Book XII

Book XII

Previously I have dealt with the methods of separating silver from copper. There now remains the portion which treats of solidified juices; and whereas they might be considered as alien to things metallic, nevertheless, the reasons why they should not be separated from it I have explained in the second book.

Solidified juices are either prepared from waters in which nature or art has infused them, or they are produced from the liquid juices themselves, or from stony minerals. Sagacious people, at first observing the waters of some lakes to be naturally full of juices which thickened on being dried up by the heat of the sun and thus became solidified juices, drew such waters into other places, or diverted them into low-lying places adjoining hills, so that the heat of the sun should likewise cause them to condense. Subsequently, because they observed that in this wise the solidified juices could be made only in summer, and then not in all countries, but only in hot and temperate regions in which it seldom rains in summer, they boiled them in vessels over a fire until they began to thicken. In this manner, at all times of the year, in all regions, even the coldest, solidified juices could be obtained from solutions of such juices, whether made by nature or by art. Afterward, when they saw juices drip from some roasted stones, they cooked these in pots in order to obtain solidified juices in this wise also. It is worth the trouble to learn the proportions and the methods by which these are made.

I will therefore begin with salt, which is made from water either salty by nature, or by the labour of man, or else from a solution of salt, or from lye, likewise salty. Water which is salty by nature, is condensed and converted into salt in salt-pits by the heat of the sun, or else by the heat of a fire in pans or pots or trenches. That which is made salty by art, is also condensed by fire and changed into salt. There should be as many salt-pits dug as the circumstance of the place permits, but there should not be more made than can be used, although we ought to make as much salt as we can sell. The depth of salt-pits should be moderate, and the bottom should be level, so that all the water is evaporated from the salt by the heat of the sun. The salt-pits should first be encrusted with salt, so that they may not suck up the water. The method of pouring or leading sea-water into salt-pits is very old, and is still in use in many places. The method is not less old, but less common, to pour well-water into salt-pits, as was done in Babylon, for which Pliny is the authority, and in Cappadocia, where they used not only well-water, but also spring-water. In all hot countries salt-water and lake-water are conducted, poured or carried into salt-pits, and, being dried by the heat of the sun, are converted into salt.[1] While the salt-water contained in the salt-pits is being heated by the sun, if they be flooded with great and frequent showers of rain the evaporation is hindered. If this happens rarely, the salt acquires a disagreeable[2] flavour, and in this case the salt-pits have to be filled with other sweet water.

Salt from sea-water is made in the following manner. Near that part of the seashore where there is a quiet pool, and there are wide, level plains which the inundations of the sea do not overflow, three, four, five, or six trenches are dug six feet wide, twelve feet deep, and six hundred feet long, or longer if the level place extends for a longer distance; they are two hundred feet distant from one another; between these are three transverse trenches. Then are dug the principal pits, so that when the water has been raised from the pool it can flow into the trenches, and from thence into the salt-pits, of which there are numbers on the level ground between the trenches. The salt-pits are basins dug to a moderate depth; these are banked round with the earth which was dug in sinking them or in cleansing them, so that between the basins, earth walls are made a foot high, which retain the water let into them. The trenches have openings, through which the first basins receive the water; these basins also have openings, through which the water flows again from one into the other. There should be a slight fall, so that the water may flow from one basin into the other, and can thus be replenished. All these things having been done rightly and in order, the gate is raised that opens the mouth of the pool which contains sea-water mixed with rain-water or river-water; and thus all of the trenches are filled. Then the gates of the first basins are opened, and thus the remaining basins are filled with the water from the first; when this salt-water condenses, all these basins are incrusted, and thus made clean from earthy matter. Then again the first basins are filled up from the nearest trench with the same kind of water, and left until much of the thin liquid is converted into vapour by the heat of the sun and dissipated, and the remainder is considerably thickened. Then their gates being opened, the water passes into the second basins; and when it has remained there for a certain space of time the gates are opened, so that it flows into the third basins, where it is all condensed into salt. After the salt has been taken out, the basins are filled again and again with sea-water. The salt is raked up with wooden rakes and thrown out with shovels.

