Opening
DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS
OF THE
NINETEENTH CENTURY
Who saw what ferns and palms were pressed Under the tumbling mountain’s breast, In the safe herbal of the coal? But when the quarried means were piled, All is waste and worthless, till Arrives the wise selecting Will, And, out of slime and chaos, Wit Draws the threads of fair and fit. Then temples rose, and towns, and marts, The shop of toil, the hall of arts; Then flew the sail across the seas To feed the North from tropic trees; The storm-wind wove, the torrent span, Where they were bid the rivers ran; New slaves fulfilled the poet’s dream, Galvanic wire, strong-shouldered steam.
EMERSON.
DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
BY
ROBERT ROUTLEDGE, B.Sc., SOMETIME ASSISTANT EXAMINER IN CHEMISTRY AND IN NATURAL PHILOSOPHY TO THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON
THIRTEENTH EDITION REVISED AND PARTLY RE-WRITTEN, WITH ADDITIONS
CONTAINING FOUR HUNDRED AND FIFTY-SIX ILLUSTRATIONS
LONDON GEORGE ROUTLEDGE AND SONS, LIMITED BROADWAY, LUDGATE HILL 1900
Preface
In the following pages an attempt has been made to present a popular account of remarkable discoveries and inventions which distinguish the XIXth century. They distinguish it not merely in comparison with any previous century, but in comparison with all the centuries that have preceded, in regard to far-reaching intellectual acquisitions, and to material achievements, which together have profoundly affected our ways of thinking and our habits of life. In the latter, the enormously increased facilities of locomotion and international communication due to railways and steam navigation have wrought the greatest changes. These inventions depending primarily upon that of the steam engine, this first claims our notice, although properly assignable to a period preceding our era by a few years. Again, much of our material advancement is connected with improvements in the manufacture of iron and its applications in the form of steel, which have been especially the work of the last half of the century. So great has been the progress in this department, that for the present edition it has been found necessary to re-write altogether the article devoted to it. Our social conditions have also been greatly modified by the celerity of verbal intercourse afforded by the telegraph and the telephone, and these inventions have received appropriate notice in this work. In every branch of science also we have reason to be proud of the discoveries our era can claim, for they vastly excel in number and are not inferior in range to those of all the ages taken together. From so large a field, selection was of course necessary; and the instances selected have been those which appeared to some extent typical, or those which seemed to have the most direct bearing on the general advance of our time. The topics comprise chiefly those great applications of mechanical engineering and arts, and of physical and chemical science, in which every intelligent person feels concerned; while some articles are devoted to certain purely scientific discoveries that have excited general interest.
The author has aimed at giving a concise but clear description of the several subjects; and that without assuming on the part of the reader any knowledge not usually possessed by young persons of either sex who have received an ordinary education. The design has been to treat the subjects as familiarly as might be consistent with a desire to impart real information; while the popular character of the book has not been considered a reason for regarding accuracy as unnecessary. On the contrary, pains have been taken to consult the best authorities; and it is only because the sources of information to which the author is under obligation are so many, that he cannot acknowledge them in detail.
The present edition has been revised throughout, and such changes have been made as were required to bring the matter into accordance with the progress that has taken place since this book was first published in 1876. But details given in the former editions have at the same time been retained where they served to indicate the successive stages of improvement. It would, for example, be impossible in a section on steam navigation, to omit some notice of the Great Eastern, and therefore the drawings and the account of the construction of that remarkable ship that appeared in the first edition, have been left with but slight alterations in the present volume, although the vessel has since been broken up. On the other hand, two sections are devoted to projects which the XIXth century has not seen realised; but the XXth century will in all probability shortly witness the completion of one or other of the great canal schemes; and if the first submarine tunnel is destined not to be one connecting England with the Continent, it will be one uniting Great Britain with her sister isle.
1899.
