Opening
ELEMENTS
OF THE
THEORY AND PRACTICE
OF
CHYMISTRY·
Translated from the FRENCH of
M. MACQUER,
Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, and Professor of Medicine in the University of PARIS.
The FIFTH EDITION.
EDINBURGH:
Printed for ALEXANDER DONALDSON; and sold at his Shop, No. 48, East Corner of St. Paul's Church-Yard, London; and at Edinburgh.
M. DCC. LXXVII.
THE AUTHOR's PREFACE.
An hundred and fifty years are scarce elapsed since the clouds of prejudice, which had long overspread the world, began to clear up, and men were convinced, by cultivating the Sciences, and attending to Nature, that no fanciful hypotheses would ever lead them to the true causes of those various phenomena that incessantly and every where meet the observer's eye; but that the narrow limits of the human understanding confine the course of our researches to one single path; namely, that of Experiment, or the Use of our Senses. Yet, in this short period, Natural Philosophy hath risen to a high pitch of improvement, and may with truth be said to have made much greater advances towards perfection, since the experimental method was introduced, than in the many ages before.
This is true with regard to every branch of Natural Philosophy; but more particularly with regard to Chymistry. Though this Science cannot be said to have ever existed without experiments, yet it laboured under the same disadvantages with the rest; because those who studied it made all their experiments with a view to confirm their own Hypotheses, and in consequence of principles which had no foundation whatever, but in their wild imaginations.
Hence arose that enormous heap, that incongruous jumble of facts, which some time ago constituted all the knowledge of Chymists. Most of them, and especially those who assumed the pompous title of Alchymists, were persuaded that all the Metals were no other than Nature's rude unfinished essays towards making Gold; which, by means of due coction in the bowels of the earth, advanced gradually towards maturity, till at last they were perfectly converted into that beautiful and precious Metal.
On this principle, which, if not demonstrably false, is at least utterly destitute of proof, and unsupported by a single observation, they attempted to finish what Nature had begun, by procuring to the imperfect Metals this much desired coction. To attain it they made an infinite number of experiments and trials; which all conspired to detect the falsity of their system, and to satisfy men of sense, that the methods they employed were very far from answering the purpose.
However, as facts always promote the knowledge of Nature, it happened that those experiments, though quite useless with regard to the end for which they were originally made, proved the occasion of several curious discoveries.
These lucky consequences of their mistaken labours raised the courage of the Chymists, or rather Alchymists, who looked upon every such instance of success as a new step towards the Grand Work, and greatly increased the fond opinion they entertained of themselves, and of their Art, which, on that account, they set up very high above all other Sciences. Nay, they carried this notion of superiority so far, as to hold the rest of mankind unworthy, or incapable, of rising to such sublime knowledge. In consequence thereof Chymistry became an occult and mysterious Science; its expressions were all tropes and figures, its phrases metaphorical, and its axioms so many enigmas: in short, an obscure unintelligible jargon is the justest character of the Alchymistic Language.
Thus, by endeavouring to conceal their secrets, those gentlemen rendered their Art useless to mankind, and brought it into deserved contempt. But at length the genius of true philosophy prevailed in Chymistry, as well as in the other Sciences. Some great men arose, who had generosity enough to think their knowledge no otherways valuable than as it proved of service to Society. They did their utmost to introduce both the knowledge and the practice of many important secrets, till then of no use; they drew aside the veil which hid the charms of Chymistry; and that Science emerging from the profound obscurity, in which it had for many ages lain concealed, gained the admiration of the world as soon as it appeared in open day. Several societies of ingenious men were formed in the most learned countries of Europe, who vied with one another in their labours to execute the noble scheme, and assisted each other by mutually communicating their discoveries. Chymistry made the most rapid progress, enriching and perfecting the Arts derived from, or depending on it. In a word, it put on a new face, and became truly worthy of the title of Science; founding its principles and its processes on solid experiments, and on just consequences deduced from them.