Salt-water is also boiled in pans, placed in sheds near the wells from which it is drawn. Each shed is usually named from some animal or other thing which is pictured on a tablet nailed to it. The walls of these sheds are made either from baked earth or from wicker work covered with thick mud, although some may be made of stones or bricks. When of brick they are often sixteen feet high, and if the roof rises twenty-four feet high, then the walls which are at the ends must be made forty feet high, as likewise the interior partition walls. The roof consists of large shingles four feet long, one foot wide, and two digits thick; these are fixed on long narrow planks placed on the rafters, which are joined at the upper end and slope in opposite directions. The whole of the under side is plastered one digit thick with straw mixed with lute; likewise the roof on the outside is plastered one and a half feet thick with straw mixed with lute, in order that the shed should not run any risk of fire, and that it should be proof against rain, and be able to retain the heat necessary for drying the lumps of salt. Each shed is divided into three parts, in the first of which the firewood and straw are placed; in the middle room, separated from the first room by a partition, is the fireplace on which is placed the caldron. To the right of the caldron is a tub, into which is emptied the brine brought into the shed by the porters; to the left is a bench, on which there is room to lay thirty pieces of salt. In the third room, which is in the back part of the house, there is made a pile of clay or ashes eight feet higher than the floor, being the same height as the bench. The master and his assistants, when they carry away the lumps of salt from the caldrons, go from the former to the latter. They ascend from the right side of the caldron, not by steps, but by a slope of earth. At the top of the end wall are two small windows, and a third is in the roof, through which the smoke escapes. This smoke, emitted from both the back and the front of the furnace, finds outlet through a hood through which it makes its way up to the windows; this hood consists of boards projecting one beyond the other, which are supported by two small beams of the roof. Opposite the fireplace the middle partition has an open door eight feet high and four feet wide, through which there is a gentle draught which drives the smoke into the last room; the front wall also has a door of the same height and width. Both of these doors are large enough to permit the firewood or straw or the brine to be carried in, and the lumps of salt to be carried out; these doors must be closed when the wind blows, so that the boiling will not be hindered. Indeed, glass panes which exclude the wind but transmit the light, should be inserted in the windows in the walls.

They construct the greater part of the fireplace of rock-salt and of clay mixed with salt and moistened with brine, for such walls are greatly hardened by the fire. These fireplaces are made eight and a half feet long, seven and three quarters feet wide, and, if wood is burned in them, nearly four feet high; but if straw is burned in them, they are six feet high. An iron rod, about four feet long, is engaged in a hole in an iron foot, which stands on the base of the middle of the furnace mouth. This mouth is three feet in width, and has a door which opens inward; through it they throw in the straw.

The caldrons are rectangular, eight feet long, seven feet wide, and half a foot high, and are made of sheets of iron or lead, three feet long and of the same width, all but two digits. These plates are not very thick, so that the water is heated more quickly by the fire, and is boiled away rapidly. The more salty the water is, the sooner it is condensed into salt. To prevent the brine from leaking out at the points where the metal plates are fastened with rivets, the caldrons are smeared over with a cement made of ox-liver and ox-blood mixed with ashes. On each side of the middle of the furnace two rectangular posts, three feet long, and half a foot thick and wide are set into the ground, so that they are distant from each other only one and a half feet. Each of them rises one and a half feet above the caldron. After the caldron has been placed on the walls of the furnace, two beams of the same width and thickness as the posts, but four feet long, are laid on these posts, and are mortised in so that they shall not fall. There rest transversely upon these beams three bars, three feet long, three digits wide, and two digits thick, distant from one another one foot. On each of these hang three iron hooks, two beyond the beams and one in the middle; these are a foot long, and are hooked at both ends, one hook turning to the right, the other to the left. The bottom hook catches in the eye of a staple, whose ends are fixed in the bottom of the caldron, and the eye projects from it. There are besides, two longer bars six feet long, one palm wide, and three digits thick, which pass under the front beam and rest upon the rear beam. At the rear end of each of the bars there is an iron hook two feet and three digits long, the lower end of which is bent so as to support the caldron. The rear end of the caldron does not rest on the two rear corners of the fireplace, but is distant from the fireplace two thirds of a foot, so that the flame and smoke can escape; this rear end of the fireplace is half a foot thick and half a foot higher than the caldron. This is also the thickness and height of the wall between the caldron and the third room of the shed, to which it is adjacent. This back wall is made of clay and ashes, unlike the others which are made of rock-salt. The caldron rests on the two front corners and sides of the fireplace, and is cemented with ashes, so that the flames shall not escape. If a dipperful of brine poured into the caldron should flow into all the corners, the caldron is rightly set upon the fireplace.

The wooden dipper holds ten Roman sextarii, and the cask holds eight dippers full[3]. The brine drawn up from the well is poured into such casks and carried by porters, as I have said before, into the shed and poured into a tub, and in those places where the brine is very strong it is at once transferred with the dippers into the caldron. That brine which is less strong is thrown into a small tub with a deep ladle, the spoon and handle of which are hewn out of one piece of wood. In this tub rock-salt is placed in order that the water should be made more salty, and it is then run off through a launder which leads into the caldron. From thirty-seven dippersful of brine the master or his deputy, at Halle in Saxony,[4] makes two cone-shaped pieces of salt. Each master has a helper, or in the place of a helper his wife assists him in his work, and, in addition, a youth who throws wood or straw under the caldron. He, on account of the great heat of the workshop, wears a straw cap on his head and a breech cloth, being otherwise quite naked. As soon as the master has poured the first dipperful of brine into the caldron the youth sets fire to the wood and straw laid under it. If the firewood is bundles of faggots or brushwood, the salt will be white, but if straw is burned, then it is not infrequently blackish, for the sparks, which are drawn up with the smoke into the hood, fall down again into the water and colour it black.