* * * * *
For permission to make use of illustrations in this volume the author’s and publishers’ thanks are due to the several proprietors of The Graphic (for Plates I., XI., and XII.)—of The Engineer (for sketch design of the Great Wheel, map and views of the Tower Bridge)—of The Scientific American (map of North Sea Canal); also to Mr. Walter B. Basset (for Plate V.)—to “The Cassier Magazine Company” (for Edison’s Kinetographic Theatre and the Hotchkiss Gun)—to “The Century Company” (for portrait of M. Tesla, from a photograph by Sarony)—to “The Incandescent Gas Light Company” (for cuts of burners, etc.)—to The Engineering Magazine, and The Engineering News, both of New York—to the Remington Company—to Mr. W. W. Greener, of Birmingham (for cuts of rifles, etc., from his comprehensive book on “The Gun”)—to The Photogram, Limited—to the Proprietors of Nature—to the Linotype Company—and to Captains Hadcock and Lloyd (for illustrations of modern artillery from their great work on the subject).
ROCK BORING 349 THE MONT CENIS TUNNEL 351 ROCK-DRILLING MACHINES 355 THE CHANNEL TUNNEL 364 THE ST. GOTHARD RAILWAY 371
LIGHT 380 SOME PHENOMENA OF LIGHT 382 VELOCITY OF LIGHT 384 REFLECTION OF LIGHT 388 REFRACTION 397 DOUBLE REFRACTION AND POLARISATION 399 CAUSE OF LIGHT AND COLOUR 408
THE SPECTROSCOPE 416 CELESTIAL CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 436
ROENTGEN’S X RAYS 445
SIGHT 452 THE EYE 454 VISUAL IMPRESSIONS 468
ELECTRICITY 481 ELEMENTARY PHENOMENA OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 483 THEORY OF ELECTRICITY 487 ELECTRIC INDUCTION 488 DYNAMICAL ELECTRICITY 490 INDUCED CURRENTS 502 MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY 507 THE GRAMME MAGNETO-ELECTRIC MACHINE 511 ELECTRIC LIGHTING AND ELECTRIC POWER 519 THE NEW ELECTRICITY 538
THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH 547 TELEGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS 553 TELEGRAPHIC LINES 572 THE TELEPHONE 581
LIGHTHOUSES 593
PHOTOGRAPHY 607 PHOTOGRAPHY IN COLOURS 630
PRINTING PROCESSES 632 STEREOTYPING 632 LITHOGRAPHY 636 OTHER PROCESSES 640 THE LINOTYPE MACHINE 645
RECORDING INSTRUMENTS 653 THE PHONOGRAPH 665
AQUARIA 675 THE CRYSTAL PALACE AQUARIUM 677 THE BRIGHTON AQUARIUM 682
GOLD AND DIAMONDS 687 GOLD 687 DIAMONDS 696
NEW METALS 714
INDIA-RUBBER AND GUTTA-PERCHA 724 INDIA-RUBBER 724 GUTTA-PERCHA 728
ANÆSTHETICS 731
EXPLOSIVES 740
MINERAL COMBUSTIBLES 751 COAL 751 PETROLEUM 757 PARAFFIN 761
COAL-GAS 764
COAL-TAR COLOURS 781
THE GREATEST DISCOVERY OF THE AGE 801
NOTES 811
INDEX 813
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
FIG. PAGE
Heading—Rain, Steam, and Speed (after Turner) 1
1. Portrait of James Watt 3
2. Newcomen’s Steam Engine 4
3. Watt’s Double-action Steam Engine 5
4. Governor and Throttle-Valve 6
4_a_. Watt’s Parallel Motion 8
5. Slide Valve 9
6. Section of Gifford’s Injector 11
7. Bourdon’s Pressure Gauge 12
8. Steam Generator 13
9. Section of Locomotive 15
10. Stephenson’s Link Motion 17
10_a_. G. N. R. Express Passenger Locomotive 19
10_b_. Joy’s Valve Gear 20
11. Locomotive after Explosion 22
12. Hancock’s Steam Omnibus 22
13. Nasmyth’s Steam Hammer 27