Since that time the Art is become so extensive, by the numerous discoveries which Chymists have already made, and are daily making, that large volumes are required to contain a complete Treatise on the subject. In short, Chymistry may now, in some degree, be compared to Geometry: each of these Sciences takes in a most ample field of inquiry, which every day enlarges very considerably; from each are derived several Arts, not only useful but even necessary to Society; each hath its Axioms and its undeniable principles, either demonstrated from internal evidence, or founded on constant experience; so that the one, as well as the other, may be reduced to certain fundamental truths, on which all the rest are built. These fundamental truths connected together, and laid down with order and precision, form what we call the Elements of a Science. It is well known that there are many such works relating to Geometry, but it is not so with regard to Chymistry; there being very few books which treat of this Science in an Elementary manner.
Yet it must be owned, that performances of this kind are exceedingly useful. Many who have a relish for the Sciences, but have not leisure to read elaborate Works which treat of them minutely, are glad to meet with a book from which, without sacrificing too much of their time, or neglecting their ordinary business, they may obtain a taste or just notion of a Science that is not their principal study. Those who incline to go farther, and learn more, may, by reading an elementary tract, be enabled to understand Authors, who, as they commonly write only for proficients in the Art, are obscure and hardly intelligible to mere beginners. Nay, I presume to say, that an Elementary Treatise of Chymistry may prove a very useful book, even to those who have made some progress in the Science: for as it contains only the fundamental propositions, and indeed is an abstract of the whole Art, it may help them to recollect the most important parts of what they have read in many different works, and fix in their memoirs the most essential truths, which might else be either confounded with others, or entirely forgot. And these are the motives which determined me to compose the Work which I now offer to the Public.
The general Plan on which I proceed is to suppose my Reader an absolute Novice in Chymistry; to lead him from the most simple truths, and such as imply the lowest degree of knowledge, to such as are more complex, and require a greater acquaintance with Nature. This order, which I have laid down for my rule, hath obliged me to begin with examining the most simple substances that we know, and which we consider as the elements whereof others are composed; as, by knowing the properties of these elementary parts, we are naturally led to those of their several combinations; and, on the other hand, in order to know the properties of compound bodies, it is necessary we should be first acquainted with the properties of their principles. The same reason induced me, when enquiring into the properties of one substance, to take no notice of those which relate to any other substance not treated of before. For example: as I treat of Acids before Metals, I say nothing under the head of those Acids concerning their power of dissolving metals; that I defer till I come to the subject of Metals: and thus I avoid speaking prematurely of a substance with which I suppose my Reader wholly unacquainted. And this method I was so much the more easily induced to follow, that I know of no Chymical book written on the same Plan.
After discoursing of Elements in general, I treat next of such substances as are immediately composed of them, and are, next to them, the most simple: such are all saline substances. This head comprehends mineral Acids, fixed Alkalis, and their several combinations; the volatile sulphureous spirit, sulphur, phosphorus, and the Neutral salts which have an earth or fixed Alkali for their basis: those which have for their basis either a volatile Alkali, or some metallic substance, are referred, according to my general Plan, to the heads under which I treat of those substances.
Metallic substances are scarcely more compounded than the saline; which induces me to consider them next. I begin with those which are the most simple, or at least seem to be so; because their principles, being very strongly connected together, are separated with the greatest difficulty: such are the Metals properly so called; namely, Gold, Silver, Copper, Iron, Tin, and Lead. After these come the Semi-metals in order; to wit, Regulus of Antimony, Zinc, Bismuth, and Regulus of Arsenic. Mercury being a doubtful substance, which some Chymists rank with the Metals, and others with the Semi-metals, because it actually possesses certain properties in common with each, I have treated of it in a separate Chapter, which stands between the Metals and Semi-metals.
I next proceed to examine the several sorts of Oils, whether Vegetable, which are divided into fat, essential, and empyreumatic; or Animal, and Mineral Oils.
By examining these substances we obtain ideas of all the principles which enter into the composition of Vegetable and Animal bodies; that is, of those substances that are capable of fermentation: this enables me to treat of fermentation in general; of its three different degrees or kinds, the spirituous, acetous, and putrid; and of the products of those fermentations, ardent spirits, acids analogous to those of vegetables and animals, and volatile alkalis.
The order in which I treat of all those substances being different from that in which they are obtained from compound bodies, I give, in a distinct Chapter, a general idea of Chymical Decomposition, with a view to shew the order in which they are separated, from the several bodies in the composition whereof they are found. This brings them a second time under review, and gives me an opportunity of distinguishing those which exist naturally in compound bodies, from those which are only the result of a new combination of some of their principles produced by the fire.