In order to accelerate the condensation of the brine, when the master has poured in two casks and as many dippersful of brine, he adds about a Roman cyathus and a half of bullock's blood, or of calf's blood, or buck's blood, or else he mixes it into the nineteenth dipperful of brine, in order that it may be dissolved and distributed into all the corners of the caldron; in other places the blood is dissolved in beer. When the boiling water seems to be mixed with scum, he skims it with a ladle; this scum, if he be working with rock-salt, he throws into the opening in the furnace through which the smoke escapes, and it is dried into rock-salt; if it be not from rock-salt, he pours it on to the floor of the workshop. From the beginning to the boiling and skimming is the work of half-an-hour; after this it boils down for another quarter-of-an-hour, after which time it begins to condense into salt. When it begins to thicken with the heat, he and his helper stir it assiduously with a wooden spatula, and then he allows it to boil for an hour. After this he pours in a cyathus and a half of beer. In order that the wind should not blow into the caldron, the helper covers the front with a board seven and a half feet long and one foot high, and covers each of the sides with boards three and three quarters feet long. In order that the front board may hold more firmly, it is fitted into the caldron itself, and the side-boards are fixed on the front board and upon the transverse beam. Afterward, when the boards have been lifted off, the helper places two baskets, two feet high and as many wide at the top, and a palm wide at the bottom, on the transverse beams, and into them the master throws the salt with a shovel, taking half-an-hour to fill them. Then, replacing the boards on the caldron, he allows the brine to boil for three quarters of an hour. Afterward the salt has again to be removed with a shovel, and when the baskets are full, they pile up the salt in heaps.

In different localities the salt is moulded into different shapes. In the baskets the salt assumes the form of a cone; it is not moulded in baskets alone, but also in moulds into which they throw the salt, which are made in the likeness of many objects, as for instance tablets. These tablets and cones are kept in the higher part of the third room of the house, or else on the flat bench of the same height, in order that they may dry better in the warm air. In the manner I have described, a master and his helper continue one after the other, alternately boiling the brine and moulding the salt, day and night, with the exception only of the annual feast days. No caldron is able to stand the fire for more than half a year. The master pours in water and washes it out every week; when it is washed out he puts straw under it and pounds it; new caldrons he washes three times in the first two weeks, and afterward twice. In this manner the incrustations fall from the bottom; if they are not cleared off, the salt would have to be made more slowly over a fiercer fire, which requires more brine and burns the plates of the caldron. If any cracks make their appearance in the caldron they are filled up with cement. The salt made during the first two weeks is not so good, being usually stained by the rust at the bottom where incrustations have not yet adhered.

Although salt made in this manner is prepared only from the brine of springs and wells, yet it is also possible to use this method in the case of river-, lake-, and sea-water, and also of those waters which are artificially salted. For in places where rock-salt is dug, the impure and the broken pieces are thrown into fresh water, which, when boiled, condenses into salt. Some, indeed, boil sea-salt in fresh water again, and mould the salt into the little cones and other shapes.

Some people make salt by another method, from salt water which flows from hot springs that issue boiling from the earth. They set earthenware pots in a pool of the spring-water, and into them they pour water scooped up with ladles from the hot spring until they are half full. The perpetual heat of the waters of the pool evaporates the salt water just as the heat of the fire does in the caldrons. As soon as it begins to thicken, which happens when it has been reduced by boiling to a third or more, they seize the pots with tongs and pour the contents into small rectangular iron pans, which have also been placed in the pool. The interior of these pans is usually three feet long, two feet wide, and three digits deep, and they stand on four heavy legs, so that the water flows freely all round, but not into them. Since the water flows continuously from the pool through the little canals, and the spring always provides a new and copious supply, always boiling hot, it condenses the thickened water poured into the pans into salt; this is at once taken out with shovels, and then the work begins all over again. If the salty water contains other juices, as is usually the case with hot springs, no salt should be made from them.

Others boil salt water, and especially sea-water, in large iron pots; this salt is blackish, for in most cases they burn straw under them. Some people boil in these pots the brine in which fish is pickled. The salt which they make tastes and smells of fish.

Those who make salt by pouring brine over firewood, lay the wood in trenches which are twelve feet long, seven feet wide, and two and one half feet deep, so that the water poured in should not flow out. These trenches are constructed of rock-salt wherever it is to be had, in order that they should not soak up the water, and so that the earth should not fall in on the front, back and sides. As the charcoal is turned into salt at the same time as the salt liquor, the Spaniards think, as Pliny writes[5], that the wood itself turns into salt. Oak is the best wood, as its pure ash yields salt; elsewhere hazel-wood is lauded. But with whatever wood it be made, this salt is not greatly appreciated, being black and not quite pure; on that account this method of salt-making is disdained by the Germans and Spaniards.