14. Merryweather’s Steam Fire-Engine 28
15. A Foundry 29
16. Aerolite in the British Museum 31
17. Blast Furnace 41
18. Section and Plan of Blast Furnace (obsolete type) 42
19. Section of a Reverberatory Furnace 45
20. Fibrous Fracture of Wrought Iron 47
21. Cup and Cone 49
22. Section of Blast Furnace 51
23. Experiments at Baxter House 58
24. Bessemer Converter 63
25. Model of Bessemer Steel Apparatus 65
26. Section of Regenerative Stoves and Open Hearth 68
26_a_. Rolling Mill 71
26_b_. The Eiffel Tower in course of construction 73
26_c_. The Eiffel Tower 75
26_d_. St. Paul Building, N. Y. 77
26_e_. Manhattan Insurance Co.’s Building in course of 79 erection
26_f_. Manhattan Insurance Co.’s Building nearly completed 80
26_g_. Original Design for the Great Wheel 82
27. Portrait of Sir Joseph Whitworth 85
28. Whitworth’s Screw Dies and Tap 86
29. Screw-cutting Lathe 87
30. Whitworth’s Measuring Machine 89
31. Whitworth’s Drilling Machine 91
32. Whitworth’s Planing Machine 93
33. Pair of Whitworth’s Planes or Surface Plates 94
34. Interior of Engineer’s Workshop 95
35. Blanchard Lathe 96
36. Vertical Saw 98
37. Circular Saw 99
38. Pit-Saw 100
39. Box Tunnel 101
40. Coal-pit, Salop 102
41. Sankey Viaduct 103
42. Rails and Cramp-gauge 104
43. Fish-plate 105
44. Section of Rails and Fish-plates 106
45. Conical Wheels 107
46. Centrifugal Force 107
47. Points 108
48. Signal Box on North London Railway 109
49. Post Office Railway Van 111
50. Gower Street Station, Metropolitan Railway 115
51. Map of the Route of Pacific Railway 117
52. Trestle Bridge 118
53. American Canyon 119
54. “Cape Horn” 121
55. Snow Plough 122
56. First Steam Railroad Train in America 123
57. Railway Embankment 124
57_a_. Train ascending the Rigi 126
57_b_. At the summit of the Rigi 127
58. The Great Eastern at Anchor 129
59. Casting Cylinder of a Marine Steam Engine 131
60. Screw Propeller 132
61. Section of Great Eastern Amidships 134
62. The Great Eastern in course of construction 135
63. The Great Eastern ready for launching 136
64. Comparative sizes of Steamships 137
65. The ss. City of Rome 138
66. The Castalia in Dover Harbour 140
67. The same—End View 141
68. Bessemer Steamer 142
68_a_. A Whaleback Steamer, No. 85, built at West 146 Superior, Wisconsin
69. H.M.S. Devastation in Queenstown Harbour 149
70. Section of H.M.S. Hercules 151
71. Section of H.M.S. Inconstant 153
72. Section, Elevation and Plan of Turret of H.M.S. 154 Captain
73. H.M.S. Captain 155
74. Diagram of H.M.S. Captain 158
75. Ditto 159
76. H.M.S. Glatton 162
77. H.M.S. Thunderer 163
78. The König Wilhelm 165
78_a_. The Victoria leaving Newcastle-on-Tyne 166
78_b_. Firing at Floating Battery 168
79. Krupp’s Works at Essen, Prussia 169
80. Trajectory of a Projectile 174
81. Diagram for Trajectory of a Projectile 176
82. Muzzle-loading Musket and Rifles (obsolete 179 patterns)
83. The Minié Bullet 181
84. Greener’s Expanding Bullet 182
85. The Chassepot Rifle—Section of the Breech 183
86. Section of the Martini-Henry Lock 185
87. The Martini-Henry Rifle 186
88. The Mannlicher Magazine Rifle 188
89. The Magazine and Breech of the Mannlicher Rifle 189
90. 32–pounder, 1807 191
