time since the principal object of cold storage is to lay in a supply in the spring and summer when they are abundant and keep them over until the next winter. The average age of cold storage eggs is probably more than six months. At this time the eggs have acquired a distinctly unpleasant odor and flavor which enables even one who is not an expert to distinguish between them and the fresh article. Such eggs should not be allowed on the market except under their proper designation so that the purchaser may know the character of the product he is getting. There is a determined opposition on the part of those dealing in cold storage eggs against such marking, an opposition which can only be explained by the fact that the amount of deterioration is fully as great as specified. If cold storage eggs have not been kept long enough to develop any of the objectionable conditions mentioned above and are inferior only in respect of taste and aroma there seems to be no just reason why they should be forbidden sale. They usually bring a lower price than fresh eggs produced at the time of sale and thus are brought more readily within the means of those who are less able to pay the higher prices. Cold storage eggs are extensively used for baking purposes and in this condition escape the detection of the consumer. This appears, however, to be no just reason for their use without notice.
Broken Eggs.--An extensive industry has been practiced for many years in the product known as broken eggs. In the preparation of broken eggs at times of great abundance, the eggs are collected and broken and then mixed together in containers of various sizes, often as large as barrels, and preserved by the admixture of borax. From two to four pounds of borax are usually employed per 100 pounds of broken eggs. In this condition the eggs are kept from the time of great abundance until the time of higher prices, namely, from six to eight months, and then sent into commerce. The use of broken eggs of this kind for edible purposes is totally indefensible. While borax prevents the development of bacteria it does not entirely inhibit enzymic action and hence that subtle change of nitrogenous matter which produces poisonous bodies may go on in the presence of borax while apparently the egg itself remains undecomposed. Broken eggs were formerly sent to this country in large quantities from China and other Asiatic countries but since the passage of food inspection laws as applied to foreign commerce the importation of this class of food products has been prohibited, on the ground that they are unfit for human consumption. Other preserving agents have been used in place of borax for these products, but all are open to similar objections. Broken eggs are used chiefly by bakers in large cities.
Dried Eggs.--The rapid drying of fresh eggs is perhaps an unobjectionable method of preservation. The drying may take place by spreading the eggs in a thin film on a dry surface, which is the usual method, or by forcing the egg product through small orifices under a high pressure into a drying chamber so adjusted as to temperature and size as to secure the desiccation of the minute particles of egg spray before they fall to the bottom. This method is perhaps the best which has yet been developed in the desiccation of such products. The egg powder thus formed is almost devoid of moisture and when properly collected and stored out of contact with the air, may be kept for a time without deterioration. Dry egg products such as have been described made from fresh eggs, may be considered unobjectionable for a reasonable length of time. Unfortunately dried products are sometimes made from decayed eggs. During the past year a factory making a product of this kind was discovered by the food inspector of one of our large cities.
Egg Substitutes.--Many products have been put upon the market of a yellow color and containing protein under the guise of eggs. There is a number of so-called egg powders offered for making cakes, etc., which contain no egg at all. They are composed of other forms of protein matter, generally casein from milk, and colored to resemble the egg in tint. Starchy substances are also colored and sold as egg powder. These substances may be regarded as adulterations when sold under the name or in the guise of an egg product. There are no other adulterations of eggs of any consequence practiced except the simulation of egg material by such products as those just mentioned.
Poisonous Principles in Eggs.--While fresh eggs for most people form a food product entirely devoid of danger, nutritious and easily digestible, eggs may easily become injurious and even poisonous. According to experiments made by Bouchard (Scientific American, August 11, 1896, page 95), even fresh eggs, unless the sanitary conditions in which the fowls live are well cared for, may become very poisonous. The fowl producing eggs, as a rule, is not a cleanly animal, and this is especially true of the duck. Thus injurious organic material rich in microbes may contaminate the egg and the microbes may penetrate the shell thus rendering the egg unsuitable for consumption. Eggs contaminated in this way have given evidence of toxic phenomena even in a fresh state. Experiments have shown too that the food material of eggs if directly injected into the blood of an animal produces toxic effects whereas if injected into the stomach no unfavorable effects are produced. Egg albumin, that is, the albumin of the white of the egg, when fed in considerable quantities to animals partially escapes digestion and thus becomes a source of irritation and even of poisoning. There are many people who are remarkably sensitive to the influence of eggs and those who possess this idiosyncrasy are injured even by eggs which are perfectly harmless to other people. A large number of species of injurious microbes which infect eggs have been identified. These even are found in fresh eggs in the unsanitary conditions above mentioned. Eggs kept for a long while in cold storage or decayed in any way are extremely injurious. Fortunately decayed eggs are self protecting since they can only be eaten by accident. If, however, decayed eggs be eaten in diluted form by mixing with other foods they may be eaten without their characteristic odor or taste being known and thus great injury arises. It is advised in all cases where eggs are to be kept for some time even in cold storage to varnish them with some substance impenetrable to air. For this purpose, as has already been mentioned, soluble glass, which is chemically a silicate of soda, has been found extremely effective. Any of the varnishes which make the shell of an egg air tight tends to restrain the activities of bacterial life since the bacteria cannot live without air. The officials who inspect food should direct special care to the storing of eggs in order that no damage may result from keeping them too long in cold storage or otherwise. It must not be understood that poisoning by eggs is of common occurrence. In fact it is very rare. The fact that the egg itself, which is such a common article of diet, may be unsanitary and improperly kept is a matter of great concern to the consumer.
Parasites in Eggs.--The egg also when produced in unsanitary conditions may become infected with parasites. Many of these are apparently harmless, but some are injurious and even dangerous. The mere fact that parasites may exist in eggs is of itself a sufficient reason for the consumer to insist that the eggs he eats, like the milk he drinks, shall be free from all infections due solely to carelessness in production.
III. FISH FOODS
FISH.
Fish furnish a very important and useful part of the animal food of man. Both the fish growing in fresh water and in salt water are generally edible. Usually the smaller-sized fish are considered more palatable, but this is not universally the case. The large-sized fish are apt to be coarse, and have a less desirable flavor than those of smaller size. The size of the fish usually depends upon the magnitude of the body of water in which the species grow, the largest being in the lakes and oceans, the medium-size in rivers, and the smallest in brooks. Fish are known chiefly by their common names, and these names are different for the same species of fish in different parts of the country. For instance, the term trout covers a multitude of species, and, likewise, under the term sardine a large number of different species or varieties of fish are considered. There is also a large number of varieties known as salmon, perch, bass, etc.
In the following table are given the common and the scientific names of the principal food fishes used in the United States (see Report of U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, 1888, pages 679-868):
Acipenseridæ: Acipenser sturio oxyrhynchus, Sturgeon. Catostomidæ: Moxostoma velatum, Small-mouthed red-horse. Clupeidæ: Clupea harengus, Herring. pilchardus, Sardine. vernalis, Alewife. sapidissima, Shad. Salmonidæ: Osmerus mordax, Smelt. Coregonus clupeiformis, Whitefish. sp., tullibee or artedi, Ciscoe. Oncorhynchus chouicha, California salmon. Salmo salar, Salmon. subsp. sebago, Land-locked salmon. Salvelinus namaycush, Lake trout. fontinalis, Brook trout. Esocidæ: Esox lucius, Pike. reticulatus, Pickerel. nobilior, Muskellunge. Anguillidæ: Anguilla rostrata, Eel. Mugilidæ: Mugil albula, Mullet. Scombridæ: Scomber scombrus, Mackerel. Scomberomorus maculatus, Spanish mackerel. Orcynus thynnus, Tunny. Carangidæ: Trachynotus carolinus, Pompano. Pomatomidæ: Pomatomus saltatrix, Bluefish. Stromateidæ: Stromateus triacanthus, Butter-fish. Centrarchidæ: Micropterus salmoides, Large-mouthed black bass. dolomieu, Small-mouthed black bass. Percidæ: Perca fluviatilis, Yellow perch. Stizostedion vitreum, Wall-eyed pike. canadense, Gray pike. Serranidæ: Roccus lineatus, Striped bass. americanus, White perch. Centropristis atrarius, Sea bass. Epinephelus morio, Red grouper. Sparidæ: Lutjanus blackfordi, Red snapper. Stenotomus chrysops, Porgy. Diplodus probatocephalus, Sheepshead. Sciænidæ: Sciæna ocellata, Red bass. Menticirrus saxatilis, Kingfish. Cynoscion regale, Weakfish. Labridæ: Hiatula onitis, Blackfish. Gadidæ: Phycis chuss, Hake. Brosmius brosme, Cusk. Melanogrammus æglefinus, Haddock. Gadus morrhua, Cod. Microgadus tomcod, Tomcod. Pollachius virens, Pollock. Pleuronectidæ: Hippoglossus hippoglossus, Halibut. Platysomatichthys hippoglossoides, Turbot. Paralichthys dentatus, Flounder. Pseudopleuronectes americanus, Flounder. Petromyzontidæ: Petromyzon marinus, Lamprey eel. Raiidæ: Raia sp., Skate.
Some of the scientific names in the above list have been modified by recent research, but it is advisable to present the above classification for purpose of reference. The variations from these names will be given in the part of the discussion relating to the food value of fish, in which the classification of Jordan and Evermann is followed.
=Edible Portion of Fish.=--As in the case of other animals large parts of fish as taken from the water are inedible. In the preparation of fish the head is usually removed, especially if the fish be of any size, and the entrails rejected. If the fish be scaly, the scales are also removed. The latter vary very greatly in different specimens according to species, size, etc. Usually the edible portion of the fish is larger in quantity than the inedible, though this is not by any means universally the case. Taking fish of all kinds together it may be said that from 55 to 60 percent of the total weight is edible. This, of course, excludes the bones as well as the other portions already referred to.
=Principal Constituents of the Flesh of Fish.=--In the flesh of cattle, swine, and other edible animals already mentioned it is seen that the protein is the principal part of the edible portion. In many kinds of meat, however, the fat is the principal portion, as in bacon. In the flesh of fish the albuminoids occupy a more prominent part than in the flesh of domesticated animals or game. In other words the proportion of fat, which is one of the principal ingredients of the flesh of other animals, is less than in the other kinds of flesh. The protein in the water-free substance often constitutes over 90 percent of the total matter, and rarely falls below 80 percent. The next most important constituent of the dry flesh of fish naturally is the fat. The average content of fat in the dry flesh of fish is under 10,--it rarely goes above 20 and sometimes falls as low as 2 or 3 percent. The mineral content of the dry flesh of fish is quite constant. It rarely falls below 4 or goes above 8 percent; 5 percent may be regarded as a fair average content of mineral matter. The mineral matter consists chiefly of phosphate of potash and lime, together with some common salt. In the analyses made by Atwater, adopted in the following pages, he grouped together the fish analyzed in proportion to the quantity of the edible portion or flesh which they contained. Groupings were also made on account of the dry substance in the flesh and in proportion to the water and fat which they contained. These tables are of value showing in a general way the relative food importance of the different specimens of fish. This classification is given in the following table:
CLASSIFICATION OF FISHES BY PERCENTAGES OF FLESH, CHIEFLY MUSCULAR TISSUE IN ENTIRE BODY.
------------------------------+---------+---------- | NO. OF | |SPECIMENS| KINDS OF FISH. |ANALYZED.| FLESH. ------------------------------+---------+---------- _Containing 60 percent or over| |Percent. of flesh._ | | Spanish mackerel | 1 | 65.4 Salmon | 4 | 64.7 Red snapper | 1 | 60.0 | | _Containing between 60 and 70 | | percent of flesh._ | | Smelt | 2 | 58.1 Pike (pickerel) | 1 | 57.3 Cisco | 1 | 57.3 Butter-fish | 1 | 57.2 Spent salmon | 2 | 56.4 Mackerel | 5 | 55.4 Pompano | 2 | 54.5 Lamprey eel | 1 | 54.2 Herring | 1 | 54.0 Pickerel | 2 | 52.9 Spent land-locked salmon | 2 | 52.7 Turbot | 1 | 52.3 Brook trout | 3 | 51.9 Muskellunge | 1 | 50.8 Alewife | 2 | 50.5 | | _Containing between 50 and 40 | | percent of flesh._ | | Shad | 7 | 49.9 Weakfish | 1 | 48.1 Cod | 2 | 47.5 Whitefish | 1 | 46.5 Small-mouthed black bass | 1 | 46.4 Striped bass | 5 | 45.1 Large-mouthed black bass | 1 | 44.0 Sea bass | 1 | 43.9 Winter flounder | 1 | 43.8 Lake trout, “Mackinaw trout” | 1 | 43.7 Kingfish | 1 | 43.4 Pike perch, “Wall-eyed pike” | 1 | 42.8 Mullet | 1 | 42.1 Tomcod | 1 | 40.1 Porgy | 3 | 40.0 | | _Containing between 40 and 30 | | percent of flesh._ | | Blackfish | 2 | 39.9 White perch | 2 | 37.5 Yellow perch | 1 | 37.3 Pike perch | 1 | 36.8 Red bass | 1 | 36.5 Sheepshead | 1 | 34.0 Common flounder | 1 | 33.2 ------------------------------+---------+----------
CLASSIFICATION OF FISHES BY PROPORTIONS OF FAT IN THE FLESH OF SPECIMENS ANALYZED.
-----------------------------+---------+----------+---------- | NO. OF | | |SPECIMENS| | KINDS OF FISH. |ANALYZED.| WATER. | FATS. -----------------------------+---------+----------+---------- _Containing over 5 percent | |Percent.|Percent. of fats._ | | | California salmon | 2 | 63.6 | 17.9 Turbot | 1 | 71.4 | 14.4 Salmon | 5 | 63.6 | 13.4 Lamprey eel | 1 | 71.1 | 13.3 Lake trout | 2 | 69.1 | 11.4 Butter-fish | 1 | 70.0 | 11.0 Herring | 1 | 69.0 | 11.0 Shad | 7 | 70.6 | 9.5 Spanish mackerel | 1 | 68.1 | 9.4 Salt-water eel | 2 | 71.6 | 9.1 Pompano | 2 | 72.8 | 7.6 Mackerel | 6 | 73.4 | 7.1 Whitefish | 1 | 69.8 | 6.5 Halibut | 3 | 75.4 | 5.2 Porgy | 3 | 75.0 | 5.1 | | | _Containing between 5 and | | | 2 percent of fats._ | | | Alewife | 2 | 74.4 | 4.9 Mullet | 1 | 74.9 | 4.6 White perch | 2 | 75.7 | 4.1 Sheepshead | 2 | 75.6 | 3.7 Spent salmon | 2 | 76.7 | 3.6 Cisco | 1 | 76.2 | 3.5 Spent land-locked salmon | 2 | 78.5 | 3.0 Striped bass | 6 | 77.7 | 2.8 Muskellunge | 1 | 76.3 | 2.5 Small-mouthed black bass | 1 | 74.8 | 2.4 Weakfish | 1 | 79.0 | 2.4 Small-mouthed red-horse | 1 | 78.6 | 2.4 Brook trout | 3 | 77.7 | 2.1 | | | _Containing less than 2, the | | | _majority less than 1 percent| | | of fats._ | | | Sturgeon | 1 | 78.7 | 1.9 Smelt | 2 | 79.2 | 1.8 Skate | 1 | 82.2 | 1.4 Blackfish | 4 | 79.1 | 1.4 Bluefish | 1 | 78.5 | 1.3 Red snapper | 3 | 78.5 | 1.0 Large-mouthed black bass | 1 | 78.6 | 1.0 Kingfish | 1 | 79.2 | 1.0 Pollock | 1 | 76.0 | 0.8 Yellow perch | 2 | 79.3 | 0.8 Pike perch, gray pike | 1 | 80.9 | 0.8 Hake | 1 | 83.1 | 0.7 Common flounder | 2 | 84.2 | 0.7 Grouper | 2 | 79.4 | 0.6 Pike (pickerel?) | 1 | 79.8 | 0.6 Sea bass | 1 | 79.3 | 0.5 Pike perch, wall-eyed pike | 1 | 79.7 | 0.5 Pickerel | 2 | 79.7 | 0.5 Red bass | 1 | 81.6 | 0.5 Tomcod | 1 | 81.6 | 0.4 Cod | 5 | 82.6 | 0.4 Winter flounder | 1 | 84.4 | 0.4 Haddock | 4 | 81.7 | 0.3 Cusk | 1 | 82.0 | 0.2 -----------------------------+---------+----------+----------
CLASSIFICATION OF FISHES BY PROPORTIONS OF WATER-FREE SUBSTANCE IN THE FLESH OF SPECIMENS ANALYZED.