The solutions from which salt is made are prepared from salty earth or from earth rich in salt and saltpetre. Lye is made from the ashes of reeds and rushes. The solution obtained from salty earth by boiling, makes salt only; from the other, of which I will speak more a little later, salt and saltpetre are made; and from ashes is derived lye, from which its own salt is obtained. The ashes, as well as the earth, should first be put into a large vat; then fresh water should be poured over the ashes or earth, and it should be stirred for about twelve hours with a stick, so that it may dissolve the salt. Then the plug is pulled out of the large vat; the solution of salt or the lye is drained into a small tub and emptied with ladles into small vats; finally, such a solution is transferred into iron or lead caldrons and boiled, until the water having evaporated, the juices are condensed into salt. The above are the various methods for making salt. (Illustration p. 557.)

Nitrum[6] is usually made from nitrous waters, or from solutions or from lye. In the same manner as sea-water or salt-water is poured into salt-pits and evaporated by the heat of the sun and changed into salt, so the nitrous Nile is led into nitrum pits and evaporated by the heat of the sun and converted into nitrum. Just as the sea, in flowing of its own will over the soil of this same Egypt, is changed into salt, so also the Nile, when it overflows in the dog days, is converted into nitrum when it flows into the nitrum pits. The solution from which nitrum is produced is obtained from fresh water percolating through nitrous earth, in the same manner as lye is made from fresh water percolating through ashes of oak or hard oak. Both solutions are taken out of vats and poured into rectangular copper caldrons, and are boiled until at last they condense into nitrum.

Native as well as manufactured nitrum is mixed in vats with urine and boiled in the same caldrons; the decoction is poured into vats in which are copper wires, and, adhering to them, it hardens and becomes chrysocolla, which the Moors call borax. Formerly nitrum was compounded with Cyprian verdigris, and ground with Cyprian copper in Cyprian mortars, as Pliny writes. Some chrysocolla is made of rock-alum and sal-ammoniac.[8]

Saltpetre[9] is made from a dry, slightly fatty earth, which, if it be retained for a while in the mouth, has an acrid and salty taste. This earth, together with a powder, are alternately put into a vat in layers a palm deep. The powder consists of two parts of unslaked lime and three parts of ashes of oak, or holmoak, or Italian oak, or Turkey oak, or of some similar kind. Each vat is filled with alternate layers of these to within three-quarters of a foot of the top, and then water is poured in until it is full. As the water percolates through the material it dissolves the saltpetre; then, the plug being pulled out from the vat, the solution is drained into a tub and ladled out into small vats. If when tested it tastes very salty, and at the same time acrid, it is good; but, if not, then it is condemned, and it must be made to percolate again through the same material or through a fresh lot. Even two or three waters may be made to percolate through the same earth and become full of saltpetre, but the solutions thus obtained must not be mixed together unless all have the same taste, which rarely or never happens. The first of these solutions is poured into the first vat, the next into the second, the third into the third vat; the second and third solutions are used instead of plain water to percolate through fresh material; the first solution is made in this manner from both the second and third. As soon as there is an abundance of this solution it is poured into the rectangular copper caldron and evaporated to one half by boiling; then it is transferred into a vat covered with a lid, in which the earthy matter settles to the bottom. When the solution is clear it is poured back into the same pan, or into another, and re-boiled. When it bubbles and forms a scum, in order that it should not run over and that it may be greatly purified, there is poured into it three or four pounds of lye, made from three parts of oak or similar ash and one of unslaked lime. But in the water, prior to its being poured in, is dissolved rock-alum, in the proportion of one hundred and twenty librae of the former to five librae of the latter. Shortly afterward the solution will be found to be clear and blue. It is boiled until the waters, which are easily volatile (subtiles), are evaporated, and then the greater part of the salt, after it has settled at the bottom of the pan, is taken out with iron ladles. Then the concentrated solution is transferred to the vat in which rods are placed horizontally and vertically, to which it adheres when cold, and if there be much, it is condensed in three or four days into saltpetre. Then the solution which has not congealed, is poured out and put on one side or re-boiled. The saltpetre being cut out and washed with its own solution, is thrown on to boards that it may drain and dry. The yield of saltpetre will be much or little in proportion to whether the solution has absorbed much or little; when the saltpetre has been obtained from lye, which purifies itself, it is somewhat clear and pure.