The succeeding Chapter explains the late Mr Geoffroy's Table of Affinities; which I take to be of great use at the end of an Elementary tract like this, as it collects into one point of view the most essential and fundamental doctrines which are dispersed through the work.
I conclude with an account of the Construction of such Vessels and Furnaces as are usually employed in Chymistry.
In this Part I say nothing of any manual operations, or the several ways of performing Chymical processes; reserving these particulars for my Treatise of Practical Chymistry, to which this must be considered as an Introduction.
Elements of the THEORY of CHYMISTRY.
CHAP. I.
Of the Principles of Bodies Page 1
Sect. 1. Of Air 2
Sect. 2. Of Water 3
Sect. 3. Of Earth 4
Sect. 4. Of Fire 5
Sect. 5. Of the Phlogiston 7
CHAP. II. _A general View of the Relations or Affinities between Bodies_ 9
CHAP. III. Of Saline Substances in general 11
Sect. 1. Of Acids 12
Sect. 2. Of Alkalis 14
Sect. 3. Of Neutral Salts 15
CHAP. IV. Of the Several Sorts of Saline Substances.
Sect. 1. Of the Universal Acid 18
Sect. 2. Of the Nitrous Acid 22
Sect. 3. Of the Marine Acid 25
CHAP. V. Of Lime 29
CHAP. VI. Of Metallic Substances in general 34
CHAP. VII. Of Metals 37
Sect. 1. Of Gold ib.
Sect. 2. Of Silver 39
Sect. 3. Of Copper 44
Sect. 4. Of Iron 47
Sect. 5. Of Tin 52
Sect. 6. Of Lead 53
CHAP. VIII. Of Quick-Silver 58
CHAP. IX. Of the Semi-Metals.
Sect. 1. Of Regulus of Antimony 62
Sect. 2. Of Bismuth 69
Sect. 3. Of Zinc 70
Sect. 4. Of Regulus of Arsenic 72
CHAP. X. Of Oil in general 76
Sect. 1. Of Charcoal 77
Sect. 2. Of Soap 78
CHAP. XI. Of the Several Sorts of Oils.
Sect. 1. Of Mineral Oils 79
Sect. 2. Of Vegetable Oils 80
Sect. 3. Of Animal Oils 82
CHAP. XII. Of Fermentation in general 83
CHAP. XIII. Of the Spirituous Fermentation 84
CHAP. XIV. Of the Acetous Fermentation 90
Sect. 1. Of Vinegar 91
Sect. 2. Of Tartar 93
CHAP. XV. _Of the Putrid Fermentation, or Putrefaction_ 96
CHAP. XVI. _A general View of Chymical Decomposition_ 101
Sect. 1. The Analysis of Vegetable Substances 102
Emulsions 104
Sect. 2. The Analysis of Animal Substances 106
Sect. 3. The Analysis of Mineral Substances 108
Of the Pyrites 110
Of Ores 112
CHAP. XVII. _Explanation of the Table of Affinities_ 119
CHAP. XVIII. _The Theory of Constructing the Vessels most commonly used in Chymistry_ 126
CHAP. XIX. _The Theory of Constructing the Furnaces most commonly used in Chymistry_ 133
Of Lutes 147
Elements of the PRACTICE of CHYMISTRY.
Introduction 153
I. OF MINERALS
SECTION I. Operations performed on Saline Mineral Substances.
CHAP. I. Of the Vitriolic Acid.
1. PROCESS. To extract Vitriol from the Pyrites 159
2. To extract Sulphur from the Pyrites, and other Sulphureous Minerals 162
3. To extract Alum from aluminous Minerals 165
4. To extract the Vitriolic Acid from Copperas or Green Vitriol 170
5. To decompose Sulphur, and extract its Acid, by burning it 174
6. To concentrate the Vitriolic Acid 176
7. To decompound Vitriolated Tartar by means of the Phlogiston; or to compose Sulphur by combining the Vitriolic Acid with the Phlogiston 179
CHAP. II. Of the Nitrous Acid.