91. Whitworth Rifling and Projectile 193
92. 600–pounder Muzzle-loading Armstrong Gun 194
93. 35–ton Fraser Gun 195
94. Section of 9–in. Fraser Gun 196
95. Millwall Shield after being battered with Heavy 200 Shot—Front View
96. Rear View of the Millwall Shield 200
97. Comparative Sizes of 35 and 81–ton Guns 201
98. Diagram of Velocities and Pressures 205
99. Elswick 4·7–in. Q. F. Gun on Pivot Mounting 207
100. The Moncrieff Gun raised and ready for firing 209
101. Moncrieff Gun lowered for loading 209
102. 68–ton Gun on Elswick Hydro-Pneumatic Mounting 211
103. Mallet’s Mortar 213
104. 32–pounder Krupp Siege Gun, with Breech-piece open 214
105. The Citadel of Strasburg after the Prussian 215 Bombardment
105_a_. The Shrapnel and Segment Shells 217
105_b_. The Gatling Gun—Rear View 219
105_c_. The Gatling Gun—Front View 221
105_d_. The Montigny Mitrailleur 222
105_e_. A Hotchkiss Gun 224
106. Harvey’s Torpedo.—Working the Brakes 227
107. Submerged Torpedo 228
108. Mode of Firing Torpedo 230
109. Explosion of Whitehead’s Torpedo 231
110. Effect of the Explosion of Whitehead’s Torpedo 232
111. Experiment with a Torpedo charged with 10 lbs. Gun 233 Cotton
112. Explosion of Torpedo containing 67 lbs. Gun Cotton 234
113. Explosion of 432 lbs. Gun Cotton in 37 ft. Water 235
114. The same in 27 ft. Water 235
115. Section of Priming Case and Exploding Bolt 236
116. Harvey’s Torpedo 237
117. The same 238
118. The same 239
119. Official Trial of “Harvey’s Sea Torpedo” 239
120. Model of Submarine Guns 240
121. The Warner Experiment off Brighton 241
122. Portrait of M. Lesseps 249
123. The Sand-Glass 253
124. A Group of Egyptian Fellahs and their Wives 254
125. Dredges and Elevators at Work 255
126. Map of the Suez Canal 256
127. Port Saïd, the Mediterranean Entrance to the Suez 257 Canal
128. Bird’s-eye View of Port Saïd 258
129. One of the Breakwaters at Port Saïd 259
130. Lake Timsah and Ismaïlia 259
131. Railway Station at Ismaïlia 260
132. The Viceroy of Egypt cutting Embankment 261
133. Map of the Manchester Ship Canal, Western Portion 263
134. Map of the Manchester Ship Canal, Eastern Portion 263
135. A Cutting for the Manchester Ship Canal 265
136. Blasting Rocks for the Manchester Ship Canal 266
137. Manchester Ship Canal Works, Runcorn 267
137_a_. The French Steam Navvy 268
137_b_. The English Steam Navvy 269
137_c_. Sketch Map of the North Sea Canal 271
138. Britannia Bridge, Menai Straits 276
139. Diagram showing Strains 278
140. Ditto 279
141. Girder 279
142. Ditto 279
143. Ditto 280
144. Section of a Tube of the Britannia Bridge 281
145. Albert Bridge, Saltash 283
146. Clifton Suspension Bridge, near Bristol 285
147. Section of Shaft 286
147_a_. Clifton Suspension Bridge, Niagara 288
147_b_. Living Model of the Cantilever Principle 291
147_c_. Principal Dimensions of the Forth Bridge 294
147_d_. Map of the Tower Bridge and its Approaches 299
147_e_. The Tower Bridge 301
147_f_. Sketch 302
148. Newspaper Printing-Room 305
149. Inking Balls 306
150. Inking Roller 306
151. Diagram of Single Machine 308
152. Diagram of Perfecting Machine 309
153. Cowper’s Double Cylinder Machine 309
154. Tapes of Cowper’s Machine 310