---------------------------------+---------+---------- | NO. OF | |SPECIMENS|WATER-FREE KINDS OF FISH. |ANALYZED.|SUBSTANCE. ---------------------------------+---------+---------- _Containing over 30 percent of | |Percent. water-free substance._ | | California salmon | 2 | 36.4 Salmon | 5 | 36.4 Spanish mackerel | 1 | 31.9 Herring | 1 | 31.0 Lake trout | 2 | 30.9 Whitefish | 1 | 30.2 | | _Containing from 30 to 25 percent| | of water-free substance._ | | Butter-fish | 1 | 30.0 Shad | 7 | 29.4 Lamprey eel | 1 | 28.9 Turbot | 1 | 28.6 Salt-water eel | 2 | 28.4 Pompano | 2 | 27.2 Mackerel | 6 | 26.6 Alewife | 2 | 25.6 Small-mouthed black bass | 1 | 25.2 Mullet | 1 | 25.1 Porgy | 3 | 25.0 | | Containing between 25 and 20 | | percent of water-free substance._| | Halibut | 3 | 24.6 Sheepshead | 2 | 24.5 White perch | 2 | 24.3 Pollock | 1 | 24.0 Cisco | 1 | 23.9 Muskellunge | 1 | 23.7 Spent salmon | 2 | 23.3 Striped bass | 6 | 22.3 Brook trout | 3 | 22.3 Bluefish | 1 | 21.5 Red snapper | 3 | 21.5 Spent land-locked salmon | 2 | 21.5 Small-mouthed red-horse | 1 | 21.4 Large-mouthed black bass | 1 | 21.4 Sturgeon | 1 | 21.3 Weakfish | 1 | 21.0 Blackfish | 4 | 20.9 Smelt | 2 | 20.8 Kingfish | 1 | 20.8 Yellow perch | 2 | 20.8 Sea bass | 1 | 20.7 Grouper | 2 | 20.6 Pickerel | 2 | 20.3 Pike perch, “wall-eyed pike” | 1 | 20.3 Pike (pickerel?) | 1 | 20.2 | | _Containing between 20 and 15 | | percent of water-free substance._| | Pike perch, gray pike | 1 | 19.2 Tomcod | 1 | 18.5 Red bass | 1 | 18.4 Haddock | 4 | 18.3 Cusk | 1 | 18.0 Skate | 1 | 17.9 Cod | 5 | 17.4 Hake | 1 | 16.9 Common flounder | 2 | 15.8 Winter flounder | 1 | 15.7 ---------------------------------+---------+----------
In the scientific names of the food fishes described in the following pages and in the description of their habits, methods of spawning, geographic distribution, etc., the classification of Jordan and Evermann[15] has been followed.
[15] “American Food and Game Fishes,” by Jordan and Evermann, 1 vol., large 8vo, pp. i to l + 1 to 572. Twelve colored plates and several hundred full-page plates from photographs from life and text-figures. Doubleday, Page & Co., New York.
=Alewives.=--A fish belonging to a genus very close to that to which the herring belongs is known as alewife. The name of the genus is Pomolobus. It is commonly known as a herring. For instance, the fresh-water skipjack or blue herring,--the tailor herring or hickory shad,--and the real alewife or branch herring are all common species of this genus. One specimen of this genus is the fresh-water skipjack or blue herring (Pomolobus chrysochloris) found in the larger streams in the Mississippi valley and also in Lake Erie and Lake Michigan. It is strictly a fresh-water fish, but has also been found in salt water on the Gulf coast. The tailor herring is found along the Atlantic coast from Cape Cod to Florida. In the Potomac river it is known as tailor shad or “fresh-water tailor,” and is highly esteemed as a food fish in Washington and vicinity. Their value is found rather in their coming earlier than the shad than in their true value, for as soon as the shad come in great abundance there is no longer any market for the alewife.
Composition of Alewife.--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 74.41 percent Protein, 19.17 „ 75.87 percent Fat, 4.92 „ 19.08 „ Ash, 1.47 „ 5.78 „
This fish, it is seen, has very much less oil in it than the true herring,--in fact, only a little more than one-half as much. It, however, has a correspondingly larger percentage of protein.
The tailor herring and hickory shad are distributed along the coast from Cape Cod to Florida. The branch herring (Pomolobus pseudoharengus) is found along the Atlantic coast as far south as Charleston, entering fresh-water streams to spawn, usually two or three weeks ahead of the shad. It occurs also in Lake Ontario and in several of the small lakes in northern New York in which it is land-locked. The summer herring (Pomolobus æstivalis) also occurs along the Atlantic coast.
=Anchovy.=--The anchovy is a small fish which is eaten more as a relish in the pickled state than in the fresh state, and is highly prized by many connoisseurs. Anchovies of various species are found on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts,--on the Atlantic coast from Cape Cod to Brazil and on the western coast from southern California southward. These fish reach a length of from 2 to 7 inches. The very small ones are sometimes known as “whitebait.” Those that are pickled and used for food are usually from 3 to 6 inches in length.
Composition of Preserved Anchovies.--
Water, 57.8 percent Protein, 22.3 „ Fat, 2.2 „ Ash (principally salt), 23.7 „
=Black Bass.=--Two species of black bass are well known to the American fisherman and to the American cuisine. The one is called the small-mouth black bass (Micropterus dolomieu) and the other the large-mouth black bass (Micropterus salmoides). These fishes are found in the fresh waters of the United States, especially in the northern portion, almost everywhere. Both species have been propagated both by the National and State Fish Commissions. Especially have they been introduced into the northeastern waters where they originally did not occur, or only in small numbers.
=Bluefish.=--The bluefish (family Pomatomidæ) is one of the valuable food fishes of our Atlantic coast. It is a voracious, carnivorous fish, and apparently loves to destroy as well as to eat. It is stated that the bluefish copies after the style which was once said to be in vogue in Rome, viz., when its stomach is filled it disgorges it for the purpose of eating a new ration. The size of the bluefish runs from 3 to 5 pounds, though occasionally very much larger examples are taken. As a food fish it is said to rank in the estimation of the connoisseur with pompano and Spanish mackerel. The bluefish is one of the popular fishes in all the large markets of the Atlantic coast. The flesh has a fine flavor, but, like the pompano, it does not keep well.
Composition.--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 78.46 percent Protein, 19.02 „ 90.13 percent Fat, 1.25 „ 5.79 „ Ash, 1.27 „ 5.91 „
A comparison of the flesh of this fish with the pompano shows that it is particularly a protein food, the fat being even less abundant than the mineral matter. It, therefore, is not so well balanced a ration as the flesh of the pompano and other fish in which the fat forms a considerable portion of the edible matter.
=Carp.=--The carp is a fish used very largely for food purposes, but it has not the fine flavor and character of most fishes. The carp cultivated in America is known as the German carp (Cyprinus carpio).
The carp belongs to the large family of fishes known as the minnows or Cyprinidæ. This family is a large one, having about 200 genera and more than 1000 species, all of which are inhabitants of fresh water in North America and Eurasia. None of this family is highly regarded as food in the sense of flavor and aroma, except, perhaps, some of the smaller species. The nutritive value of the carp, however, is probably as great as that of any, but it is coarser and less attractive to the taste. Some of the most common species of this family are the dace, fallfish, river chub, creek chub, squaw-fish, and roach.
=Catfish.=--Catfish, of which there are many species, belong to the family of Siluridæ, and are among the most common fresh-water fishes found in the United States. They occur in small as well as large fresh-water streams and lakes, and it is one of the species which the American boy most delights in catching with hook and line. The catfish is most conveniently taken after night, and the smouldering fire and small boy on the bank of a stream is a frequent picture of American country life. There are more than 100 genera of the catfish family and about 1000 species. Only about one-third of the species inhabit salt water. The North American fresh-water species are confined particularly to the Atlantic coast, the Mississippi valley, and the Gulf states. There are no native species of the catfish in the fresh waters of the Pacific coast. The blue catfish, known as the Mississippi catfish, is the most prominent species (Ictalurus furcatus). It is found particularly in the Mississippi river and its large tributaries. Sometimes it grows to an immense size, individuals having been found reaching 150 pounds in weight. If the stream in which the catfish lives runs north and south it will be found in the southern part of the stream in the winter and in the northern part in summer. This fish is highly prized for edible purposes. In the small streams the catfish is correspondingly small and weighs from less than one pound to two or three pounds only. The small catfish, especially in the small streams tributary to the Ohio and Mississippi, has edible properties which are far superior to the large catfish growing in the rivers themselves.
The catfish of the small streams and lakes are commonly known as bullheads, since the head is large and wide. The name of the most common or best known species is Ameirus nebulosus. This species is found from Maine westward and southward. In Pennsylvania it is known as the Schuylkill cat, and everywhere generally throughout the country as a small catfish.
=Codfish.=--One of the most famous food fish of the American waters is the codfish. It is a widely distributed fish. There are said to be about 25 genera and 140 species. The codfish is particularly a fish of the northern waters. Only one genus is found in fresh-water lakes and streams.
=The Common Cod.=--The common codfish (family Gadidæ) is the species Gadus callarias. It is rarely found south of the Virginia coast, but is especially abundant off the New England and Newfoundland coast. The great center of the codfish industry is in the vicinity of Newfoundland. Gloucester, Massachusetts, is the principal town devoted to the codfish industry in the United States. The cod is an omnivorous fish and especially fond of crustaceans, mollusks, and small fish. It also eats vegetation, and it is stated by Jordan and Evermann that all sorts of things have been found in cod stomachs, such as oil cans, finger rings, rubber dolls, rocks, pieces of clothing, etc. The livers of the cod, especially those of Norwegian origin, are extremely valuable, being the source of cod liver oil, which is considered by many to be the most valuable medicinal food known. Cod liver oil, while not palatable, is highly nutritious. The cod livers contain, according to some authorities, over 60 distinct chemical substances, many of which are highly important for their medicinal qualities. The cod move in schools, but not in such dense bodies as the mackerel, herring, and menhaden. Their movements are largely controlled by the temperature of the water and their desire for food. This species probably does not reach a greater length than 3 feet and a weight of more than 25 pounds. The average weight of the large-size cod in New England waters is about 15 pounds and on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland 20 pounds. The average weight of the small-size cod in these waters is about 12 pounds. It is one of the most prolific of fishes. The ovaries of a 21-pound cod were found to contain 2,700,000 eggs and of a 75-pound cod 9,100,000 eggs. The eggs are very small and require about 337,000 to make a quart. The cod is one of the most valuable of all fishes from a commercial point of view and also on account of international relations. On some occasions this country has apparently been on the verge of war with Great Britain respecting questions relating to the fisheries on the banks of Newfoundland. The U. S. Bureau of Fisheries has probably done more to propagate the cod than any other variety of fish. More than five hundred million cod fry have been liberated at different times by the Bureau and the number in one year has approximated 100,000,000. The color of the common cod is green or brown, but is subject to very great variations,--sometimes it is yellow or red and a variety of tints are assumed.
Composition.--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 82.64 percent Protein, 15.77 „ 95.13 percent Fat, .36 „ 2.07 „ Ash, 1.23 „ 7.08 „
These data show that the flesh of cod fish is perhaps the most exclusively nitrogenous of any of the more abundant food fish. The quantity of fat contained therein is less than ¹⁄₄₀ of the total weight. The flesh of the fresh cod is more largely composed of water than that of the ordinary fish, containing approximately 83 percent of that substance. The flesh of the cod itself is an unbalanced ration, and needs to be eaten with butter and potatoes in order to make a complete ration. The hake, which is sometimes substituted for the cod without the knowledge of the purchaser, has very much the same chemical constituents, containing--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 83.11 percent Protein, 15.24 „ 91.00 percent Fat, .67 „ 3.97 „ Ash, .96 „ 5.77 „
It is seen that there is very little difference in the chemical composition of these two fishes. This, however, does not justify the substitution of the hake for the cod, inasmuch as the hake is inferior in palatability to the cod.
=Salted and Dried Cod.=--In the United States the cod is particularly devoted to the use of curing and salting, and in this cured state is even more highly valued, especially for the making of codfish balls, than it is in its fresh state. The old-fashioned method of salting and smoking produced a flesh of very high flavor, yielding under proper treatment in the kitchen a most delicious base for the fish ball. Under the modern system of quick curing, the salting and smoking have largely disappeared and the fish are cured in brine, and with the help of borax a product is produced which is less palatable than the old-fashioned cured fish.
Composition of dry Salted and Dried Cod.--
Protein, 45.65 percent Fat, .53 „ Salt, 53.82 „
These data show that more than half of the weight in the water-free state is composed of salt. The codfish is also put up as boned fish in which nothing but the flesh is found, as desiccated cod, as shredded codfish and in various other forms.
Average Composition of Codfish Balls.--
Water, 65.43 percent Solids, 34.57 „ Nitrogen, 1.05 „ Phosphoric acid, .25 „ Sulfur, .10 „ Fat, 7.84 „ Ash, 4.05 „ Protein, 6.58 „
The difference between the composition of the fish balls and the average composition of fish is clearly brought out by the data recorded. In the average composition of fish the sum of the fat, ash, and protein is greater than the solids obtained by difference by 0.36 percent. In the codfish balls the sum of the ingredients mentioned is less than the solids by difference by 16.10 per cent. This is due to the added potato, salt, etc.
Average Composition of Shredded Codfish.--
Water, 46.52 percent Ash (chiefly salt), 22.81 „ Fat, .33 „ Protein, 30.85 „
=Eels.=--The common eel is a fish which is extremely long in proportion to its size and gives the general appearance, to the uninitiated, of a snake. The resemblance of the eel to a snake in shape is probably one of the reasons why it is not more highly valued as a food. The eels, perhaps, are not to be considered as true fish. The common eel (Anguilla chrysypa) is widely distributed throughout most parts of the United States, especially the eastern part. It extends southward as far as the West Indies, and is found in more or less abundance on the Gulf coast. Although a salt-water fish, it differs from most other eels in its penchant for ascending fresh-water streams. It often goes to the very headwaters, especially in the rivers of the Atlantic coast and Mississippi valley. Eels are often found in lakes which seem to have had no communication with the sea, which shows that they are able to surmount barriers which seem impossible to cross. Jordan and Evermann claim that the eel is really a fresh-water fish and that its real home is in the fresh-water rivers and lakes, and that it runs down to salt water only at spawning time, thus showing a quality or characteristic exactly opposite to that of the salmon and shad, which are true salt-water fish and come into fresh waters for spawning. Eels, like the carp, are more or less scavengers, feeding upon all manner of refuse, especially dead fish. They are very destructive of other fish, especially of young shad and herring. When nets are placed for shad and herring and the fish are caught therein the eels often invade the net, and when it is drawn it is filled largely with the skeletons of the fish, the flesh of which has been removed by the eels. Eels have a high value as food fish, both on account of their nutritive value and their flavor. The average length of the eel is from 2 to 3 feet, though much larger examples are sometimes found.