The purest and most transparent, because free from salt, is made if it is drawn off at the thickening stage, according to the following method. There are poured into the caldron the same number of amphorae of the solution as of congii of the lye of which I have already spoken, and into the same caldron is thrown as much of the already made saltpetre as the solution and lye will dissolve. As soon as the mixture effervesces and forms scum, it is transferred to a vat, into which on a cloth has been thrown washed sand obtained from a river. Soon afterward the plug is drawn out of the hole at the bottom, and the mixture, having percolated through the sand, escapes into a tub. It is then reduced by boiling in one or another of the caldrons, until the greater part of the solution has evaporated; but as soon as it is well boiled and forms scum, a little lye is poured into it. Then it is transferred to another vat in which there are small rods, to which it adheres and congeals in two days if there is but little of it, or if there is much in three days, or at the most in four days; if it does not condense, it is poured back into the caldron and re-boiled down to half; then it is transferred to the vat to cool. The process must be repeated as often as is necessary.

Others refine saltpetre by another method, for with it they fill a pot made of copper, and, covering it with a copper lid, set it over live coals, where it is heated until it melts. They do not cement down the lid, but it has a handle, and can be lifted for them to see whether or not the melting has taken place. When it has melted, powdered sulphur is sprinkled in, and if the pot set on the fire does not light it, the sulphur kindles, whereby the thick, greasy matter floating on the saltpetre burns up, and when it is consumed the saltpetre is pure. Soon afterward the pot is removed from the fire, and later, when cold, the purest saltpetre is taken out, which has the appearance of white marble, the earthy residue then remains at the bottom. The earths from which the solution was made, together with branches of oak or similar trees, are exposed under the open sky and sprinkled with water containing saltpetre. After remaining thus for five or six years, they are again ready to be made into a solution.

Pure saltpetre which has rested many years in the earth, and that which exudes from the stone walls of wine cellars and dark places, is mixed with the first solution and evaporated by boiling.

Thus far I have described the methods of making nitrum, which are not less varied or multifarious than those for making salt. Now I propose to describe the methods of making alum,[10] which are likewise neither all alike, nor simple, because it is made from boiling aluminous water until it condenses to alum, or else from boiling a solution of alum which is obtained from a kind of earth, or from rocks, or from pyrites, or other minerals.

This kind of earth having first been dug up in such quantity as would make three hundred wheelbarrow loads, is thrown into two tanks; then the water is turned into them, and if it (the earth) contains vitriol it must be diluted with urine. The workmen must many times a day stir the ore with long, thick sticks in order that the water and urine may be mixed with it; then the plugs having been taken out of both tanks, the solution is drawn off into a trough, which is carved out of one or two trees. If the locality is supplied with an abundance of such ore, it should not immediately be thrown into the tanks, but first conveyed into open spaces and heaped up, for the longer it is exposed to the air and the rain, the better it is; after some months, during which the ore has been heaped up in open spaces into mounds, there are generated veinlets of far better quality than the ore. Then it is conveyed into six or more tanks, nine feet in length and breadth and five in depth, and afterward water is drawn into them of similar solution. After this, when the water has absorbed the alum, the plugs are pulled out, and the solution escapes into a round reservoir forty feet wide and three feet deep. Then the ore is thrown out of the tanks into other tanks, and water again being run into the latter and the urine added and stirred by means of poles, the plugs are withdrawn and the solution is run off into the same reservoir. A few days afterward, the reservoirs containing the solution are emptied through a small launder, and run into rectangular lead caldrons; it is boiled in them until the greater part of the water has evaporated. The earthy sediment deposited at the bottom of the caldron is composed of fatty and aluminous matter, which usually consists of small incrustations, in which there is not infrequently found a very white and very light powder of asbestos or gypsum. The solution now seems to be full of meal. Some people instead pour the partly evaporated solution into a vat, so that it may become pure and clear; then pouring it back into the caldron, they boil it again until it becomes mealy. By whichever process it has been condensed, it is then poured into a wooden tub sunk into the earth in order to cool it. When it becomes cold it is poured into vats, in which are arranged horizontal and vertical twigs, to which the alum clings when it condenses; and thus are made the small white transparent cubes, which are laid to dry in hot rooms.

If vitriol forms part of the aluminous ore, the material is dissolved in water without being mixed with urine, but it is necessary to pour that into the clear and pure solution when it is to be re-boiled. This separates the vitriol from the alum, for by this method the latter sinks to the bottom of the caldron, while the former floats on the top; both must be poured separately into smaller vessels, and from these into vats to condense. If, however, when the solution was re-boiled they did not separate, then they must be poured from the smaller vessels into larger vessels and covered over; then the vitriol separating from the alum, it condenses. Both are cut out and put to dry in the hot room, and are ready to be sold; the solution which did not congeal in the vessels and vats is again poured back into the caldron to be re-boiled. The earth which settled at the bottom of the caldron is carried back to the tanks, and, together with the ore, is again dissolved with water and urine. The earth which remains in the tanks after the solution has been drawn off is emptied in a heap, and daily becomes more and more aluminous in the same way as the earth from which saltpetre was made, but fuller of its juices, wherefore it is again thrown into the tanks and percolated by water.