1. PROCESS. To Extract Nitre out of Nitrous Earths and Stones. The Purification of Salt-Petre. Mother of Nitre. Magnesia 181
2. To decompose Nitre by means of the Phlogiston. Nitre fixed by Charcoal. Clyssus of Nitre. Sal Polychrestum 186
3. To decompose Nitre by means of the Vitriolic Acid. The Smoking Spirit of Nitre. Sal de duobus. The Purification of Spirit of Nitre 191
CHAP. III. Of the Marine Acid.
1. PROCESS. To extract Sea-salt from Sea-water, and from Brine-springs. Epsom Salt 195
2. Experiments concerning the Decomposition of Sea-salt by means of the Phlogiston. Kunckel's Phosphorus 197
3. To decompose Sea-salt by means of the Vitriolic Acid. Glauber's Salt. The Purification and Concentration of Spirit of Salt 211
4. To decompose Sea-salt by means of the Nitrous Acid. Aqua regis. Quadrangular Nitre 217
CHAP. IV. Of Borax. 218
SECTION II.
Of Operations on Minerals.
CHAP. I. Of Gold.
1. PROCESS. To separate Gold, by Amalgamation with Mercury, from the Earths and Stones with which it is found mixed 223
2. To dissolve Gold in Aqua Regis, and by that means separate it from Silver. Aurum Fulminans. Aurum Fulminans reduced 227
3. To dissolve Gold by Liver of Sulphur 232
4. To separate Gold from all other Metalline substances by means of Antimony 233
CHAP. II. Of Silver.
1. PROCESS. To separate Silver from its Ore, by means of Scorification with Lead 238
2. The refining of Silver by the Cupel 243
3. To purify Silver by Nitre 248
4. To dissolve Silver in Aqua Fortis, and thereby separate it from every other Metalline substance. The Purification of Aqua Fortis. Silver precipitated by Copper 250
5. To separate Silver from the Nitrous Acid by Distillation. Crystals of Silver. The Infernal Stone 254
6. To separate Silver from the Nitrous Acid by Precipitation. Luna Cornea. Luna Cornea reduced 256
7. To dissolve Silver, and separate it from Gold, by Cementation 258
CHAP. III. Of Copper.
1. PROCESS. To separate Copper from its Ore 262
2. To purify Black Copper, and render it malleable 264
3. To deprive Copper of its Phlogiston by Calcination 266
4. To resuscitate the Calx of Copper, and reduce it to Metal, by restoring its Phlogiston 267
5. To dissolve Copper in the Mineral Acids 268
CHAP. IV. Of Iron.
1. PROCESS. To separate Iron from its Ore 270
2. To render Pig-iron and brittle Iron malleable 273
3. To convert Iron into Steel 274
4. The Calcination of Iron. Sundry Saffrons of Mars 276
5. Iron dissolved by the mineral Acids 277
CHAP V. Of Tin.
1. PROCESS. To extract Tin from its Ore 279
2. The Calcination of Tin 280
3. The Dissolution of Tin by Acids 284
CHAP. VI. Of Lead.
1. PROCESS. To extract Lead from its Ore 286
2. To separate Lead from Copper 289
3. The Calcination of Lead 292
4. To prepare Glass of Lead 293
5. Lead dissolved by the Nitrous Acid 295
CHAP. VII. Of Mercury.
1. PROCESS. To extract Mercury from its Ore, or to revivify it from Cinabar 298
2. To give Mercury, by the action of Fire, the appearance of a Metalline Calx 301
3. To dissolve Mercury in the Vitriolic Acid. Turbith Mineral 302
4. To combine Mercury with Sulphur. Æthiop's Mineral 304
5. To sublime the Combination of Mercury and Sulphur into Cinabar 306
6. To dissolve Mercury in the Nitrous Acid. Sundry Mercurial Precipitates 307
7. To combine Mercury with the Acid of Sea-salt. Corrosive Sublimate 308
8. Sweet Sublimate 312
9. The Panacea of Mercury 314
SECTION III.
Of Operations on the Semi-Metals.
CHAP. I. Of Antimony.