Composition of the Eel.--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 71.60 percent Protein, 18.28 „ 65.25 percent Fat, 9.11 „ 31.92 „ Ash, 1.01 „ 3.60 „
These data show that the eel is rather richer in fat than the majority of fish, although there are some that exceed it in this constituent.
=Conger Eel.=--The conger eel belongs to the family Leptocephalidæ. It inhabits salt water only, is scaleless, and grows to much larger sizes than the common eel, sometimes as long as 7 or 8 feet. It is not used for food in the United States, but is to some extent in Europe and the West Indies. On the east coast of the United States they do not occur very frequently. Only a few species are known, and these are of small extent and have little food value.
=Summer Flounder.=--This fish (Paralichthys dentatus) is quite abundant on the Atlantic coast, frequenting the coast from Cape Cod to the Carolinas. It reaches a length of from 2 to 3 feet and has a weight of about 15 pounds. It is caught very extensively off the New England coast. The principal fishing grounds are in the region of Block Island, Marthas Vineyard, and the eastern end of Long Island. There is another species known as the southern flounder (Paralichthys lethostigmus), which flourishes from Charleston southward, and is found along the entire Gulf coast. There is also another species on the Gulf coast called the Gulf flounder (Paralichthys albiguttus). There is also a wide flounder or common flatfish (Paralichthys americanus). It is found on the coast of Labrador and extends down to the Carolinas. It is especially abundant along the coast of southern New England. It is a small species, rarely being over 20 inches in length, the average length being from 12 to 15 inches, and weighs from 2 to 3 pounds. This species of flounder has been extensively propagated by the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, as many as 100,000,000 fry having been planted in one season.
Composition of Summer Flounder.--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 84.21 percent Protein, 13.82 „ 89.03 percent Fat, .69 „ 4.46 „ Ash, 1.28 „ 8.15 „
The flesh of this fish is particularly rich in water and poor in fat.
=Graylings.=--The graylings belong to a family very closely resembling the Salmonidæ. They occur chiefly in northern or Arctic waters. One species found in Michigan is known as the Michigan grayling. It is a fish that is not only distinguished on account of its food value but also on account of its graceful shape and pleasing appearance. Another species occurs in Montana, and has been distributed very largely by the Bureau of Fisheries. It is not a fish which is of any great economic importance.
=The Haddock.=--This is a fish very nearly related to the cod, but it has a smaller mouth and differs in other essentials, particularly in its chemical constituents, from the cod. The haddock has a food value which is probably not inferior to that of the cod. It is one of our most abundant fishes, and by some consumers the flesh is preferred to that of the cod. The usual weight of the haddock is about 3 or 4 pounds. It is, therefore, a much smaller fish than the cod. The species is Melanogrammus æglefinus. On the Atlantic coast it does not occur north of the Straits of Belle Isle. The haddock is particularly abundant on the Massachusetts coast in summer. Like the cod, the haddock is well suited for salting, smoking, and curing in various ways. It, however, has not been used to such an extent as the cod for those purposes, finding a more ready market in the fresh state.
Composition.--
Water, 81.69 percent Protein, 16.83 „ Fat, .25 „ Ash, 1.23 „
In the dry substance.
Protein, 93.89 percent Fat, 1.34 „ Ash, 6.76 „
The flesh of the haddock, it is seen, is even more exclusively nitrogenous than that of the cod. The two species resemble each other very closely in composition.
=The Hake.=--There are several species of hakes, family Merluccidæ. The common European hake is the species Merluccius merluccius. The hake which is found mostly in American waters is Merluccius productus, and occurs very abundantly on the Pacific coast and is largely eaten as food. The flesh, however, is rather coarse and not very palatable. Another species which is found on our Atlantic coast from New England northward is Merluccius bilinearis.
=Halibut.=--The halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus) is a fish which is highly esteemed and occurs in great quantities. It is a fish which frequents northern waters, and especially the North Atlantic on the American coast. It has not been taken south of Montauk Point, but extends as far north as the coast of Greenland, and is also found about Iceland and Spitzbergen in a latitude of 80 degrees. It does not like water above 45 degrees F., and is often found in water at the freezing point, namely, 32 degrees. The halibut is also found on the Pacific coast, especially off Oregon and Washington and in British Columbia and Alaska. It is one of the largest of food fish. The fish weighing about 80 pounds are considered the best for food, although the halibut sometimes reaches a weight of over 500 pounds. The male is always smaller than the female and less palatable. The annual value of the halibut fisheries on the North Atlantic coast is probably ³⁄₄ million dollars. It is probably slightly more than this on the Pacific coast,--in fact the Pacific coast fisheries have grown so extensively that halibut is shipped eastward across the continent. Vast freight trains known as the “Halibut Express” have been sent across the continent from Vancouver to Boston, making the trip in six or seven days.
Composition.--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 75.42 percent Protein, 18.35 „ 77.18 percent Fat, 5.17 „ 19.32 „ Ash, 1.06 „ 4.39 „
The halibut is a fish containing considerable quantities of fat, and is not so peculiarly nitrogenous in its character as the cod or the haddock. It, therefore, makes a better balanced ration than either of the other fish. The halibut in the fresh state is esteemed fully as highly as the cod, and the halibut steak is a very common part of the fish sold upon the market.
=Herring.=--The herrings form a very important group of fishes belonging to the family Clupeidæ. There are about 30 genera in the family and 150 species. The herrings are essentially salt-water fishes and are usually found in large schools. Many species, and some of these the most valuable for food, ascend fresh-water streams for spawning. Certain species, for instance, are caught at the same season as the shad in the Chesapeake and Susquehanna. There are a few species which remain permanently in fresh water. The common herring (Clupea harengus) is one of the most important of the food fishes of the whole Atlantic coast, and really over almost all the north Atlantic, throughout which it is generally distributed. The principal herring fisheries are in the North Sea, in Denmark and Norway. Important fisheries are also found off the coast of Great Britain, Belgium, France, and the United States. It is estimated that as many as three billion herring may be found in a shoal covering a dozen square miles. Herring shoals of much larger extent are on record. The herring do not frequent southern waters, but are found in the cool and more northern waters of the Atlantic. On the coast of the United States it has been found as far south as Cape Hatteras, though it does not occur very abundantly further south than New England. The fish at the period of spawning are considered the most valuable for food purposes.
The herring is either sold in a fresh state or it may be smoked, salted, or pickled, and in this condition is very extensively used as food. A species of herring is found on the Pacific coast known as California herring (Clupea pallasii). It does not differ very greatly in its general aspect from its relation on the Atlantic coast. This species occurs very abundantly in the region of Puget Sound, especially in summer time, and in southeast Alaska. They are extremely abundant in San Francisco markets in the spring time, so much so that it is difficult to find a sale for them.
The California herring are more highly valued and bring the highest price in the early winter, when they are the fattest.
Composition of Herring.--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 69.03 percent Protein, 18.46 „ 61.69 percent Fat, 11.01 „ 35.55 „ Ash, 1.50 „ 4.83 „
The above data show that the flesh of herring is particularly rich in fat. In fact the herring is sometimes used as a source of oil. In southeast Alaska are extensive oil and guano works which utilize the herring for these purposes.
=Horse Mackerel.=--Another species belonging to the mackerel family is the horse mackerel or tuna (Thunnus thynnus), which is found in considerable abundance on our North Atlantic coast and on the coast of southern California. Its common name is “tuna,” “tunny,” “horse mackerel,” or “great albacore.” The horse mackerel is a fish of very great size and is the very largest of the whole mackerel family. They occasionally attain a length of 10 feet or more and a weight of 1500 pounds. The average dimensions, of course, are very much less than this. The horse mackerel does not grow so large in Europe or upon the Pacific coast. In these regions a horse mackerel weighing 500 pounds is considered of an extraordinary size. The very large ones are never taken with hook and line, but there are records of fish of over 200 pounds that have been captured in this way.
=The Hogfish.=--The hogfish of the West Indies and our southern coasts is another of the wrasse-fishes whose scientific name is Lachnolaimus maximus. It is called in Porto Rico “el capitan.” It often reaches a weight of 20 pounds and a length of from 2 to 3 feet. The name “hogfish” doubtless is derived from the shape of the head, which resembles somewhat that of the hog. It is valued as a food fish throughout the West Indies.
=Lake Herring.=--The so-called lake herring is very closely related to the whitefish. The name of the species is Argyrosomus artedi. The lake herring has a large number of common names, of which the most widely applied is the term “Cisco.” The terms blueback, greenback, and grayback are also applied to these herring. The habitat of this fish is that of the whole region of the Great Lakes and north to Hudson Bay. It has much the same habitat as the whitefish. The average weight of the lake herring is about one pound. The subspecies (Argyrosomus artedi sisco) is found in Lake Tippecanoe and other small lakes in Wisconsin and northern Indiana.
Composition of Cisco.--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 76.15 percent Protein, 19.12 „ 80.75 percent Fat, 3.48 „ 14.59 „ Ash, 1.25 „ 5.25 „
=Mackerel.=--The mackerel is a food fish which is very commonly used in a cured state in the interior of the country and is eaten fresh on the sea coast. Its habitat is principally the North Atlantic ocean. On the coast of the United States it is found from Cape Hatteras north to the Strait of Belle Isle. In Europe it is found from Norway southward to the Mediterranean and Adriatic. The mackerel on the Atlantic coast usually appear first in the spring near Cape Hatteras and following the custom of the shad are found later farther north in the New England states and also in the British possessions. They leave the coast in the inverse order in the autumn, disappearing first in the northern regions and later in the southern portion.
The mackerel is one of the most abundant of fishes in the Atlantic Ocean, traveling in immense schools. There is record of a school which was seen in 1848 which was at least half a mile wide and 20 miles long. In some seasons the mackerel is extremely abundant and in others very scarce. The average catch is probably about 300,000 barrels. Boston and Gloucester are centers of the mackerel fishing industry. It is estimated that from 150 to 300 vessels of American bottoms are engaged in the mackerel industry. The U. S. Bureau of Fisheries has been particularly interested in the propagation of mackerel, but the result has not been as satisfactory as in the case of many other fishes. The young mackerel or small fishes are known as “spikes,” “blinkers,” and “tinkers.” When they are about two years old they measure from 5 to 9 inches in length. The mackerel attains its full size at about the fourth year. The scientific name of the common mackerel is Scomber scombrus Linnæus.
Composition of Mackerel.--Edible portion:
FRESH. DRY. Water, 73.37 percent Protein, 18.26 „ 71.71 percent Fat, 7.09 „ 24.88 „ Ash, 1.28 „ 4.78 „
The above data show that the flesh of the mackerel is composed of about two-thirds protein and one-third fat and ash.
Pickled mackerel, salted mackerel, and smoked mackerel are perhaps as highly valued for food purposes as the fresh fish itself.
=Menhaden.=--The menhaden is not used chiefly as a food fish but to some extent therefor. It is one of the most abundant fishes taken upon our Atlantic coast and is used almost exclusively as a source of oil, the residue being dried and ground for fertilizing purposes. In this sense it has great value because of the high nitrogen content of the residue and also of the considerable quantity of phosphoric acid which is contained therein.
The menhaden is known scientifically as Brevoortia tyrannus. Up to 1880 immense quantities of menhaden were taken off the Atlantic coast. Since that time the supply has not been considered so great. In the year 1877 it is stated by Jordan and Evermann that one oil company took 20 million fish and in one town alone, namely Booth Bay, 50 million fish were caught.
The fecundity of the menhaden is very great, exceeding that of the shad. More than 140,000 eggs have been taken from a single fish. The menhaden are not eaten very extensively in a fresh state as food but preserved in salt they have a considerable value for that purpose. An extract has also been made from the flesh of the menhaden on the same principle of manufacture as is utilized in preparation of meat extracts. The menhaden is known under a great number of common names, some thirty of which have been enumerated by Dr. Goode.
Composition of Menhaden.--
Water, 77.15 percent Fat, 3.91 „ Protein by difference, 18.94 „
The water-free flesh contains (including bones) 21.7 percent of mineral matter.
Composition of the Mineral Matter.--
Lime, 8.67 percent Phosphoric acid, 7.78 „ Silicic acid, 1.33 „ Potash, 1.54 „ Soda, 1.02 „ Magnesia, 0.67 „ Chlorin, 0.69 „ ----- Total, 21.70 „
=Mullet.=--The mullet belongs to the Mugilidæ, an important family of fishes in which there are several genera and species. The mullet is not particular about its food but is in the habit of swallowing large quantities of mud, or rather partially swallowing it and separating the refuse and most obnoxious particles by means of the gills. The common mullet or striped mullet (Mugil cephalus) is a widely distributed species. This fish is common along the Atlantic coast and in Hawaii, usually traveling in large schools, and is most abundant in the shallow waters of the coast. It sometimes reaches a length of two feet and is an important food fish. The mullet is very abundant on the Florida coasts. While the mullet may be regarded as a scavenger, living principally on mud, it does not eat any other species of fish, but is itself eaten by nearly all fishes that can gain access to it.
Composition of the Mullet.--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 74.87 percent Protein, 19.32 „ 77.50 percent Fat, 4.64 „ 18.45 „ Ash, 1.17 „ 4.66 „
=Muskallunge.=--A very noted member of this family is the muskallunge (Esox masquinongy). It is a native of the Great Lakes and is especially found in the upper St. Lawrence. It is not a very abundant fish, but is highly prized from the angler’s point of view. It is of very great size, having been found as long as 8 feet and weighing over 100 pounds. Two other species of muskallunge are known, one (Esox ohiensis or the Chautauqua muskallunge) in the Ohio river basin, particularly in Lake Chautauqua, where it has been artificially propagated with great success, and the unspotted muskallunge (Esox immaculatus), which occurs sparingly in certain small lakes of northern Wisconsin and Minnesota.
Composition of the Muskallunge.--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 76.26 percent Protein, 19.63 „ 84.87 percent Fat, 2.54 „ 10.70 „ Ash, 1.57 „ 6.63 „
The flesh of the muskallunge, as is seen, contains about four times as much fat as that of the pickerel, and forms a ration which is not so unbalanced as that of the pickerel itself.
=Pickerel or Pike.=--One species (Esox reticulatus) is of common occurrence along the Atlantic coast and also in the fresh-water streams of the southern interior portions of the country. The pike of the Great Lakes belongs to the species Esox lucius Linnæus. It is found in the fresh waters of North America, Europe, and Asia, but is not found on the Pacific coast except in Alaska. It reaches in some cases a large size, having been found as much as 4 feet in length and weighing 40 to 50 pounds. The Kankakee in northern Indiana is a well-known fishing ground for this species of pike.
Composition of Pickerel.--Edible portion:
FRESH. DRY. Water, 79.68 percent Protein, 18.64 „ 92.15 percent Fat, .50 „ 2.48 „ Ash, 1.18 „ 5.80 „
The flesh of the pickerel, as is seen, is almost a pure type of protein. The fat falls to an insignificant quantity, being only about half as much as the ash.