Aluminous rock is first roasted in a furnace similar to a lime kiln. At the bottom of the kiln a vaulted fireplace is made of the same kind of rock; the remainder of the empty part of the kiln is then entirely filled with the same aluminous rocks. Then they are heated with fire until they are red hot and have exhaled their sulphurous fumes, which occurs, according to their divers nature, within the space of ten, eleven, twelve, or more hours. One thing the master must guard against most of all is not to roast the rock either too much or too little, for on the one hand they would not soften when sprinkled with water, and on the other they either would be too hard or would crumble into ashes; from neither would much alum be obtained, for the strength which they have would be decreased. When the rocks are cooled they are drawn out and conveyed into an open space, where they are piled one upon the other in heaps fifty feet long, eight feet wide, and four feet high, which are sprinkled for forty days with water carried in deep ladles. In spring the sprinkling is done both morning and evening, and in summer at noon besides. After being moistened for this length of time the rocks begin to fall to pieces like slaked lime, and there originates a certain new material of the future alum, which is soft and similar to the liquidae medullae found in the rocks. It is white if the stone was white before it was roasted, and rose-coloured if red was mixed with the white; from the former, white alum is obtained, and from the latter, rose-coloured. A round furnace is made, the lower part of which, in order to be able to endure the force of the heat, is made of rock that neither melts nor crumbles to powder by the fire. It is constructed in the form of a basket, the walls of which are two feet high, made of the same rock. On these walls rests a large round caldron made of copper plates, which is concave at the bottom, where it is eight feet in diameter. In the empty space under the bottom they place the wood to be kindled with fire. Around the edge of the bottom of the caldron, rock is built in cone-shaped, and the diameter of the bottom of the rock structure is seven feet, and of the top ten feet; it is eight feet deep. The inside, after being rubbed over with oil, is covered with cement, so that it may be able to hold boiling water; the cement is composed of fresh lime, of which the lumps are slaked with wine, of iron-scales, and of sea-snails, ground and mixed with the white of eggs and oil. The edges of the caldron are surmounted with a circle of wood a foot thick and half a foot high, on which the workmen rest the wooden shovels with which they cleanse the water of earth and of the undissolved lumps of rock that remain at the bottom of the caldron. The caldron, being thus prepared, is entirely filled through a launder with water, and this is boiled with a fierce fire until it bubbles. Then little by little eight wheelbarrow loads of the material, composed of roasted rock moistened with water, are gradually emptied into the caldron by four workmen, who, with their shovels which reach to the bottom, keep the material stirred and mixed with water, and by the same means they lift the lumps of undissolved rock out of the caldron. In this manner the material is thrown in, in three or four lots, at intervals of two or three hours more or less; during these intervals, the water, which has been cooled by the rock and material, again begins to boil. The water, when sufficiently purified and ready to congeal, is ladled out and run off with launders into thirty troughs. These troughs are made of oak, holm oak, or Turkey oak; their interior is six feet long, five feet deep, and four feet wide. In these the water congeals and condenses into alum, in the spring in the space of four days, and in summer in six days. Afterward the holes at the bottom of the oak troughs being opened, the water which has not congealed is drawn off into buckets and poured back into the caldron; or it may be preserved in empty troughs, so that the master of the workmen, having seen it, may order his helpers to pour it into the caldron, for the water which is not altogether wanting in alum, is considered better than that which has none at all. Then the alum is hewn out with a knife or a chisel. It is thick and excellent according to the strength of the rock, either white or pink according to the colour of the rock. The earthy powder, which remains three to four digits thick as the residue of the alum at the bottom of the trough is again thrown into the caldron and boiled with fresh aluminous material. Lastly, the alum cut out is washed, and dried, and sold.

Alum is also made from crude pyrites and other aluminous mixtures. It is first roasted in an enclosed area; then, after being exposed for some months to the air in order to soften it, it is thrown into vats and dissolved. After this the solution is poured into the leaden rectangular pans and boiled until it condenses into alum. The pyrites and other stones which are not mixed with alum alone, but which also contain vitriol, as is most usually the case, are both treated in the manner which I have already described. Finally, if metal is contained in the pyrites and other rock, this material must be dried, and from it either gold, silver, or copper is made in a furnace.

Vitriol[11] can be made by four different methods; by two of these methods from water containing vitriol; by one method from a solution of melanteria, sory and chalcitis; and by another method from earth or stones mixed with vitriol.