1. PROCESS. To separate Antimony from its Ore 315
2. The common Regulus of Antimony 316
3. Regulus of Antimony precipitated by Metals 318
4. The Calcination of Antimony 321
5. Calx of Antimony reduced to a Regulus 323
6. Antimony calcined with Nitre. Liver of Antimony. Crocus Metallorum 325
7. Another Calcination of Antimony with Nitre. Diaphoretic Antimony. Materia Perlata. Clyssus of Antimony 326
8. Calx of Antimony vitrified 330
9. Kermes Mineral 331
10. Regulus of Antimony dissolved in the Mineral Acids 335
11. Regulus of Antimony combined with the Acid of Sea-salt Butter of Antimony. Cinabar of Antimony 338
12. Butter of Antimony decompounded by means of Water only. Pulvis Algaroth, or Mercurius Vitæ. The Philosophic Spirit of Vitriol 342
13. Bezoar Mineral. The Bezoartic Spirit of Nitre 343
14. Flowers of Antimony 347
15. Regulus of Antimony converted into Flowers 348
CHAP. II. Of Bismuth.
1. PROCESS. To extract Bismuth from its Ore 350
2. Bismuth dissolved by Acids. Magistery of Bismuth. Sympathetic Ink 352
CHAP. III. Of Zinc.
1. PROCESS. To extract Zinc from its Ore, or Calamine 357
2. To sublime Zinc into Flowers 359
3. To combine Zinc with Copper. Brass. Prince's Metal, &c. 361
4. Zinc dissolved in the Mineral Acids 365
CHAP. IV. Of Arsenic.
1. PROCESS. To extract Arsenic from its matrix. Zafre or Smalt 367
2. To separate Arsenic from Sulphur 371
3. To give Arsenic the Metalline Form. Regulus of Arsenic 374
4. To distil the Nitrous Acid by the interposition of Arsenic. Blue Aqua Fortis. A new Neutral Salt of Arsenic 377
5. To alkalizate Nitre by Arsenic 379
II. OF VEGETABLES
SECTION I. Operations on unfermented Vegetables.
CHAP. I. _Of the Substances obtained from Vegetables by Expression only._
1. PROCESS. To express and depurate the juice of a Plant, containing its Essential Salt. The crystallization of that Salt 383
2. To draw the Oils out of Kernels, Seeds, and Fruits, by Expression 386
3. To draw the Essential Oils of certain Fruits by Expression 387
CHAP. II. _Of the Substances obtained from Vegetables by Triture._
1. PROCESS. To make the Extract of a Plant by Trituration 389
2. To extract from Seeds and Kernels, by Trituration, the matter of Emulsions 392
CHAP. III. Of Operations on Fat Oils.
1. PROCESS. To attenuate Fat Oils, and change their nature, by exposing them to the action of fire, and distilling them 395
2. To combine Fat Oils with Acids. The decomposition of this combination 398
3. To combine Fat Oils with Fixed Alkalis. Hard and Soft Soap. The decomposition of Soap 400
4. To combine Fat Oils with Sulphur 405
5. To combine Fat Oils with Lead, and the Calces of Lead. The Basis of Plasters. The decomposition of this combination 406
CHAP. IV. Of the substances obtained from Vegetables with a degree of heat not exceeding that of boiling water.
1. PROCESS. To obtain from Plants, by distilling them with the mean degree of heat between freezing and boiling water, a liquor impregnated with their Principle of Odour 408
2. To extract the Fat Oils of Plants by Decoction in boiling water. Cacao-Butter 410
3. To extract the Essential Oils of Plants by Distillation with the heat of boiling water. Distilled Water 412
4. To extract the Essential Oils of Plants by distillation per descensum 418
5. Infusions, Decoctions, and Extracts of Plants 419
CHAP. V. Of Operations on Essential Oils.
1. PROCESS. The Rectification of Essential Oils 422
2. To fire Oils by combining them with highly concentrated Acids: instanced in Oil of Turpentine 426
3. To combine Essential Oils with mineral Sulphur. Balsam of Sulphur. This composition decompounded 434
4. To combine Essential Oils with Fixed Alkalis. Starkey's Soap 438
CHAP. VI. Of the Substances obtained from Vegetables by means of a graduated heat, from that of boiling water, to the strongest that can be applied to them in close vessels.