=Wall-eyed Pike.=--The wall-eyed pike or pike perch (Stizostedion vitreum) is a fish most abundant in Lake Champlain, the Great Lakes, and in eastern Canadian lakes; it occurs also in certain small lakes and streams in the upper Mississippi valley. In some localities it is known as the salmon or jack salmon, but of course these are misnomers.
Composition.--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 75.71 percent Protein, 19.03 „ 79.31 percent Fat, 4.07 „ 16.74 „ Ash, 1.19 „ 4.92 „
=Common Pompano.=--The pompano (family Carangidæ) is one of the food fishes which is most highly esteemed along the Gulf coast. It has been found as far north as Cape Cod on the Atlantic coast, but does not occur in sufficient numbers to make it of any economic value as a food fish north of Florida. It is taken chiefly in the Gulf waters. The average weight of the pompano is from 2 to 3 pounds, though very much larger examples are sometimes found. As a food fish there is none that is regarded more highly than the pompano, especially when it is eaten fresh from the water and prepared in the manner of the creole cooks of New Orleans.
Composition.--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 72.78 percent Protein, 18.65 „ 72.37 percent Fat, 7.57 „ 24.46 „ Ash, 1.00 „ 3.82 „
These data show that the edible portion of the pompano is valued both for its protein and its fat. The latter exists in quantities of approximately one-third of the former. It is not so much its nutritive value which makes the pompano desirable as a food fish but the extreme delicacy of flavor and the richness of its taste. It does not bear shipping well, and therefore is found in its greatest perfection only near the place where it is taken.
In New Orleans and in Florida the pompano is one of the principal food fishes furnished by the high-class hotels and restaurants to their guests.
=Red Snapper.=--The red snapper (Lutianus aya) is the most noted fish of all the snapper family (Lutianidæ), although there are others which are highly prized, such as the gray snapper. It sometimes reaches a length of two or three feet and a weight of from 10 to 35 pounds. It is particularly abundant in the deep waters of the Gulf of Mexico and off the west coast of Florida. The red snapper bears shipping better than most of the Gulf fish, and Pensacola is one of the principal points where the fish are packed in ice as soon as possible after capture and dispatched to northern markets.
Composition.--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 78.46 percent Protein, 19.20 „ 91.75 percent Fat, 1.03 „ 4.70 „ Ash, 1.31 „ 6.05 „
This is another one of the fishes in which the edible portion is almost exclusively protein, the fat appearing only in small quantities.
=Rock Bass=; =Redeye=; =Goggle-eye= (Ambloplites rupestris).--The rock bass is a very common fish particularly abundant in the fresh waters of the northern central portions of the United States. It is the fish which the American boy, living near small streams, most delights to catch. The size of the rock bass varies largely according to the magnitude of the body of water in which it lives. The average weight of the fish in streams of ordinary size is probably about a pound, though often it is considerably more. The rock bass has been propagated to some extent by the Bureau of Fisheries and has been introduced into waters where it formerly did not occur.
=Salmon.=--The salmon is one of the most important food fishes of the United States. It belongs to the genus Oncorhynchus. The five species of this genus are, in America, confined to our Pacific coast. Of these species the one known as blueback or sockeye is found most abundantly in the Fraser and Columbia rivers and in Alaska, the silver salmon in Puget Sound, the chinook salmon in the Columbia, and the dog salmon along the coast from California to Bering Sea. The salmon begin running early in the spring and the early run is considered of greater value than the later. The habits of the salmon in the deep waters of the ocean are not very well known. It is only when they come into fresh water for spawning purposes that their life history can be well studied. It is believed, however, that they do not go very far from the shore. The run of salmon on the Pacific coast usually begins about the latter part of March and lasts through the spring and greater part of the summer. On account of the great abundance of these fish on the Pacific coast and the distance from large markets the canning industry has developed with great rapidity. In fact on the Pacific coast the product of salmon fishing is devoted almost exclusively to canning purposes. In the canning of salmon no particular care is taken, and perhaps none at all to designate upon the can whether its contents are of the early salmon or the later, less valuable run. It is claimed by many authorities that the salmon of the Pacific coast of America, taken all together in their relation to the economic problem of fish food, are the most important and valuable fish in the world.
Composition of a Pacific Coast Species.--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 63.61 percent Protein, 17.46 „ 52.31 percent Fat, 17.87 „ 49.05 „ Ash, 1.06 „ 2.92 „
Composition of Atlantic Salmon.--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 63.61 percent Protein, 21.60 „ 61.45 percent Fat, 13.38 „ 36.88 „ Ash, 1.41 „ 3.81 „
The above data show that the Pacific salmon are richer in fat than the Atlantic salmon. In fact in the edible portion of the fish the fat is almost as great as the protein.
Another species of Pacific salmon is the humpback salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), which appears in great abundance in the rivers of Alaska, but not every year,--usually coming in larger quantities in alternating years. As a fish to be eaten fresh, this is one of the very best of the salmons. Owing to the pale color of the flesh, this species does not hold as high a rank for canning purposes. It cans well, however, and the product is very palatable and doubtless very nutritious. The trade-name of the canned product is “pink salmon,” as its flesh is of a paler color than that of the chinook salmon or red salmon. Another species is known as dog salmon. It is found in considerable abundance from California northward to Bering Strait, spawning usually late in the fall. It is considered as the least valuable for food purposes, although it is now coming to be used very extensively by freezing, in which form it finds a ready market both in this country and abroad. When canned it is put on the market as “chum.” Its chief interest at the present time is on account of the fact that it is sometimes sold under the names of better species.
=Chinook Salmon= (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha).--This species is also known as quinnat, king, Columbia river, and Sacramento river salmon. It is, next to the sockeye, the most important of all salmon in commercial value. The individuals of this species reach a larger size than those of any other. They have been known to weigh 90 pounds, and fish of from 40 to 60 pounds in weight are not infrequently taken. The average weight of the king salmon which are captured in the Columbia river is probably not far from 22 pounds, while those that run further south, for instance in the Sacramento river, average 16 pounds.
Another species, known as silver salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), also has a number of other names, mostly of Eastern or Russian origin. It is quite an important member of the genus and its average weight is about 5 pounds. It is very valuable as a food fish, only the Chinook and blueback salmon going ahead of it. It is also a species which bears shipment in a fresh state very well. The silver salmon resembles very closely the Chinook, but is easily distinguished therefrom by experienced fishermen. The canned product of this species is usually put on the market as “medium red” or “coho” salmon, names which have now come to have a definite meaning and are perfectly understood by the trade.
=The Sockeye or Blueback Salmon= (Oncorhynchus nerka).--This is the species which has the greatest commercial value and forms a large part of the catch of the Pacific coast. It is the most abundant of all the species of salmon in Alaska. Its flesh has a rich red or “salmon” color, and lends itself admirably to canning processes. In palatability and attractiveness as a canned product it is not inferior to any, unless, possibly, the Columbia river chinook.
Canning of Salmon.--The canning of salmon is one of the most important of the fish industries of the United States. The immense coast line possessed by the United States on the west, which is so vastly extended by the Alaskan coast and Aleutian Islands, affords the most extensive fisheries of salmon in the world. As has already been stated, there are no large markets in that region in which the fresh salmon can find a purchaser. The fish, therefore, must be neglected as a food product or else prepared in some way to enable them to be shipped to great distances. Probably the most unobjectionable way is by canning. The principles of the canning of salmon are not different at all from those which underlie the sterilization of any kind of food. The establishments in which the canning takes place are perhaps the most extensive in the world. The prime necessity in these cases is to secure complete sterilization. In the case of fish any failure to secure the proper sterilization is the more reprehensible, because fish decompose so readily, forming fermentative products which are extremely poisonous. Cases of poisoning from eating canned salmon have been reported, and in some cases they may prove fatal. Every can of salmon which is to be eaten ought to be examined carefully in order to see if there are any incipient signs of decomposition. A bad smelling or otherwise imperfect can should be rejected without question. Only the fish which is perfectly fresh to the taste and odor and which gives no signs of any kind of deterioration should be eaten. When properly prepared, canned salmon affords a delicacy as well as a food product which can hardly be too highly prized.
Composition of Canned Salmon.--Mean of three samples. Water-free substance:
Protein, 53.52 percent Fat, 40.52 „ Ash, 6.24 „
=The Salmon of the Atlantic Coast.=--As has already been noted, the Pacific salmon belong to a different genus from the common Atlantic salmon,--Salmo salar. There is a very close resemblance between the two genera, and the common name “salmon” is applied to the individuals of each. The Atlantic salmon is a fish which has been known from the earliest time. The Roman people became acquainted with it in the early history of the Republic, and especially when they conquered Gaul and Britain. It is found distributed over the whole North Atlantic coast, but especially the northern portion from Massachusetts northward. The salmon extends, as far as observations have been made, beyond even the Arctic circle, and the same species is found upon the western and northern shores of Europe. The salmon enters the St. Lawrence and has been found as far up as Niagara Falls. Our principal fisheries for this species are in Maine and in Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. They do not extend southward beyond the Delaware and have rarely been found in that river. The shad and salmon were particularly abundant in early colonial days. The shad were so abundant that they were not regarded as useful for food purposes, but their value as a fertilizer was taught to the whites by the Indians. Salmon, apparently, were equally abundant, and it was considered an affront to offer salmon more than twice a week even to servants. In this respect they were on the same plane as the diamond back terrapin and canvas back duck, which were so abundant, in those days, that they were a drug on the market. The salmon enters the fresh-water streams for the purpose of spawning. The eggs are largely laid late in the fall, and in that case do not hatch until the next spring. The Atlantic salmon often reach a very large size. Individuals have been known to weigh from 40 to even 80 pounds. The average weight of the salmon taken in Maine waters is about 10 pounds each. Another valued specimen of salmon is known as the Sebago salmon (Salmo sebago), from the lake in which it occurs. It is a fresh-water fish, having been doubtless landlocked in some way after originally entering from the sea. Still a third species is the famous ouananiche (Salmo ouananiche), inhabiting the waters of the Lake St. John region north of Quebec.
Composition of Atlantic Salmon.--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 76.74 percent Protein, 18.52 „ 79.13 percent Fat, 3.60 „ 15.32 „ Ash, 1.14 „ 4.93 „
Composition of Sebago Salmon.--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 78.54 percent Protein, 17.24 „ 78.00 percent Fat, 2.98 „ 13.74 „ Ash, 1.24 „ 5.76 „
The above data show a striking difference in the composition of the edible portions of Pacific and Atlantic salmon. This difference is shown chiefly in the relative proportion of fat. In the Pacific salmon the fat approaches in quantity the protein, while in the Atlantic salmon the protein is much greater than the fat. The Atlantic salmon is used chiefly in the fresh state for two reasons, first, because the catch is very much smaller than that of the Pacific species while the markets are very much more numerous and very much larger; second, because it is commercially more profitable to dealers in the fresh state. In Europe and Scotland the salmon is constantly used in a fresh state during the whole of the summer and a dinner is scarcely considered complete without it. It is also very commonly used at luncheon. It is generally eaten cold and offers a food product of high palatability and great nutritive value in so far as the protein is concerned. Eaten with plenty of potato, as it usually is, it forms a reasonably well-balanced ration. The American visitor who is not used to eating salmon every day is likely to find its constant occurrence upon the English table in the summer to be a bit trying to his taste.
=Sardines.=--The sardine belongs to the herring family--in fact small herring along the coast of Maine are put up as sardines. The sardines are very closely related to the herrings, but there are rather important differences. The European sardine, which is known as the sardine, is the Sardinia pilcharda, and does not occur on the coast of the United States. The species existing on the Pacific coast is known as the California sardine (Sardinia cærulea). It is quite abundant on the California coast and spawns in the open sea. It resembles very strongly the European sardine, but has no teeth. The Spanish sardine (Sardinia pseudohispanica) is found rather abundantly in Cuba and is often carried northward in the Gulf Stream as far as Woods Hole or Cape Cod. It is about 8 inches in length and of high food value, resembling very closely the European sardine. There has been a good deal of discussion as to whether or not small herring which are packed as sardines in the United States should be allowed, under the food laws of the various states and of the United States, to be sold by that name. The answer to this is that any deception in the label should be avoided. The herring, however, belongs to the same genus as the true sardine, and, differing from it only in the variation of species, may have some right to the name. The true ethical principles of trade, however, would require that they should be named Maine sardines or herring sardines and not bear the name simply sardines, which is reserved exclusively for the species Sardinia pilcharda.
Composition of Canned Sardines.--
Water, 56.37 percent Water-free substance, 43.63 „ Protein, 24.87 „ Fats, 12.71 „ Ash, 5.00 „ Sodium chlorid, 0.61 „
The above data are based upon the analysis of the sample after the oil has been separated by drainage.
=European Sardines.=--The sardine is eaten fresh along the Spanish and French coast, where they are taken in great abundance and form a delicious food in this condition. The number which is given to a single individual is quite generous, as the writer has had served him on the Mediterranean coast in Spain as many as twenty fresh sardines at one order. The number, however, was not found any too large when the palatability of the product is taken into consideration. Sardines are preserved by salt and smoke and particularly by packing in oil.
Method of Packing in Oil.--The sardines after proper cleaning are heated in oil for the purpose of sterilizing them. Olive oil is usually employed for this purpose, though some packers prefer to heat the fish in peanut oil, claiming that it gives them a better color. There seems to be, however, no sufficient ground for this claim. The peanut oil is probably used simply because it is cheaper. When the fish are thus sterilized and thoroughly cooked they are placed in boxes in the well known manner in which they are found and covered with oil, sealed, and, if necessary, again sterilized in order to prevent decomposition. Olive oil is the oil usually employed for packing purposes, though cheaper grades of edible oil are very commonly found in sardines. The substitutes for olive oils which are usually employed are peanut oil, cottonseed oil, and sesame oil, either single or mixed. When the sardines have been previously boiled in a cheaper oil and then packed with olive oil the olive oil will be contaminated with the cheaper oil used in the boiling.
Adulteration of Sardines.--As indicated above, the chief adulteration of sardines is in the misbranding respecting the nature of the fish and the oil used in packing. A young herring packed in the manner of a sardine properly demands a special label instead of the word “sardine” alone. A difference respecting the misbranding in regard to the oil employed is avoided by the statement on the package of the character of the oil used. The phrase “Sardines packed in oil” should be construed always to mean in the highest grade oil, that is, olive oil. This phrase, however, is usually employed when inferior oils are used. Inasmuch as oil is not the name of any individual product but of a large class of products, including that of both animal and vegetable origin, it is generally held that the term “oil” is not a sufficient indication of the character of the oil used. In all cases the packages should designate the special kind of oil used in the preparation. The addition of chemical preservatives to sardines in so far as the author knows, is not practiced, at least not to any appreciable extent.