The vitriol water is collected into pools, and if it cannot be drained into them, it must be drawn up and carried to them in buckets by a workman. In hot regions or in summer, it is poured into out-of-door pits which have been dug to a certain depth, or else it is extracted from shafts by pumps and poured into launders, through which it flows into the pits, where it is condensed by the heat of the sun. In cold regions and in winter these vitriol waters are boiled down with equal parts of fresh water in rectangular leaden caldrons; then, when cold, the mixture is poured into vats or into tanks, which Pliny calls wooden fish-tanks. In these tanks light cross-beams are fixed to the upper part, so that they may be stationary, and from them hang ropes stretched with little stones; to these the contents of the thickened solutions congeal and adhere in transparent cubes or seeds of vitriol, like bunches of grapes.

By the third method vitriol is made out of melanteria and sory. If the mines give an abundant supply of melanteria and sory, it is better to reject the chalcitis, and especially the misy, for from these the vitriol is impure, particularly from the misy. These materials having been dug and thrown into the tanks, they are first dissolved with water; then, in order to recover the pyrites from which copper is not rarely smelted and which forms a sediment at the bottom of the tanks, the solution is transferred to other vats, which are nine feet wide and three feet deep. Twigs and wood which float on the surface are lifted out with a broom made of twigs, and afterward all the sediment settles at the bottom of this vat. The solution is poured into a rectangular leaden caldron eight feet long, three feet wide, and the same in depth. In this caldron it is boiled until it becomes thick and viscous, when it is poured into a launder, through which it runs into another leaden caldron of the same size as the one described before. When cold, the solution is drawn off through twelve little launders, out of which it flows into as many wooden tubs four and a half feet deep and three feet wide. Upon these tubs are placed perforated crossbars distant from each other from four to six digits, and from the holes hang thin laths, which reach to the bottom, with pegs or wedges driven into them. The vitriol adheres to these laths, and within the space of a few days congeals into cubes, which are taken away and put into a chamber having a sloping board floor, so that the moisture which drips from the vitriol may flow into a tub beneath. This solution is re-boiled, as is also that solution which was left in the twelve tubs, for, by reason of its having become too thin and liquid, it did not congeal, and was thus not converted into vitriol.

The fourth method of making vitriol is from vitriolous earth or stones. Such ore is at first carried and heaped up, and is then left for five or six months exposed to the rain of spring and autumn, to the heat of summer, and to the rime and frost of winter. It must be turned over several times with shovels, so that the part at the bottom may be brought to the top, and it is thus ventilated and cooled; by this means the earth crumbles up and loosens, and the stone changes from hard to soft. Then the ore is covered with a roof, or else it is taken away and placed under a roof, and remains in that place six, seven, or eight months. Afterward as large a portion as is required is thrown into a vat, which is half-filled with water; this vat is one hundred feet long, twenty-four feet wide, eight feet deep. It has an opening at the bottom, so that when it is opened the dregs of the ore from which the vitriol comes may be drawn off, and it has, at the height of one foot from the bottom, three or four little holes, so that, when closed, the water may be retained, and when opened the solution flows out. Thus the ore is mixed with water, stirred with poles and left in the tank until the earthy portions sink to the bottom and the water absorbs the juices. Then the little holes are opened, the solution flows out of the vat, and is caught in a vat below it; this vat is of the same length as the other, but twelve feet wide and four feet deep. If the solution is not sufficiently vitriolous it is mixed with fresh ore; but if it contains enough vitriol, and yet has not exhausted all of the ore rich in vitriol, it is well to dissolve the ore again with fresh water. As soon as the solution becomes clear, it is poured into the rectangular leaden caldron through launders, and is boiled until the water is evaporated. Afterward as many thin strips of iron as the nature of the solution requires, are thrown in, and then it is boiled again until it is thick enough, when cold, to congeal into vitriol. Then it is poured into tanks or vats, or any other receptacle, in which all of it that is apt to congeal does so within two or three days. The solution which does not congeal is either poured back into the caldron to be boiled again, or it is put aside for dissolving the new ore, for it is far preferable to fresh water. The solidified vitriol is hewn out, and having once more been thrown into the caldron, is re-heated until it liquefies; when liquid, it is poured into moulds that it may be made into cakes. If the solution first poured out is not satisfactorily thickened, it is condensed two or three times, and each time liquefied in the caldron and re-poured into the moulds, in which manner pure cakes, beautiful to look at, are made from it.