1. PROCESS. To analyze vegetable substances that yield neither a Fat nor an Essential Oil: instanced in Guaiacum-Wood 440
2. To analyze a vegetable substance which yields the same principles as are obtained from Animal matters: instanced in Mustard-seed 445
CHAP. VII. _Of the Substances obtained from Vegetables by Combustion._
1. PROCESS. To procure a Fixed, Caustic, Alkaline Salt from a vegetable substance, by burning it in the open air 448
2. To procure the Fixed Salt of a Plant, by burning it after the manner of Tachenius 453
3. To render Fixed Alkalis very Caustic by means of Lime. The Caustic Stone 455
4. The Analysis of Soot 457
CHAP. VIII. The Analyses of some particular substances belonging to the Vegetable Kingdom.
1. PROCESS. Analysis of the Native Balsams: instanced in Turpentine 460
2. The Analysis of Resins: instanced in Benjamin. The Flowers and Oil of Benjamin 463
Reflections on the Nature and Properties of Camphor 465
3. The Analysis of Bitumens: instanced in Amber. The Volatile Salt and Oil of Amber 467
4. The Analysis of Bee's Wax, and such Oily Compounds as are analogous to it 472
5. The Saccharine juices of Plants analyzed: instanced in Honey 474
6. Gummy substances analyzed: instanced in Gum Arabic 476
SECTION II. Of Operations on Fermented Vegetable Substances.
CHAP. I. Of the Product of Spirituous Fermentation.
1. PROCESS. To make Wine of Vegetable Substances that are susceptible of Spirituous Fermentation 478
2. To draw an Ardent Spirit from substances that have undergone the Spirituous Fermentation. The Analysis of Wine 482
3. To dephlegmate Spirit of Wine by the means of Fixed Alkalis. Spirit of Wine analyzed 486
CHAP. II. _Spirit of Wine combined with different Substances._
1. PROCESS. To combine Spirit of Wine with the Vitriolic Acid. This combination decompounded. Rabel's Water. Æther. Sweet Oil of Vitriol. Hoffman's Anodyne Mineral Liquor 492
2. Spirit of Wine combined with Spirit of Nitre. Sweet Spirit of Nitre 503
3. Spirit of Wine combined with the Acid of Sea-salt. Dulcified Spirit of Salt 508
4. Oils, or Oily matters, that are soluble in Spirit of Wine, separated from Vegetables, and dissolved, by means of that Menstruum. Tinctures; Elixirs; Varnishes. Aromatic Strong Waters 510
CHAP. III. Of Tartar.
1. PROCESS. Tartar analyzed by distillation. The Spirit, Oil, and Alkaline Salt of Tartar 514
2. The depuration of Tartar. Cream and Crystals of Tartar 517
CHAP. IV. Crystal of Tartar combined with several substances.
1. PROCESS. Crystal of Tartar combined with Absorbent Earths. Soluble Tartars 519
2. Crystal of Tartar combined with Fixed Alkalis. The Vegetable Salt. Saignette's Salt. The decomposition of Soluble Tartar 524
3. Crystal of Tartar combined with Iron. Chalybeated Tartar. Tincture of Steel with Tartar. Soluble Chalybeated Tartar 528
4. Crystal of Tartar combined with the reguline part of Antimony. Stibiated or Emetic Tartar 534
CHAP. V. Of the Product of Acetous Fermentation.
1. PROCESS. Substances susceptible of the Acetous Fermentation turned into Vinegar 536
2. To concentrate Vinegar by Frost 540
3. Vinegar analyzed by distillation 542
CHAP. VI. The Acid of Vinegar combined with different Substances.
1. PROCESS. The Acid of Vinegar combined with Alkaline Substances. Foliated Salt of Tartar, or Regenerated Tartar. Decomposition of that Salt 547
2. The Acid of Vinegar combined with Copper. Verdegris. Crystals of Copper. This combination decompounded. Spirit of Verdegris 550
3. The Acid of Vinegar combined with Lead. Ceruse. Salt or Sugar of Lead. This combination decompounded 552
CHAP. VII. Of the Putrid Fermentation of Vegetable Substances.
1. PROCESS. The Putrefaction of Vegetables 557
2. Putrefied Vegetable substances analyzed 559