155. Hopkinson and Cope’s Perfecting Machine 311
156. Section of Casting Apparatus 314
157. Diagram of the Walter Press 315
158. Hoe’s Type Revolving Cylinder Machine 317
159. Hoe’s “Railway” Machine 319
160. Napier’s Platen Machine 320
161. Roller for Printing Wall-Papers 322
162. Machine for Printing Paper-Hangings 323
163. Chain Testing Machine 324
164. Pascal’s Principle 325
165. Collar of Hydraulic Cylinder 326
166. Hydraulic Press 327
167. Section of Hydraulic Lift Graving Dock 331
168. Section of Column 332
169. Sir W. Armstrong’s Hydraulic Crane 335
170. Raising Tubes of Britannia Bridge 336
171. Press for Raising the Tubes 337
172. Head of Link-Bars 338
173. Apparatus to Prove Transmission of Pressure 339
174. Pneumatic Tubes and Carriages 340
175. Diagram of Tubes, &c. 342
176. Sending and Receiving Apparatus 343
177. Section of Receiving Apparatus 344
178. Sommeiller Boring Machines 349
179. Transit by Diligence over Mont Cenis 353
180. Burleigh Rock Drill on Tripod 356
181. The same on Movable Column 358
182. The same Mounted on Carriage 359
183. Diamond Drill Crown 360
184. Diamond Drill Machinery 363
185. Chart of the Channel Tunnel 367
186. Section of the Channel Tunnel 368
187. View of Dover 369
187_a_. Map of the St. Gothard Railway 372
187_b_. The Uppermost Bridge over the Maïenreuss 375
187_c_. The Bridges over the Maïenreuss, near Wasen 377
187_d_. Windings of the Line near Wasen 378
188. Contrasts of Light 380
189. Rays 382
190. Diagram 383
191. Telescopic Appearance of Jupiter and Satellites 384
192. Diagram 386
193, 194, 195. Diagrams 388
196. Diagram 389
197. Polemoscope 390
198. Apparatus for Ghost Illusion 391
198_a_. The Ghost Illusion 393
199. Illusion produced by Mirrors 394
200. A Stage Illusion 395
201. View of Venice—Reflections 396
202. Refraction 397
203. Diagram 398
204, 205. Diagrams of Crystals 400
206. Diagram 401
207. Diagram 403
208. Diagram 404
209. Polariscope 406
210. Section showing Polarisation 407
211. Iceland Spar, showing Double Refraction 407
212. Diagram 408
213. Diagram 410
214. Diagram 412
215. Portrait of Professor Kirchhoff 416
216. Diagram 417
217. Newton’s Experiment 418
218. Bunsen’s Burner on Stand 421
219. Spectroscope with one Prism 423
220. Miniature Spectroscope 426
221. The Gassiot Spectroscope 427
222. Browning’s Automatic Adjustment of Prisms 429
223. Apparatus for Spark Spectra 430
224. The Sorby-Browning Micro-Spectroscope 433
225. Section of Micro-Spectroscope, with Micrometer 434
226. Diagram 435
227. Section of Micro-Spectroscope 436
228. Solar Eclipse, 1869 439
229. The Planet Saturn 441
230. Solar Prominences, No. 1 442
231. Ditto, No. 2 443
232. Section of Amateur Star Spectroscope 444
232_a_. X. Ray Photo of Living Hand, Exposure 4 minutes 446
232_b_. Skiagraph of a Hand by Dr. Roentgen 448
232_c_. Metal objects photographed through Calico and sheet 450 of Aluminium
232_d_. Skiagraph of Layers of various substances 451
233. Portrait of Professor Helmholtz 452
234. Vertical Section of the Eye 454
235. Section of Retina 456
236. Diagram 457
237. Muscles of Eyes 459
238. Diagram 461
239. Diagram 464
240. Diagram 465
241. Ruete’s Ophthalmoscope 466