The French Fisheries.--The sardine fisheries in France are mostly off the coast of Brittany, and are subject to many very serious fluctuations. For instance, the present year, 1906, has been one of disaster to the French fisheries. What is the cause of the disappearance of the pilchard (the true sardine) is not known. The fishermen think that large fish have driven the small ones either into the Bay of Biscay or the Mediterranean, or even to the west shores of Africa. The fish are thought to originate in the Mediterranean, and their name is derived from the fact that they were originally found in great quantities off the coast of Sardinia. When the spring comes and the fine weather is established they migrate first along the coast of Spain, finally reaching the French coast some time during the month of May. By this time the young fish are nearly grown to a proper size for catching. The fishing, however, does not really begin until July and is usually finished by November. The little town of Concarneau is the seat of these fisheries. About two thousand small boats go out from this town and at or near this place are also the large canneries and packing establishments. The fishing grounds are about five miles from the coast and the small boats sail out from two to four o’clock in the morning. The fishing is by means of nets and a very important part of the work is the spreading of the bait upon the surface of the water to attract the fish. The principal bait or roque is the roe of the cod, which sometimes reaches a price of $60 per barrel. Sometimes a single boat will use from 30 to 40 barrels of bait. Only the most skilled fisherman, usually the master himself, is allowed to distribute this precious material. As many as one hundred thousand fish have been caught in the net, though this magnitude of catch is, of course, exceptional. When the fish are brought ashore they are counted into baskets, about 200 to a basket, and those unfit for use are thrown out. They are taken to the canneries as quickly as possible to be cleaned, boiled, dipped in oil, and then hermetically sealed into a tin in which they are sent into commerce.
Adulteration.--The chief adulteration of sardines is found in misbranding as to country of origin. The French catch has the highest reputation of any in the world and for this reason the label is often made to represent the fish as of French origin when in reality they are caught on the shores of Spain or of other countries. Formerly the fish were brought in great numbers from the Spanish coast into France. They were naturally much deteriorated in transit. Nevertheless they were tinned and marked as of pure French origin. This practice has now been forbidden by law in France. The Norwegian fish known as Sprötten (sprats) on the German and Holland coasts are packed as sardines and sent into this country as sardines.
=Scup.=--The scup is a fish (family Sparidæ) which is taken in great abundance on our Atlantic coast in the summer and autumn and is brought in immense quantities to the market. The proper name of the fish is Stenotomus chrysops.
Composition.--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 74.99 percent Protein, 18.52 „ 75.33 percent Fat, 5.11 „ 19.25 „ Ash, 1.38 „ 5.64 „
The flesh of this fish is a better balanced ration than that of the red snapper, the proportion of fat being much larger.
=Shad.=--One of the most important food fishes on the Atlantic coast is the shad. It is found along the whole Atlantic coast, coming into fresh water for spawning, where it is caught for food purposes. The shad begin to appear in the streams of the south Atlantic coast early in the winter and as the spring advances they go northward. They appear in the Potomac in April and May, and later in the Delaware and Connecticut rivers and other fresh-water streams further north. The fish is, therefore, to be had fresh upon the market over a long period of time. The common shad is known scientifically as Alosa sapidissima (Wilson). As a result of the work of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries the shad has been introduced into the waters of the Pacific coast where none was found originally. The shad fry were first introduced into the Sacramento river and afterward into the Columbia river. The environments on the Pacific coast were found congenial. The fish soon found grounds on which they could spawn, and they have spread over almost the entire length of the Pacific coast. It has, of late, become a very common and abundant food fish on the Pacific coast and has lost none of its palatability by transplanting. Science has not been able to ascertain anything of very great interest respecting the life of the shad in the sea. When they leave the rivers they practically disappear, and are not known again until the next spawning season returns. For spawning purposes the shad prefer a water temperature of from 55 to 65 degrees. Whenever the temperature goes above the latter figure they begin to disappear. The males and females go in separate schools. The males usually precede the females. It is stated by Jordan and Evermann that of 61,000 shad received at the Washington market from March 19 to 24, 99 percent were male. As the season advanced the males became very much less frequent and at the end extremely scarce. The U. S. Bureau of Fisheries has taken especial pains to increase the number of shad in all waters. During the spring of 1900 there were artificially planted in the Atlantic coast streams over 240,000,000 young shad. One fish often contains as many as 150,000 eggs. The average number, however, is about 30,000. Shad roe is the most valuable part of the fish and brings a much higher price in the market than an equal weight of fish itself. Planked shad is one of the greatest delicacies of the Washington markets. At Marshall Hall, opposite Mount Vernon, there are given a great many shad bakes during the season. Oak wood is placed in long lines and burned,--oak planks are set up on each side of the line of burning wood, inclined at an angle of about 60 or 70 degrees. On these oak planks the shad are cooked, held usually by driving a nail through the head,--the cut surface being exposed to the heat of the burning fire. In addition to being cooked in this way the fish absorbs a small amount of the empyreumatic odors of the burning wood. During the baking the shad are treated from time to time with melted butter. There is no other way which a shad can be cooked which renders it so delicious as by this primitive method. The shad, from an economic point of view, is third in importance in the United States, only the salmon and the cod exceeding it in value. The annual catch of shad on the Atlantic sea coast numbers from 10 to 20 million, weighing from 40 to 60 million pounds and worth from one and one-half to two million dollars.
Composition of Shad.--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 70.62 percent Protein, 18.56 „ 64.36 percent Fat, 9.47 „ 31.93 „ Ash, 1.35 „ 4.62 „
Of the whole weight of shad the average edible portion amounts to 52.35 percent, and the refuse, counting the bones, skin, and entrails is 47.65 percent.
Shad Roe.--The eggs of shad, as has already been mentioned, are regarded as the most valuable portion of the fish. Roe shad also are more highly prized as a food fish than the male shad. As a result, roe shad sell for a much higher price on the market than the male shad. The eggs are quite small, and as has already been said, occur in immense numbers, the average number to a fish being about 30,000.
Composition of Shad Roe.--
Water, 71.2 percent Protein, 23.4 „ Fat, 3.8 „ Ash, 1.6 „
Aside from the water of the roe, it is noticed that by far the most abundant component is the protein. This, of course, is what would be expected of an egg product. The protein is a little more than six times as great as the fat. The ash contains large quantities of phosphorus, which exists in the original egg, largely in the form of lecithin, in which state it is regarded as most valuable for nourishing the phosphatic tissues of the body. Shad roe is eaten almost entirely in the fresh state. It does not produce a pickled or cooked product of anything like the value of the sturgeon eggs. So far as the author knows no form of shad egg preparation similar to caviar is on the market.
There are three species of shad in America, but the only one of great importance is the common Atlantic shad which has been described.
=The Sheepshead.=--This abundant and important food fish exists in large numbers along the Atlantic coast. It also belongs to the Sparidæ and its scientific name is Archosargus probatocephalus. This species is found from Cape Cod to Texas. It is especially found in the vicinity of oyster beds, where it is destructive to the oysters. It is quite abundant in the Indian river, being, next to the mullet, the most frequently found fish in those waters. Though strictly a salt-water fish, it often runs up into fresh waters. The fish is distinguished by the number of broad silvery colored bands extending around its entire body. The average weight of the sheepshead is three or four pounds, though occasionally a fish three or four times that size is captured.
Composition of Sheepshead.--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 75.55 percent Protein, 19.54 „ 83.47 percent Fat, 3.69 „ 13.59 „ Ash, 1.22 „ 5.14 „
=The Smelt.=--The smelt belongs to a family which has a number of species, some of which are very abundant in Europe, where they are highly prized even to a greater extent than in this country for food. The smelt is a small fish, very long in proportion to its breadth. The American smelt (Osmerus mordax) is found very abundantly on the Atlantic coast north of New York. Although a sea fish, it often enters rivers and becomes landlocked in lakes. It is found abundantly in Lakes Champlain and Memphremagog and many of the New England and Nova Scotian lakes. The smelt in early times was a very abundant fish.
Composition of the Smelt.--Edible portion:
FRESH. DRY. Water, 79.16 percent Protein, 17.37 „ 84.31 percent Fat, 1.79 „ 8.65 „ Ash, 1.68 „ 8.16 „
These data show that the flesh of the smelt is very rich in protein, the fat falling to a very small proportion of the total edible substance.
=Spanish Mackerel.=--This is a very highly prized fish and is eaten largely in the fresh state along the Atlantic coast. Its scientific name is Scomberomorus maculatus. The catch is subject to great variations. In early years the Spanish mackerel was scarcely known on our coast, but in the last forty years it has assumed considerable importance. Although more abundant than formerly it still commands a very high price. The weight of the full-grown mackerel is usually from five to eight pounds, though occasionally very large individuals are taken. Jordan and Evermann speak of one which was 41 inches long and weighed 25 pounds.
Composition.--Edible portion:
FRESH. DRY. Water, 68.10 percent Protein, 20.97 „ 67.25 percent Fat, 9.43 „ 29.56 „ Ash, 1.50 „ 4.71 „
In this fish it is seen that the fat is a little less than one-third the quantity of the protein.
=Sturgeon.=--The sturgeon belongs to the family of Acipenseridæ. They are large fishes frequenting the sea and also the fresh waters of northern regions. Most of the species are anadromous, entering fresh water and ascending the streams in spring. There are two genera belonging to this family and 20 species that are well defined, although about 100 nominal species have been described. The white sturgeon or Oregon sturgeon is found on the Pacific coast from Monterey north to Alaska. It ascends the large rivers during the spring, notably the Sacramento, Columbia, and Fraser rivers. Some of them are very large and their value for food and commercial purposes has only been lately recognized. They are principally valuable, however, for their eggs or roe, since it is from the eggs of sturgeon that caviar is made. The roe in the fresh state is worth from 25 to 30 cents a pound. The fresh fish are frozen and shipped to Eastern markets.
The common sturgeon (Acipenser sturio) frequents the east and north Atlantic coast and ascends the rivers in the spring, especially the Delaware. The quantity of sturgeon taken, however, has constantly decreased for several years. The principal part of the caviar made in the United States is procured from the common sturgeon and the Lake sturgeon, which is found in the Great Lakes, the upper Mississippi Valley, and the Lake of the Woods.
Preparation of Caviar.--After the eggs have been removed from the fish, they are placed in large masses upon a stand, the top of which is formed of a small-meshed screen. On the under side is placed a zinc-lined trough, about 18 inches deep, 2 feet wide and 4 feet long. The operator gently rubs the mass of eggs back and forth over the screen, whose mesh is just large enough to let the eggs drop through as they are separated from the enveloping membrane. They thus fall into the trough from which they are drawn off into tubs through a sliding door in one end of the trough. After all the roe has been separated, the tub is removed and a certain proportion of the best Luneberg salt is added and mixed with the eggs by careful stirring with the hands. This is the most delicate part of the whole process, and the best results can be obtained by that proficiency which comes from long experience. After adding the salt, the eggs at first become dry, but in 10 or 15 minutes the salt has drawn from the eggs their watery constituents and a copious brine is formed, which is poured off when the tub becomes too full. The salted eggs are then poured into fine-meshed sieves which hold about 10 pounds each, where they are allowed to drain for 8 to 20 hours. The eggs have now become the caviar of commerce, which is put in casks or cans of various sizes.
Composition of the Flesh of Sturgeon.--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 78.71 percent Protein, 17.96 „ 85.19 percent Fat, 1.90 „ 8.90 „ Ash, 1.43 „ 6.72 „
Composition of Caviar.--
Water, 66.05 percent Protein, 14.37 „ Fat, 8.97 „ Ash, 7.26 „ Undetermined, 3.35 „
Of the ash, 6.16 parts of the 7.26 present are common salt.
=Composition of the Eggs of Fish.=--Attention has been called to the valuable food properties of the eggs of fishes. The roe of a number of fishes is celebrated both for flavor and food value. The two most important roes are those of the sturgeon, used in the manufacture of caviar, and the roe of shad, used principally in the fresh state.
=Composition of Roe.=--The composition of shad roe, fresh sturgeon caviar, and pickled caviar is given in the following table:
---------------+---------+---------+---------+--------- | WATER. | PROTEIN.| FAT. | ASH. ---------------+---------+---------+---------+--------- |Percent|Percent|Percent|Percent Shad roe, | 71.25 | 23.44 | 3.78 | 1.53 Fresh caviar, | 56.97 | 27.87 | 2.85 | 2.31 Pickled caviar,| 50.92 | 27.92 | 13.59 | 7.57 ---------------+---------+---------+---------+---------
The above data show a marked difference between the composition of shad roe and sturgeon roe, the latter being very much richer in fat and also containing a greater quantity of ash. The large quantity of ash in the pickled caviar is doubtless due to the common salt used in the curing. There is not a very great difference between the composition of the roe and that of the flesh of fish. The roe is essentially a nitrogenous food, also with a considerable quantity of fat and with a certain amount of mineral matter. It contains less water than the flesh of fish, and, therefore, pound for pound in the fresh state has a larger quantity of nutrients. Otherwise, for food purposes, there is but little difference. It is doubtless true, however, that the mineral matters of the roe are somewhat different from those of the flesh of fish in containing a larger quantity of organic phosphorus in the form of lecithin.
=Striped Bass.=--The striped bass or rock (Roccus lineatus) is a fish of the family Serranidæ and quite common in the Potomac. It occurs commonly around the Atlantic coast. Its scientific name is Roccus lineatus. It is taken in all waters along the coast from the Carolinas to New England, and especially near the mouth of the Potomac and in Chesapeake Bay. It is a fairly common as well as one of the best food fishes at Washington and in many of the fish markets on the Atlantic coast.
FRESH. DRY. Water, 77.70 percent Protein, 18.31 „ 83.28 percent Fat, 2.83 „ 12.50 „ Ash, 1.16 „ 5.22 „
=Sole.=--The term “sole” is applied here to certain species of flounders and the two terms are sometimes used synonymously. The true soles, however, of which there are several species, belong to a distinct though closely related family. The species of flounder to which the term “sole” is generally given is Eopsetta jordani. It occurs along the Pacific coast from Monterey to Puget Sound. Large numbers are taken in Monterey Bay. The average weight of this “sole” is about three pounds. It is highly esteemed as a food fish. They are dried in great numbers by the Chinese, who suspend them by strings on a frame placed on the roofs of the houses, where, after they become dry, they strike against each other when moved by the wind, producing a sound which is something like that emanating from the leaves of a forest.
=Tautog.=--The Tautoga onitis is one of the wrasse-fishes (family Labridæ) and is abundant along the Atlantic coast from New Brunswick to the Carolinas. East of New York it is commonly called the “tautog.” On the New York coast it is known as “blackfish,” and further south as the “oyster fish.”
=Tilefish.=--The tilefish is interesting not because of its high food value but because of the fact that it was discovered by accident in 1879 when a fisherman off the coast of Nantucket captured 5000 pounds of a fish which was new to him. The species was also new to science. This fish disappeared as suddenly as it came and no more were caught until 1892. Since then they have been taken rather frequently. The tilefish reaches a length sometimes of three feet and a weight of 30 pounds. It is pronounced by experts to be the equal of the pompano.
=Trout.=--Trout, of which there are many species, are greatly prized both on account of their value as game fishes, affording sport for anglers, and because of their high palatable qualities. They belong to the same family as the Atlantic salmon and often it is difficult to distinguish by any of its common characteristics a trout from a salmon. This is especially true of trout of western America. The species of trout which are most highly prized on the Pacific coast are the cut-throat trout (Salmo clarkii), the rainbow trout (Salmo iridens), and the steel-head (Salmo gairdneri). The familiar silver trout of Lake Tahoe is another closely related species. They are distinguished by a remarkable system of spots of a circular form, black in color, and of varying size. The Lake Tahoe trout which is commonly secured is not the same as the silver trout of Lake Tahoe but is of a little different character, and is also known as the Truckee Trout, “Pogy,” and “Snipe.” It reaches a weight of from three to six pounds and is sometimes served on the dining cars of the Central Pacific Railway, in running through Idaho and into California. Various other species of the trout are found in Utah, in the Rio Grande and the Colorado, and in the lakes of Colorado. Perhaps the most important of these is the steel-head trout occurring along the Pacific coast. The rainbow trout is also a fish that is highly prized along the Pacific coast. The brook trout of western Oregon is also an important fish.
The Trout of the Great Lakes.--The fish known as trout in the Great Lakes belong to a different genus from those already mentioned, namely, genus Cristivomer. It has, however, the typical spots, which are of a grayish color instead of red or black like those of the other trout which have been mentioned.
The principal species which abounds in the Great Lakes is the Mackinaw trout (Cristivomer namaycush). It is also found in the large lakes from Maine westward to the Pacific ocean and even to northern Alaska. This is the largest species of trout. The average weight of the fish probably does not exceed 15 or 20 pounds. Individual examples have been found weighing over 100 pounds. There is only one common fish which exceeds it in weight, namely, the sturgeon. Next to the white fish it is the most important commercial fish of the Great Lakes. The supply of lake trout has been diminishing and the price increasing for several years. The spawning season of lake trout begins in September and continues until December.
Composition of Lake Trout.--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 69.14 percent Protein, 18.22 „ 60.10 percent Fat, 11.38 „ 36.80 „ Ash, 1.26 „ 4.90 „
Composition of Brook Trout.--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 77.72 percent Protein, 18.97 „ 86.62 percent Fat, 2.10 „ 9.16 „ Ash, 1.21 „ 5.39 „
The above data show that lake trout has a flesh which approximates in composition that of Pacific salmon, being quite rich in fat, while the brook trout has a composition more like the Atlantic salmon, being very rich in protein and poor in fat. Trout of all kinds are used practically in only a fresh state. The catch is not large enough to warrant the establishment of canning factories and all that are caught in the northern and central northern lakes and streams find a ready market in a fresh state at much more remunerative prices than could be obtained by canning. It is always a fortunate circumstance when the condition of the catch and of the market are such as to enable the fish to be eaten as fresh as possible from the water. Fish is a kind of food which is never improved by keeping in any way and is at its best the minute the fish is taken from the stream. The brook trout do not belong to the same genus as the lake trout but to the genus Salvelinus. They have a general resemblance, however, to that genus. As a fish to be caught by the hook and as a victim of sport the brook trout perhaps occupies the highest place among the fish of the country; especially is it sought for in the mountain streams, and it occurs in most parts of the northeastern United States. It extends from Maine to northern Georgia and Alabama, especially in the Appalachian Mountains and west through the Great Lakes to the Mississippi, while in Canada it is found from Labrador to the Saskatchewan.
The brook trout has been especially cultivated by the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries and introduced into waters in the United States where it is not found naturally. The season for spawning for the brook trout is in the autumn, when the water is growing colder, and continues from August to December, according to the latitude. In spawning time the fish come up into the smallest parts of the stream where shallow water can be found. The eggs remain until the next spring, when they are hatched. The brook trout varies greatly in size, according to the magnitude of the stream. In the small streams it weighs often less than ¹⁄₄ pound, while in large streams it weighs 2 or 3 pounds. The large trout has almost disappeared from the small streams as a result of the activity of fishermen.
There are many other species of trout which are known in different parts of the country. For instance, the Dublin Pond trout of Dublin Pond, N. H., the Dolly Varden trout in the northern Pacific states and Alaska, the Sunapee trout in the northeastern states, and the Blueback trout in Maine. These fishes all have practically the same quality, varying only in minute details, and have the same value as a food.
=Turbot.=--A species of halibut known as Greenland halibut (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides) is also known as turbot in this country. It occurs chiefly off the coast of Greenland, and is taken in the very coldest part of the year. The European turbot is Psetta maxima.
=Weakfish.=--The weakfish belongs to the croaker family (Sciænidæ) and has a high value as a food fish, the flesh being rich in flavor and very tender and easily disintegrated, from which quality it is believed the name “weakfish” is derived. The common weakfish is the species Cynoscion regalis. It is also known in some localities as the squeteague. The fish is rather long in proportion to its breadth and sometimes grows to a large size. Examples weighing over 25 pounds have been captured. Very rarely, however, does a weakfish weigh more than 10 pounds, and the average is perhaps not more than one-half that. The weakfish is, particularly when young, a victim of the bluefish, and great numbers succumb to the ravages of its more powerful enemy. The weakfish is found over the entire length of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts as far north as the Bay of Fundy. The weakfish sometimes ascends the tidal waters and congregates around the river mouths, where the food is more abundant. While found on the markets in the North, it is more highly prized in the southern markets.
Composition.--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 78.97 percent Protein, 17.45 „ 84.63 percent Fat, 2.39 „ 11.37 „ Ash, 1.19 „ 5.64 „
The flesh of the weakfish, as shown by the above data, is one in which the protein exists in very much greater proportion than the fat. It is not so rich in protein, however, as some of the other species which have been mentioned.
=Whitefish.=--This fish occurs in large numbers in all our Great Lakes, and is an abundant article of food. Its scientific name is Coregonus clupeiformis. It inhabits the whole of the Great Lakes regions from Lake Champlain to Lake Superior. It does not occur in very great abundance, if at all, west of Lake Superior, although it has been reported to have been found in the fresh water lakes both to the north and west of that region.
The common whitefish prefers the deep water of the lakes, coming only into shallow water near the shore at spawning time, which, in the Great Lakes, is from October to December. During the months of January, February, and March the fishing for whitefish is practically discontinued, since the fish at that time have returned to deep water and are not accessible.
The size of the whitefish in the Great Lakes is not so great as the extent of water would indicate. Probably three pounds would be an average size, although the individual fish range from 1¹⁄₂ to 6 pounds. The weight rarely, however, exceeds 4 or 5 pounds. Occasionally whitefish have been found weighing as high as 20 pounds, but this is very rare. The whitefish reaches its full average size about the end of the fourth year. The number of eggs which are found in the female fish is not so large as in the shad, but usually the number does not fall below 10,000 and sometimes reaches as high as 75,000. The eggs are very small comparatively, and about 36,000 of them make a quart. The U. S. Bureau of Fisheries has done a great deal to increase the supply of whitefish by planting millions of whitefish fry in suitable water.
Different Species of Whitefish.--There are many species of whitefish besides the common whitefish which appear in the Great Lakes. Coulter’s whitefish is found in the waters of British Columbia, but it is not distributed very widely throughout the country. The Rocky Mountain whitefish is very widely distributed, occurring in all suitable waters from the west slope of the Rockies to the Pacific. There is also a subspecies of this fish occurring in the headwaters of the Missouri river. Menominee whitefish occur in the lakes of New England, New York, and the Great Lakes,--it is also known as round whitefish, frostfish, shadwaiter, pilotfish, chivey, and blackback.
Composition of Whitefish.--
FRESH. DRY. Water, 69.83 percent Protein, 22.06 „ 76.00 percent Fat, 6.49 „ 21.51 „ Ash, 1.62 „ 5.36 „
Average Composition of Fish.[16]--
Water, 76.06 percent Solids, 23.94 „ Nitrogen, 3.51 „ Phosphoric acid, .52 „ Sulfur, .24 „ Fat, 1.45 „ Ash, 1.21 „ Protein, 21.92 „
[16] Average analysis of cod, halibut, bass, etc., used at the hygienic table of the Bureau of Chemistry.
=Fluorids in Fish.=--Nearly all kinds of fish yield a distinct test for fluorin which is not to be mistaken for an adulteration. The fluorin is found normally in the bones of the fish and sometimes in traces in the flesh. The addition of fluorid as a preservative is highly reprehensible, and its presence is indicated by the increase in quantity.
=Marketing of Fish.=--In the food act it is provided that no animals shall be used for food which have died otherwise than by slaughter. Whether or not this would apply to fish is a matter of some doubt. Unfortunately fish, as a rule, are allowed to die by being deprived of oxygen, which they get from the water as it passes over their gills. The common practice is to take the fish for commercial purposes in seines or other gear and allow them to die, as it were, by suffocation. The greater number of fish exposed upon our markets have died in this way and are then packed in ice and kept until sold. The ideal way to treat fish would be to transfer them from the seine to a pool of water, fresh or salt, in which they are kept alive until they are wanted for cooking. This method is practiced in some very high-grade restaurants and hotels where the diner may pick for himself from the pool the fish he desires to eat. It is evident that for commercial purposes where a cheap food is desirable a method of this kind could not be practiced. It is a question which the hygienist as well as the practical man should consider, that is, whether or not it is possible to slaughter the fish and, as soon as they are taken, dress them, pack their carcasses in ice, and in this way deliver them to the markets. Where fish are used for canning or salting purposes they are often slaughtered as soon as caught. This is particularly true of herring captured in the Potomac and Susquehanna rivers. It is an interesting problem to study whether or not the flavor and character of the flesh are impaired by the suffocation process subsequent to their capture. In all cases except in cold weather, the fish after capture, no matter whether they are allowed to die by suffocation or slaughtered, should be packed in ice and kept until the market is reached, which should be at as early a date as possible. Fish are never so good as when fresh and the fresher the better.
=Cold Storage.=--Fish is a product which is often found in cold storage in large numbers and kept there for a long time. The usual problem attending the cold storage of food is even more important when applied to fish. In cold storage fish are frozen solid and kept in this state until ready for consumption. Just how long the palatability and wholesomeness of fish can be preserved when frozen solid has not been determined. It follows logically that the colder the temperature the less the degree of deterioration, but it does not follow logically that this temperature can be maintained indefinitely without injuring the character of the product. One thing appears to be certain, namely, that the consumer is entitled to know whether in any given case the fish he purchases is a fresh or a cold storage article. At the present time, in so far as I know, there are no national, state, or municipal laws whereby this fact can be ascertained. Without raising the question of comparative value or palatability there is no doubt but what the consumer is entitled to know the character of the fish he purchases.
=Canning Fish.=--Allusion has already been made to the practice of canning fish, especially salmon. Great precautions must be used in cases of this kind, since fish is a food which tends to develop poisonous principles incident to decomposition. Canned fish, therefore, must be thoroughly sterilized so that no fermentative action tending to produce ptomain poison can possibly take place. It should be the duty of inspectors of food to frequently examine packages of canned fish to determine, first, by the external appearance of the can, and, second, by opening a certain number of them, whether any decomposition has taken place. Too great care cannot be exercised in this matter, since dangerous and often fatal results follow the consumption of spoiled fish.
=Drying and Salting Fish.=--The preservation of fish by pickling, salting, drying, and smoking is a great industry and produces some of the most palatable products. Mackerel, herring, and cod are types of fish which upon proper curing make a most delectable dish. Nothing but encouragement should be given to industries of this kind, but in order that they be of their true value they should be conducted properly with due regard to hygienic principles and for the sole purpose of making a wholesome and palatable product.
=Adulteration of Fish Products.=--Attention has already been called to the adulteration of salmon by canning an inferior grade or even a different kind of fish under the name of a better species. The same remark may be made respecting all fish, hake, haddock, and cusk being often offered as cod. In the case of sardines a similar practice is in vogue, and the small herring which are captured off the coast of Maine are often sold under the name of sardines. The substitution of one variety of fish for another, however, is injurious only in the way of fraud, the substitute fish presumably being of equal wholesomeness to the other under whose name it is sold. On the contrary, the form of sophistication which permits the introduction of deleterious substances into fish food is highly objectionable from the dietetic point of view. Following the general principles of nutrition, all chemical, non-condimental preservatives are to be rigidly excluded from fish products. This rule excludes boric acid, borax, benzoic acid and benzoates, sulfites, formaldehyde, and all other forms of chemical preservatives.
When fish are packed in oil the character of the oil used should be made known to the consumer. Especially is this true if from the locality where the fish is preserved and the general method of packing the consumer is led to believe that a high-grade oil such as olive oil has been used.
=Value of Fish as Food.=--From the statements which have been made in connection with fish in particular and the analyses which have been given it is seen that fish is a food of a peculiarly nitrogenous character. The edible portions, exclusive of water, are at least three-fourths, and probably more composed of protein. The other edible nutritive product is fat or fish oil. The mineral nutrients compose the remaining edible portion of fish after the protein and fat are considered. The mineral portions of fish cannot be regarded as not nutritious since they contain phosphoric acid and lime, which are essential ingredients of food. The flesh of fish, however, as it has been seen, is not a complete ration, but is lacking in carbohydrates, and for this reason fish should be eaten with potatoes, rice, or other highly starchy foods. The value of fish as a food is unquestionable and its more general consumption would doubtless prove beneficial.
Those who live in the interior of large and extensive regions where fresh water fish are not very abundant do not appreciate the value of fish as food as do those who live upon the coasts washed by salt water and near the interior fresh waters where an abundant supply of fish is secured.
SHELLFISH.
=Clams.=--Clams are shellfish which, though not so extensively used as the oyster, are valued food products. The clams of commerce are of two kinds. The species known as long or soft clam is abundant on the New England coast, and is of considerable commercial importance both fresh and as a canned product. This is the clam used at clam bakes, for which the New England coast is famous. Its technical name is Mya arenaria.
The other species, the round or hard clam, northward known as quahog, is the most common clam of the markets south of New York. Its scientific name is Venus mercenaria.
A very small round clam is known as the little neck. This has a flavor which is extremely delicate and it takes the place, in the warm months, of the blue point oyster on the menus of the hotels and restaurants. The clam may be considered as a supplemental shellfish to the oyster, being most delicious and most abundant during the closed oyster season. The average weight of the round clam is about 60 grams, of which about one-fourth is flesh, one-fourth liquid, and one-half shell and refuse. There are many specimens very much larger than this but the weight is given for those usually eaten.
Composition of Clams.--Edible portion:
Water, 78.57 percent Protein, 14.86 „ Fat, 1.78 „ Ash, 2.49 „ Undetermined, 2.30 „
The liquid which escapes upon the opening of the shell is composed chiefly of water and salt and its composition is as follows:
Water, 96.02 percent Protein, .65 „ Fat, None Common salt, 2.81 „ Undetermined, .52 „
The flesh of clams, it is seen, is not very different from that of fish in general. It is composed chiefly of water and of the nutrients the protein is the predominating constituent. The ash content is somewhat higher than is the case with fish.
If the flesh and fluid substance of the clam be considered together the composition of the whole mass is represented by the following data:
Water, 86.11 percent Protein, 8.71 „ Fat, 1.01 „ Ash, 2.63 „ Undetermined, 1.54 „
Composition of Water-free Substance of the Flesh.--
Protein, 69.37 percent Fat, 8.32 „ Ash, 11.64 „ Undetermined, 10.67 „
Composition of the Dry Substance of the Liquid Portion.--
Protein, 16.37 percent Fat, .10 „ Ash, 70.41 „ Undetermined, 13.12 „
Composition of the Dry Substance of the Flesh and Liquid Together.--
Protein, 62.81 percent Fat, 7.30 „ Ash, 18.92 „ Undetermined, 10.97 „
=The Lobster= (Homarus americanus).--The lobster is a crustacean which occurs along the northern Atlantic coast. Formerly it was so very abundant that it was almost a drug on the market. In the last quarter of a century the increase in the consumption of the lobster has been more rapid than the increased growth, so that the price has become higher and higher; and this, to a certain extent, is limiting the consumption. The coast of Maine is especially the fishing grounds for the American lobster, though it is found much further south and also in great abundance further north. The lobster varies greatly in size. The law, at the present time, prevents very young lobsters from being sent into commerce. They are usually from 10.5 to 15 inches in length, though occasionally examples of enormous size are taken. The edible portion of the lobster is the liquid and the flesh of the body, claws, and tail. Only about one-half the weight of the lobster, including the liquid, therefore, is edible. The rest is refuse. In a lobster weighing a thousand grams (2.2 pounds), five hundred grams (1.1 pound) will be the average edible portion, and the other half the refuse and loss. The average lobster of the present day, perhaps, weighs scarcely two pounds, though in former times the weight was very much greater because the younger and smaller lobsters were not sent to the market. The color of the lobster as it comes from the water is dark green, almost black at times. Heat changes the color of the shell, so that after boiling or baking the lobster becomes red. The flesh of the lobster is decidedly sweet, owing to the large quantity of glycogen which it contains. There is only one kind of meat that is eaten which approaches the lobster in its content of glycogen, and that is horse meat.