242. Diagram 467
243. Wheatstone’s Reflecting Stereoscope 469
244. Diagram 470
245. Diagram 471
246. The Telestereoscope 473
247. Lines 475
248, 249. Diagrams 476
250, 251. Diagrams 477
251_a_. Edison’s Kinetographic Theatre 479
252. Portrait of Sir W. Thomson 481
253. A simple Electroscope 485
254. The Gold-leaf Electroscope 489
255. The Leyden Jar 490
256. A Voltaic Element 491
257. Ampère’s Rule 492
258. Galvanometer 493
259. Daniell’s Cell and Battery 495
260. Grove’s Cell and Battery 495
261. Wire Ignited by Electricity 496
262. Duboscq’s Electric Lantern and Regulator 497
263. Decomposition of Water 498
264. Electro-plating 499
265. A Current producing a Magnet 500
266. An Electro-magnet 501
267. Ruhmkorff’s Coil 503
268. Discharge through Rarefied Air 504
268_a_. Large Induction Coil at the Old Polytechnic 505 Institution, London
269. Appearance of Spark on Looking-glass 507
270. Magneto-electric Spark 508
271. A Magnet producing a Current 509
272. Clarke’s Magneto-electric Machine 509
273. Magneto-electric Light 510
274. Diagram 511
275. Gramme Machine 512
276. Insulated Coils 513
277. Hand Gramme Machine 513
278. Gramme Machine, with eight Vertical Electro-Magnets 516
279. Gramme Machine, with Horizontal Electro-magnets 517
280. Gramme Machine 519
280_a_. The Alliance Machine 520
280_b_. Wilde’s Machine 521
280_c_. Siemens’ Dynamo 522
280_d_. The Brush Dynamo 523
280_e_. Siemens’ Regulator 524
280_f_. Jablochkoff Candle 525
280_g_. Electric Lamp 526
280_h_. Incandescent Lamp 529
280_i_. Poles with Single Arms for Suburban Roads.—The 533 Ontario Beach Railway, Rochester, N.Y.
280_j_. The Glynde Telepherage Line, on the system of the 534 late Fleeming Jenkin
280_k_. Diagrams 540
280_l_. The Tesla Oscillator 542
280_m_. M. Nikola Tesla 543
281. Portrait of Professor Morse 547
282. Double-Needle Instrument 554
283. Electro-magnetic Bells 555
284. Portable Single-Needle Instrument 556
285. Connections of Telegraph Line 558
286. Morse Recording Telegraph 559
287. Morse Transmitting Key 561
288. Morse Transmitting Plate 562
289. Step-by-step Movement 567
290. Froment’s Dials 567
291. Wheatstone’s Universal Dial Telegraph 568
292. Mirror Galvanometer 571
293. Telegraph Post and Insulators 573
294. Ditto 573
295. Wire Circuit 574
296. Wire and Earth Circuit 574
297. Submarine Cable 575
298. Making Wire for Atlantic Cable 577
299. Instrument Room at Valentia 578
300. Breaking of the Cable 579
301. Atlantic Telegraph Cable, 1866 580
302. Diagram 580
302_a_. Reiss’s Musical Telephone 584
302_b_. Bell’s Musical Telephone 585
302_c_. Superposition of Currents 587
302_d_. Bell’s Speaking Telephone 588
302_e_. Hughes’s Microphone 591
Lighthouse (heading) 593
303. Eddystone Lighthouse 594
304. Eddystone in a Storm 595
305. Revolving Light Apparatus 601
306. Stephenson’s Holophotal Light 604
307. Camera 607
308. Camera and Slide 615
309. Folding Camera 616
310. Lenses 617
311. Bath 619
311_a_. The Roll-Slide 622
312. Portrait of Aloysius Senefelder 632
313. Press for Stereotyping by Clay Process 633
313_a_. The Linotype Machine 645
313_b_. A Matrix 646
313_c_. Diagram of Movements 647
313_d_. A Line of Matrices 648