Composition of the Lobster.--Edible portion:
FRESH. DRY. Water, 84.30 percent Protein, 11.63 „ 74.06 percent Fat, 1.82 „ 11.62 „ Ash, 1.63 „ 10.38 „ Glycogen, .62 „ 3.94 „
=Crabs.=--The crab is a shellfish very highly prized along the whole of the Atlantic coast. Numerous species of crabs are used for food. These are used in two forms--as hard-shelled or soft-shelled crabs. The species most valued is Callinectes hastatus. It is very abundant on the middle and south Atlantic coast. Crabs are quite abundant on the Pacific coast also. About 44 percent of the total weight of the crab is edible and 56 percent shell and refuse. In the edible portion about 77 percent is water and 23 percent solid matter.
Composition of the Water-free Substance of the Crab.--
Protein, 72.56 percent Fat, 8.55 „ Ash, 13.64 „
The flesh of the crab is, therefore, essentially a nitrogenous food, containing only a small quantity of fat. A considerable portion of the ash is common salt.
=Crawfish.=--The crawfish may be regarded as a fresh-water lobster. It is found practically over the whole of the United States in the fresh waters but is not used to any extent for food purposes, except on the Pacific coast. It contains even a less proportion of edible matter than the lobster. The refuse, shell, etc., form about five-sixths of its weight. In the edible portion the water constitutes 81.22 percent, while the solid matters are only 18.78 percent.
Composition of the Water-free Substance of the Crayfish.--
Protein, 85.19 percent Fat, 2.45 „ Ash, 6.98 „
=Canned Lobster, Clams, and Crabs.=--As in the case of oysters, there is a large industry in the United States engaged in the canning of the flesh of lobsters, clams, and crabs. The same precautions should be observed in the eating of these canned products as those mentioned in the case of salmon. Numerous instances of illness and sometimes of death have been recorded as the result of eating these canned products which have been imperfectly sterilized. When the flesh is canned immediately after the capture of the animal, before any incipient decomposition has taken place and when the sterilization is perfect, the canned product can be eaten without fear. Where the health of the people is so seriously involved, the factories where these products are prepared should be carefully inspected either by the municipal, state, or federal authorities. All material used in canning which is not perfectly fresh from the water is to be rejected and the processes employed in the preparation and sterilization must be those which will effectively secure a complete immunity from subsequent fermentation and the development of ptomain products.
Composition of Canned Lobster (Dry Substance).--
Protein, 81.46 percent Fat, 4.64 „ Ash, 11.23 „
As seen from the above the composition of the dry substance in canned lobster, except content of water, is not perceptibly different from that of the fresh sample.
Composition of the Dry Substance of Canned Crabs.--
Protein, 79.10 percent Fat, 7.55 „ Ash, 9.68 „
=Shrimp= (Crangon vulgaris).--The shrimp is a highly valued article of food, especially when it can be had fresh or properly canned. It has been a practice to ship shrimps in bulk preserved with sulfites or boric acid. This is a most reprehensible form of adulteration.
=Canned Shrimps.=--In the total dry edible portion, including solids in the liquid contents of the can, are found:
Protein, 86.89 percent Fat, 3.44 „ Crude ash, 8.84 „
In edible portion (flesh plus liquids):
Water, 70.80 percent Water-free substance, 29.20 „ Protein, 25.38 „ Fat, 1.00 „ Crude ash, 2.58 „ Extractives, 0.24 „ Nitrogen, 4.06 „ Total edible portion, 100.00 „
The above data show that the shrimp in the canned state has less water in it than in the fresh state, and contains one-fourth of its weight of protein.
=Aquatic Reptiles.=--All forms of turtle may be used for edible purposes, both of the fresh-water and salt-water species. Both the turtle and terrapin are amphibious animals; that is, they can live either in the water or on the land. Among the turtles the marine variety known as the green turtle is most highly prized for food purposes. Its Latin name is Chelonia mydas. It grows sometimes to an enormous size, weighing several hundred pounds, and specimens weighing 50 and 100 pounds are not unusual. It is utilized chiefly for making soup, and green turtle soup is considered of high quality by experts. The flesh is also edible, and in the making of some varieties of green turtlesoup pieces of the flesh are included.
Composition of the Green Turtle.--The edible portion of the green turtle has the following composition:
Water, 79.78 percent Protein, 19.83 „ Fat, .53 „ Ash, 1.20 „
The edible portion of the green turtle is not very large in proportion to its weight, as it forms only from 20 to 24 percent of the whole weight of the turtle.
Among the reptiles there are several aquatic species which are used as food. The most noted of these is the diamond-back terrapin, which is found in the salt-water bays, lagoons, and marshes of our Atlantic coast from New Jersey to Texas. Its center of greatest abundance is in Chesapeake Bay. There is no fish or other water animal that has a higher value for edible purposes than the terrapin. The extreme delicacy of its flavor, the richness of its aroma, and its easy digestibility give to it a rank which perhaps no other usual food product possesses. In addition to this the increased scarcity of the terrapin, especially the more famous variety of it, namely, the diamond-back, has gradually increased the cost until at the present time the terrapin is eaten only by the rich. In the United States it exists along the whole Atlantic coast from New York southward and also along the Gulf coast. Formerly it was most abundant on the Maryland coast, but the nearness of this field to the great markets of the country has resulted in such a depletion of the stock as to make the terrapin very scarce. Many attempts have been made at artificial growing of terrapin and these have been more or less successful, but have not met with pronounced success which has been expected. The enclosure in which the terrapin are kept, viz., the “crawl,” is a feature in the artificial cultivation or breeding of these marine vertebrates. It is to be hoped that greater success in the future will attend the artificial breeding of terrapin, since the natural stock seems well on the way to extinction.
Composition of the Terrapin.--Edible portion:
FRESH. DRY. Water, 74.47 percent Protein, 21.23 „ 83.13 percent Fat, 3.47 „ 13.59 „ Ash, 1.02 „ 3.99 „
=The Mussel.=--The mussel may be described as a fresh-water oyster. It occurs in almost all parts of the United States in the fresh waters and in external appearance resembles to some extent the oyster, but the shell is usually smoother. In the mussel is often developed concretions of the carbonate of lime in a particular form known as pearls. In fact the chief value of the mussel is in the supply of pearls which they furnish, since their flesh, although often eaten, is not considered very palatable nor desirable. Pearls may be found in mussels in every locality, but in some regions they are more abundant than in others,--for instance, the mussels of Wisconsin are especially noted for the occurrence of the pearls. Pearls are also frequently found in oysters, but by no means so frequently as in the mussel.
Composition of the Mussel.--The edible portion of the mussel forms about one-half its weight.
Water, 78.64 percent Protein, 12.51 „ Fat, 1.67 „ Ash, 1.73 „ Undetermined, 5.45 „
=Oysters.=--Oysters belong to a class of animals known as mollusks. They grow in salt or brackish water and are found along almost the whole of the coast of the United States. They exist in the greatest abundance along the coast in the vicinity of Long Island Sound, Norfolk, Virginia, along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, off the coast of Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, and along the Pacific coast from San Francisco to the northern limits of Washington.
Size.--The size of an oyster depends greatly upon its food and also upon its species. There are some varieties which at a given period of growth are naturally very much larger than others. The larger variety grows near Norfolk and along the Gulf coast. A smaller species is especially abundant on the Pacific coast, though a number of very large specimens of oysters have been found on that coast.
Age.--An oyster is eaten at any time after two years. Oysters, however, three or four years old are, perhaps, in all respects the best. The age is determined largely by the appearance of the shell, experts being able to practically determine the age of an oyster by an examination of the shell.
The oyster grows within a shell which is composed almost exclusively of carbonate of lime. The periphery of the shell is ovoid in shape, irregular, and the surface, especially of old oysters, is corrugated, rough, and unattractive. The interior of the shell is smooth and generally white, but sometimes has a blue or reddish tinge. The shells of edible oysters vary in size from 2 to 6 inches in length and from 2 to 4 inches in width. The oysters sold in the market are known by various names, usually derived from the location from which they come. A small variety distinguished by a blue color on the inside of the shell is known as blue points. The real blue points come only from Long Island. Another variety named Rockaway is also a Long Island variety, and should come exclusively from Rockaway or vicinity. Shrewsbury is another highly prized variety from the neighborhood of Shrewsbury, New Jersey. Buzzards Bay, James River, Norfolk, Lynnhaven, Rappahannock, Stony Creek, Saddle Rock, etc., are names commonly found in the trade. Unfortunately, the name of the location is not always an indication of the actual source from which the oysters may have come. For instance the term “blue point” is now very commonly given to small oysters not exceeding 2 or 2¹⁄₂ inches in length with a correspondingly diminished breadth. On the contrary “saddle rock” is a name given to very large oysters no matter from what region they may come. It is a common practice to separate the oysters taken from one location into groups of similar size and attach to each group a special name which may or may not be indicative of location.
Cultivation of Oysters.--The natural beds of oysters are rapidly exhausted by the free fishing which is in some cases allowed, and the supply must be kept up by proper cultivation. Oyster farming has become a great industry along all parts of the coasts where the conditions are well suited to culture. The ideal conditions are inlets where the oysters are protected from the action of ocean waves and where abundant food can be derived from the low marshy grounds in the vicinity. The laws in force in the states protect the oyster farms from poachers and deeds are given for oyster beds which are beyond the low water line. The conditions of culture vary in various states. The public beds are also protected by law in many states and incipient war is sometimes carried on between the authorities of one state and the poachers from other states. Maryland, especially, has laws of a very strict character respecting the taking of oysters, and the state furnishes armed forces for the protection of public beds.
Season for Oysters.--The best season for oysters on the Atlantic coast of the United States extends from September first to May. These dates may also be applied to oysters of the Gulf and Pacific coasts. It is commonly said that all months which have an “R” in them are suitable for eating oysters. In point of fact oysters are eaten the year round, especially on the Atlantic coast, though to a very limited extent during the spring and summer months. Those who own their own oyster beds are privileged to take oysters at all seasons, and it is not unusual that a restaurant furnishes oysters during the whole year, those in the closed season being derived from private beds.
Life of an Oyster.--After an oyster is taken from its bed it may be kept alive for a long time at a temperature which does not rise too high nor sink too low. The best temperature for keeping oysters alive is about 40 to 50 degrees Fahrenheit. The oysters should be protected from the sunlight by a proper covering in a cool place and kept moist with sea water or brine which is sprinkled over them in such a way as to come in contact with each oyster in the heap. Oysters kept under these conditions often remain in an excellent state for consumption for a week or ten days or even longer. If such conditions are maintained oysters may be shipped in bulk to all parts of the country in cars kept cool, and this is the best way in which oysters should be distributed for consumption in a fresh state.
The treating of oysters with fresh water in order to swell them and thus make them appear larger and plumper than they really are is a treatment which is reprehensible in every respect. Not only does it deceive the customer in regard to the size of the oyster but it deprives the oyster of its proper taste and flavor. “Soaked” oysters quickly lose their flavor, whereas the oysters kept as above described and sprinkled with brine retain their natural flavor and odor. The objection to the transportation of oysters in this way is that the shell usually weighs many times more than the oyster and the same rate of freight must be paid upon it as upon the oyster itself. Nevertheless, the fact remains that fresh oysters should be eaten directly after removal from the shells. As soon as the shell is removed and the oyster killed by this removal it begins to deteriorate and in a short time its flavor and aroma are impaired. It is a common practice in many cities, even where oysters are delivered fresh daily from their beds, to open large quantities of them and put them in tubs and sell them from these tubs to customers. It thus happens that customers often buy oysters that have been opened 24 hours or more and which are naturally of a very changed flavor. Strict regulations in regard to the use of fresh oysters, favoring their being opened when they are ready for consumption or requiring that they should be kept in the condition of palatability and properly kept cool until ready for consumption, should be observed.
Shipment of Opened Oysters.--Opened oysters are shipped extensively to all parts of the country. After removal from the shell the oysters are washed to remove the natural water, since this becomes ropy during shipment. They are then packed in wooden tubs of various sizes, a piece of ice added, covered, and delivered to the fast express or freight service. In this way the oysters may be kept free of dangerous deterioration for several days. In such cases care must be exercised to keep the temperature low and to secure a sanitary environment. Thus protected the oysters should arrive at their destination without any further change than the necessary loss of flavor caused by the conditions of preparation and transportation.
Proportion of Shell and Oysters.--The following illustration (Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries for 1888, page 784) shows the relative proportion of the flesh, liquid, and refuse for two or three varieties of oysters:
Name: Oysters (“East Rivers”).
Locality: Cow Bay, Long Island Sound, New York.
Received: April 8, 1881, from E. G. Blackford.
Description: Length, 2¹⁄₂ to 5¹⁄₂ inches; breadth, 1³⁄₄ to 3¹⁄₂ inches.
WEIGHINGS IN PREPARATION FOR ANALYSIS.
GRMS. LBS. OZ. PERCENT. Flesh, 558.0 1 3.6 10.27 Liquid, 543.7 1 3.1 10.01 Refuse (shells, etc.), 4,284.7 9 7.2 78.86 Loss, 47.3 .. 1.7 .86 ------- -- ---- ------ Total, 51 oysters, 5,433.7 11 15.6 100.00
Name: Oysters (“Sounds”).
Locality: Princess Bay, Staten Island, New York.
Received: November 30, 1881, from Dorlon & Shaffer, New York City.
Description: Thirty oysters in shell.
WEIGHINGS IN PREPARATION FOR ANALYSIS.
GRMS. LBS. OZ. PERCENT. Flesh, 384.0 .. 13.5 8.24 Liquid, 436.0 .. 15.4 9.35 Refuse, 3,816.0 8 6.6 81.87 Loss, 25.0 .. 0.9 0.54 ------- -- ---- ------ Total, 30 oysters, 4,661.0 10 4.4 100.00
The above data show that for 100 pounds of shelled oysters only about 10 pounds of meat are found. There is also about 10 pounds of liquid or juice that escapes when the oyster is opened. There is an average of 80 pounds of shell and other refuse. When it is remembered that, as will be shown in the table given below, in 10 pounds of the meat there is over 80 percent of water it is seen that the actual nourishment contained in 100 pounds of oysters is reduced to a little over 1 pound. There is a general opinion that oysters are a very nutritious food and this is true in so far as the nitrogenous element of food, that is, the protein, is concerned, and in proportion to the quantity present. As a nourishing food the oyster cannot be considered as worthy of any very great esteem. It must be confessed that it will continue to be used as it has been in the past, that is, practically, as a condimental food substance and not to satisfy hunger nor provide the heat and energy of the human activities.
Process of Floating.--Reference has already been made to the practice of soaking oysters in fresh water for the purpose of making them more plump and increasing their weight. This, in the language of the fisherman, is called “floating,” “drinking,” or “laying out.” By this process the body of the oyster affects a plumpness and largeness which materially increases its selling qualities, as it increases its weight and size and, therefore, the profits of the dealer. The principle of this process depends upon the fact that when a soft substance like an oyster, containing a mineral salt in its composition, is brought in contact with water, a process of diffusion takes place which is known, in chemical physics, as osmosis, whereby water passes through the cell walls and enters the cells of the oyster and the mineral substance thereof is forced out into the external water. Larger volumes of water pass into the cells than accompany the particles of mineral matter to the outside of the cells and the result is a swelling of the oysters and consequent increase in the size and weight by the addition of pure water, but at the expense of the natural salt, mostly chlorid of sodium or common salt, which the oyster contains.
The U. S. Bureau of Fisheries has been experimenting to show the change which takes place with the following results:--
STATISTICS OF WEIGHTS, ETC., OF SPECIMENS OF OYSTERS.
----------------+-------------------------------------+ | JAMES RIVER.[17] | ----------------+------------------+------------------+ | | | CONSTITUENTS. | From beds. | From floats. | +------------------+------------------+ | Lab. No. 82; 31 | Lab. No. 83; 34 | | oysters. | oysters. | ----------------+-------+----------+-------+----------+ Shell contents: |Grms.|Lbs. Oz.|Grms.|Lbs. Oz.| Flesh (body) | 312.5| 11.0| 412.5| 14.5| Liquids (liquor)| 181.5| 6.4| 208.0| 7.3| +-------+----------+-------+----------+ Total | 494.0| 1 1.4| 620.5| 1 5.8| +=======+==========+=======+==========+ Refuse: | | | | | Shells | 2778.0| 6 2.0| 2976.0| 6 9.1| Loss[18] | 21.0| 0.8| 17.5| 0.6| +-------+----------+-------+----------+ Total | 2799.0| 6 2.8| 2993.5| 6 9.7| +=======+==========+=======+==========+ Total weight of | | | | | specimen | 3293.0| 7 4.2| 3614.0| 7 15.5| ----------------+-------+----------+-------+----------+
----------------+------------------------------------- | POTOMAC RIVER.[17] ----------------+------------------+------------------ | | CONSTITUENTS. | From beds. | From floats. +------------------+------------------ | Lab. No. 85; 35 | Lab. No. 84; 41 | oysters. | oysters. ----------------+-------+----------+--------+--------- Shell contents: |Grms.|Lbs. Oz.|Grms.|Lbs. Oz. Flesh (body) | 302.5| 10.7| 415.5| 14.7 Liquids (liquor)| 282.0| 10.0| 264.3| 9.3 +-------+----------+-------+---------- Total | 584.5| 1 4.7| 679.8| 1 8.0 +=======+==========+=======+========== Refuse: | | | | Shells | 3017.0| 6 10.4| 3386.0| 7 7.4 Loss[18] | 22.5| 0.8| 15.2| 0.5 +-------+----------+-------+---------- Total | 3039.5| 6 11.2| 3401.2| 7 7.9 +=======+==========+=======+========== Total weight of | | | | specimen | 3624.0| 7 15.9| 4081.0| 8 15.9 ----------------+-------+----------+-------+----------
[17] Transplanted to beds in New Haven harbor, Connecticut, in April, and taken for analysis the following November.
[18] Loss in opening and weighing, chiefly water.
COMPARATIVE PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF OYSTERS BEFORE AND AFTER “FLOATING.”
-------------------------+---------------------+--------------------- |JAMES RIVER OYSTERS |POTOMAC RIVER OYSTERS | TRANSPLANTED TO | TRANSPLANTED TO | NEW HAVEN. | NEW HAVEN. -------------------------+----------+----------+----------+---------- CONSTITUENTS OF OYSTERS. | As taken | As taken | As taken | As taken | from | from | from | from | beds. | floats. | beds. | floats. +----------+----------+----------+---------- | No. 82. | No. 83. | No. 85. | No. 84. -------------------------+----------+----------+----------+---------- In whole specimen: |Percent.|Percent.|Percent.|Percent. Shell contents: | | | | Flesh | 9.49 | 11.41 | 8.35 | 10.18 Liquids | 5.51 | 5.76 | 7.78 | 6.48 +----------+----------+----------+---------- Total shell | | | | contents | 15.00 | 17.17 | 16.13 | 16.66 +==========+==========+==========+========== Refuse: | | | | Shells | 84.36 | 82.35 | 83.25 | 82.97 Loss in preparation | | | | for analysis | 0.64 | 0.48 | 0.62 | 0.37 +----------+----------+----------+---------- Total refuse | 85.00 | 82.83 | 83.87 | 83.34 +==========+==========+==========+========== Total constituents,| | | | shell contents, and| | | | refuse | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 +==========+==========+==========+========== In flesh (body): | | | | Water | 77.99 | 82.77 | 77.90 | 82.06 Water-free substance | 22.01 | 17.23 | 22.10 | 17.94 +----------+----------+----------+---------- Total flesh | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 +==========+==========+==========+========== In water-free | | | | substance: | | | | Nitrogen | 1.70 | 1.40 | 1.65 | 1.45 Protein (nitrogen × | | | | 6.25) | 10.63 | 8.79 | 10.31 | 9.09 Fat (ether extract) | 2.61 | 1.91 | 2.33 | 1.93 Ash | 2.21 | 1.55 | 2.17 | 1.58 Carbohydrates, etc. | | | | (by difference) | 6.56 | 4.98 | 7.29 | 5.34 +----------+----------+----------+---------- Total water-free | | | | substance | 22.01 | 17.23 | 22.10 | 17.94 +==========+==========+==========+========== In liquids: | | | | Water | 94.74 | 95.22 | 94.99 | 95.69 Water-free substance | 5.26 | 4.78 | 5.01 | 4.31 +----------+----------+----------+---------- Total liquids | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 +==========+==========+==========+========== In water-free | | | | substance: | | | | Nitrogen | 0.31 | 0.34 | 0.29 | 0.33 Protein (nitrogen × | | | | 6.25) | 1.95 | 2.09 | 1.81 | 2.05 Fat (ether extract) | 0.04 | 0.13 | 0.02 | 0.01 Ash | 2.54 | 1.42 | 2.47 | 1.19 Carbohydrates, etc. | | | | (by difference) | 0.73 | 1.14 | 0.71 | 1.06 +----------+----------+----------+---------- Total water-free | | | | substance | 5.26 | 4.78 | 5.01 | 4.31 +==========+==========+==========+========== In total shell contents,| | | | flesh, and liquids: | | | | Water | 84.15 | 86.95 | 86.14 | 87.36 Water-free substance | 15.85 | 13.05 | 13.86 | 12.64 +----------+----------+----------+---------- Total shell | | | | contents | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 +==========+==========+==========+========== In water-free | | | | substance: | | | | Nitrogen | 1.19 | 1.05 | 0.99 | 1.02 Protein (nitrogen × | | | | 6.25) | 7.44 | 6.54 | 6.20 | 6.37 Fat (ether extract) | 1.66 | 1.31 | 1.21 | 1.18 Ash | 2.32 | 1.50 | 2.32 | 1.43 Carbohydrates, etc. | | | | (by difference) | 4.43 | 3.70 | 4.13 | 3.66 +----------+----------+----------+---------- Total water-free | | | | substance | 15.85 | 13.05 | 13.86 | 12.64 +==========+==========+==========+========== In whole specimen: | | | | Shell contents: | | | | Water | 12.62 | 14.93 | 13.89 | 14.55 Water-free substance | 2.38 | 2.24 | 2.24 | 2.11 +----------+----------+----------+---------- Total shell | | | | contents | 15.00 | 17.17 | 16.13 | 16.66 Refuse | 85.00 | 82.83 | 83.87 | 83.34 +----------+----------+----------+---------- Total shell | | | | contents and refuse| 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 +==========+==========+==========+========== In whole specimen: | | | | Shell contents: | | | | Nitrogen | 0.18 | 0.18 | 0.16 | 0.17 Protein (nitrogen × | | | | 6.25) | 1.12 | 1.12 | 1.00 | 1.06 Fat (ether extract) | 0.25 | 0.22 | 0.20 | 0.20 Ash | 0.35 | 0.26 | 0.37 | 0.24 Carbohydrates, etc. | | | | (by difference) | 0.66 | 0.64 | 0.67 | 0.61 +==========+==========+==========+========== Total water-free | | | | substance | 2.38 | 2.24 | 2.24 | 2.11 Water | 12.62 | 14.93 | 13.89 | 14.55 +----------+----------+----------+---------- Total shell-contents | 15.00 | 17.17 | 16.13 | 16.66 +==========+==========+==========+========== ---------------------------------------------------------------------
Result of Treatment.--As shown by the data the first result is one which would naturally be expected, namely, that the total weight of the oyster thus inflated with water is increased relatively to the total weight of the shell since no change takes place in the weight of the shell during floating. The gain of weight in the oyster is due to the absorption of the water, although there is a loss of mineral salt. The average gain of the oyster was, in round numbers, 10 percent. The danger of infecting oysters thus treated with any germs, which may be present in the water or ice used, should also be taken into consideration.
In respect of the composition of the oyster itself when subjected to floating the chief change is in the increase of the water content. As has already been said the process of floating is fatal to the flavor and palatability of the product.
Adulteration.--The chief adulterations of oysters are the “floating” above described and the treatment of the “shucked” oysters with formaldehyde, boron compounds, and other preservatives to keep them from spoiling. These processes are thoroughly reprehensible and are rapidly disappearing. The consumer who lives near the source of supply should never eat any but freshly shelled oysters and those at a distance confine themselves to the properly prepared and shipped article. The chief delight of the epicure is the freshness, and not the quantity of nourishment of this justly prized bivalve.
Average Composition of Oysters:[19]--
Water, 60.08 percent Solids, 39.92 „ Nitrogen, 1.56 „ Phosphoric acid, .42 „ Sulfur, .19 „ Fat, 9.48 „ Ash, 1.77 „ Protein, 9.73 „
[19] Average of samples used at Hygienic Table, Bureau of Chemistry.
ANIMAL OILS.
The same distinction is made between oils and fats for animal products as has been made for the vegetable preparations further on. An animal fat remains solid or semisolid at the ordinary temperature of the living room. An animal oil, on the other hand, is one which at ordinary temperature is a liquid. Animal oils, as a rule, are not used for edible purposes directly, but are used to some extent in cooking, and to a large extent as medicinal food. Inasmuch as these oils are used for medicinal food purposes, those which are most important in this use may be very properly described in this manual. As these oils are derived both from sea and land animals they are often conveniently divided into marine animal oils and terrestrial animal oils. There is also a marked difference as a rule between the oils of marine origin and those of terrestrial origin. The oils of marine origin, as a rule, have a very high iodin number while the animal oils of terrestrial origin have an iodin number not much greater than the fats from which they are derived. This distinction corresponds somewhat closely to those vegetable oils which belong to the drying and non-drying variety. The iodin number represents the percentage of iodin absorbed by a unit weight of substance. If one gram of an oil absorb 0.67 gram of iodin, the iodin number is 67. The marine oils correspond to the dry vegetable oils and the terrestrial oils to the non-drying vegetable oils. While this difference is one which is marked, it does not always exist in each individual case.
MARINE ANIMAL OILS.
The marine animal oils may be conveniently divided into fish oils, liver oils, and blubber oils. Of these the liver oils are the most important from an edible point of view or a medicinal edible point of view. The fish oil and blubber oil are used chiefly for illuminating and other technical purposes.
=Fish Oils.=--These are obtained by rendering from all parts of a fish where fat exists. The herring, sardine, salmon, and the menhaden are the fish which are chiefly used for getting oil of this kind. The fish oils have very much improved in quality since the steamer has taken the place of the sail boat for gathering the fish. During the days of the sail boat the fish were often kept for ten days after seining before they were brought ashore. The decomposition which took place would naturally affect the oil. At the present day the steamers fishing close to the shores deliver their products much more frequently, often the same day they are caught, and thus a better quality of oil is produced. In this country menhaden is the chief fish used for obtaining oil. The scientific name of menhaden is Brevoortia tyrannus. These fish appear in enormous quantities around the Atlantic coast from May until November. It is estimated that nearly one-half million tons have been taken of these fish during a season. Menhaden oil is rarely if ever used for edible purposes. It is used principally in the leather trade and sometimes in the adulteration of cod liver oil made in Newfoundland.
Sardine Oil.--Sardine oil is principally prepared in Japan from the Japan sardine (Clupea sardinus). It is not used to any extent for edible purposes. It is also prepared to some extent in the boiling of sardines in France preparatory to packing in oil.
Salmon Oil.--This oil is obtained in large quantities on the Pacific coast. It is one of the fish oils which has an agreeable odor and taste and, therefore, can be used for edible purposes. It has a specific gravity at 15 degrees of about .926 and its iodin number is about 160.
Cod Liver Oil.--The most important of all the animal oils for food purposes is the oil which is obtained from the liver of the cod (Gadus callarias). Cod liver oil is valuable for food purposes not on account of its odor and taste, which are usually quite disagreeable, but by reason of the specific effect which it is often said to exercise in cases of emaciation and general disorder of the functional activities of the body. It is a food or medicine, whichever it may be best called, which is highly prized in tuberculosis and similar diseases. The oil is chiefly prepared in the Loffoden Islands. Different classes of oil are prepared which are differentiated chiefly by their color, the lighter the color the higher the quality of the oil. The chemical composition of cod liver oil is extremely complex, many different kinds of substances having been found in it by various authorities. The probability is that many of these supposed substances are only mixtures of others. Yet it cannot be denied that the number of chemical compounds occurring in cod liver oil is very much greater than that which occurs in ordinary oils. Both the medicinal and food values of the oil are often attributed to these bodies which occur in minute quantities.
Properties.--Cod liver oil at 15 degrees has a specific gravity of .922. Its iodin number varies very greatly but is always high, ranging from 150 to 180. Its refractive index is also very high, namely 1.47.
An important constituent of cod liver oil is cholesterol. Cod liver oil contains naturally a small quantity of iodin and this natural compound of iodin is one of the properties to which much of its medicinal virtue has been attributed. The quantity present is extremely minute, and probably never exceeds .002 of one percent.
Adulteration of Cod Liver Oil.--Owing to its increasing price cod liver oil has been subjected to many forms of adulteration. The chief adulteration consists in the admixture of fish liver oil of lower quality or the use of blubber oil. Seal and whale oils have been used very extensively in the adulteration of cod liver oil. Japan fish oil and, in fact, all other fish oils which are of a character not to disguise the properties of cod liver oil have been used. It is evident that it is with extreme difficulty that the presence of these adulterants can be detected, especially if they are used in small quantities. The only certain method of guarantee of the purity of a cod liver oil is in the proper inspection and control of the manufacturing works. The livers of many other kinds of fish are employed in the manufacture of cod liver oil, but the other varieties have little value as compared with the cod liver oil itself and they are probably used almost exclusively in the adulteration of the genuine article. The Norwegian cod fish gives a much better character of oil than those coming from the Atlantic coast of America. In fact the latter product is of little medicinal food value and is used chiefly in the leather trade.
=Blubber Oil.=--Blubber oil includes the oils made from seals, whales, turtles, etc., and is used exclusively for technical purposes, unless surreptitiously placed in cod liver oil as an adulterant.