313_e_. A finished Line entering galley 649
313_f_. The Melting Pot and Mould Wheel 650
313_g_. The Finished Line 651
313_h_. Lines assembled into a “Form” 651
313_i_. Matrices dropping into Magazine 652
314. Recording Anemometer 653
315. Registration of Height of Barometer and Thermometer 655
316. Electric Chronograph 657
317. Negretti’s Deep-Sea Thermometer 661
318. Ditto, General Arrangement 662
319. Atmospheric Recording Instrument 663
319_a_. Traces of Vibrations of a Tuning-Fork 667
319_b_. Phonautographic Tracings of Different Vowel Sounds 667
319_c_. Diagram 668
319_d_. Phases of Sound Waves 668
319_e_. Edison’s Original Phonograph 670
319_f_. Diagrammatic Section of Phonograph 671
319_g_. The Graphophone 672
319_h_. Edison’s Perfected Phonograph 674
320. Domestic Aquarium 675
321. The Opelet 679
322. Viviparous Blenny 680
323. The Lancelet 681
324. Sea-Horses 683
325. Proteus anguinus 684
326. Mud-Fish 685
327. The Axolotl 686
328. Sorting, Washing, and Digging at the South African 687 Diamond Fields
329. Gold Miner’s Camp 689
330. Gold in Rocks 690
331. “Cradle” for Gold-washing 690
332. Pniel, from Jardine’s Hotel 702
333. Sifting at the “Dry Diggings” 703
334. Vaal River, from Spence Kopje 704
334_a_. Sketch Section of the Kimberley Diamond Mine 709
335. Portrait of Sir Humphrey Davy 714
336. Apparatus 717
337. Portrait of Mr. Thomas Hancock 724
338. Portrait of Sir James Young Simpson, M.D. 731
339. Railway Cutting 740
340. View on the Tyne 751
341. Fossil Trees in a Railway Cutting 752
342. Impression of Leaf in Coal Measures 753
343. Possible Aspect of the Forests of the Coal Age 754
344. The Fireside 756
345. View on Hyde and Egbert’s Farm, Oil Creek 761
346. View of City of London Gas-Works 764
347. Section of Gas-making Apparatus 765
348. The Retort 767
348_a_. Retort House of the Imperial Gas-Works 768
349. The Gas Governor 770
350. Bunsen’s Burner 772
351. Faraday’s Ventilating Gas-Burner 773
351_a_. Diagram 778
351_b_. Diagram 778
351_c_. Diagram 779
351_d_. Diagram 779
351_e_. Diagram 780
352. Apparatus for making Magenta 781
353. Iron Pots for making Nitro-Benzol 784
354. Section of Apparatus for making Nitro-Benzol 785
355. Apparatus for making Aniline 786
356. Section of Hollow Spindle 787
357. Portrait of J. Prescott Joule, F.R.S. 801
LIST OF PLATES.
PLATE I. TO FACE
THE GREAT WHEEL IN ACTION Title page
PLATE II.
NORTH-EASTERN RAILWAY LOCOMOTIVE 18
PLATE III.
THE GREAT STEAM HAMMER, ROYAL GUN FACTORY, WOOLWICH 28
PLATE IV.
THE AMERICAN TRACT SOCIETY BUILDING 76
PLATE V.
GENERAL VIEW OF THE GREAT WHEEL AT EARL’S COURT 84
PLATE VI.
MOUNT WASHINGTON INCLINED TRACK 124
PLATE VII.
PIKE’S PEAK RAILROAD, ROCKY MOUNTAINS 128
PLATE VIII.
THE “CLERMONT” FROM A CONTEMPORARY DRAWING 130
PLATE IX.
THE “MARY POWELL” 144
PLATE X.
THE “NEW YORK” 148
PLATE XI.
H.M.S. “THE TERRIBLE” 168
PLATE XII.
THE 110–TON ARMSTRONG GUN 202
PLATE XIII.
THE FORTH BRIDGE 292
PLATE XIV.
THE TOWER BRIDGE IN COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION 298
PLATE XV.
THE BROOKLYN BRIDGE 304
PLATE XVI.
THE NORTH MOUTH OF THE GREAT TUNNEL, ST. GOTHARD RAILWAY 374
PLATE XVII.
SPECTRA (Coloured Plate) 422