The vitriolous pyrites, which are to be numbered among the mixtures (mistura), are roasted as in the case of alum, and dissolved with water, and the solution is boiled in leaden caldrons until it condenses into vitriol. Both alum and vitriol are often made out of these, and it is no wonder, for these juices are cognate, and only differ in the one point,--that the former is less, the latter more, earthy. That pyrites which contains metal must be smelted in the furnace. In the same manner, from other mixtures of vitriolic and metalliferous material are made vitriol and metal. Indeed, if ores of vitriolous pyrites abound, the miners split small logs down the centre and cut them off in lengths as long as the drifts and tunnels are wide, in which they lay them down transversely; but, that they may be stable, they are laid on the ground with the wide side down and the round side up, and they touch each other at the bottom, but not at the top. The intermediate space is filled with pyrites, and the same crushed are scattered over the wood, so that, coming in or going out, the road is flat and even. Since the drifts or tunnels drip with water, these pyrites are soaked, and from them are freed the vitriol and cognate things. If the water ceases to drip, these dry and harden, and then they are raised from the shafts, together with the pyrites not yet dissolved in the water, or they are carried out from the tunnels; then they are thrown into vats or tanks, and boiling water having been poured over them, the vitriol is freed and the pyrites are dissolved. This green solution is transferred to other vats or tanks, that it may be made clear and pure; it is then boiled in the lead caldrons until it thickens; afterward it is poured into wooden tubs, where it condenses on rods, or reeds, or twigs, into green vitriol.

Sulphur is made from sulphurous waters, from sulphurous ores, and from sulphurous mixtures. These waters are poured into the leaden caldrons and boiled until they condense into sulphur. From this latter, heated together with iron-scales, and transferred into pots, which are afterward covered with lute and refined sulphur, another sulphur is made, which we call caballinum.[12]

The ores[13] which consist mostly of sulphur and of earth, and rarely of other minerals, are melted in big-bellied earthenware pots. The furnaces, which hold two of these pots, are divided into three parts; the lowest part is a foot high, and has an opening at the front for the draught; the top of this is covered with iron plates, which are perforated near the edges, and these support iron rods, upon which the firewood is placed. The middle part of the furnace is one and a half feet high, and has a mouth in front, so that the wood may be inserted; the top of this has rods, upon which the bottom of the pots stand. The upper part is about two feet high, and the pots are also two feet high and one digit thick; these have below their mouths a long, slender spout. In order that the mouth of the pot may be covered, an earthenware lid is made which fits into it. For every two of these pots there must be one pot of the same size and shape, and without a spout, but having three holes, two of which are below the mouth and receive the spouts of the two first pots; the third hole is on the opposite side at the bottom, and through it the sulphur flows out. In each furnace are placed two pots with spouts, and the furnace must be covered by plates of iron smeared over with lute two digits thick; it is thus entirely closed in, but for two or three vent-holes through which the mouths of the pots project. Outside of the furnace, against one side, is placed the pot without a spout, into the two holes of which the two spouts of the other pots penetrate, and this pot should be built in at both sides to keep it steady. When the sulphur ore has been placed in the pots, and these placed in the furnace, they are closely covered, and it is desirable to smear the joint over with lute, so that the sulphur will not exhale, and for the same reason the pot below is covered with a lid, which is also smeared with lute. The wood having been kindled, the ores are heated until the sulphur is exhaled, and the vapour, arising through the spout, penetrates into the lower pot and thickens into sulphur, which falls to the bottom like melted wax. It then flows out through the hole, which, as I said, is at the bottom of this pot; and the workman makes it into cakes, or thin sticks or thin pieces of wood are dipped in it. Then he takes the burning wood and glowing charcoal from the furnace, and when it has cooled, he opens the two pots, empties the residues, which, if the ores were composed of sulphur and earth, resemble naturally extinguished ashes; but if the ores consisted of sulphur and earth and stone, or sulphur and stone only, they resemble earth completely dried or stones well roasted. Afterward the pots are re-filled with ore, and the whole work is repeated.

The sulphurous mixture, whether it consists of stone and sulphur only, or of stone and sulphur and metal, may be heated in similar pots, but with perforated bottoms. Before the furnace is constructed, against the "second" wall of the works two lateral partitions are built seven feet high, three feet long, one and a half feet thick, and these are distant from each other twenty-seven feet. Between them are seven low brick walls, that measure but two feet and the same number of digits in height, and, like the other walls, are three feet long and one foot thick; these little walls are at equal distances from one another, consequently they will be two and one half feet apart. At the top, iron bars are fixed into them, which sustain iron plates three feet long and wide and one digit thick, so that they can bear not only the weight of the pots, but also the fierceness of the fire. These plates have in the middle a round hole one and a half digits wide; there must not be more than eight of these, and upon them as many pots are placed. These pots are perforated at the bottom, and the same number of whole pots are placed underneath them; the former contain the mixture, and are covered with lids; the latter contain water, and their mouths are under the holes in the plates. After wood has been arranged round the upper pots and ignited, the mixture being heated, red, yellow, or green sulphur drips from it and flows down through the hole, and is caught by the pots placed underneath the plates, and is at once cooled by the water. If the mixture contains metal, it is reserved for smelting, and, if not, it is thrown away. The sulphur from such a mixture can best be extracted if the upper pots are placed in a vaulted furnace, like those which I described among other metallurgical subjects in Book VIII., which has no floor, but a grate inside; under this the lower pots are placed in the same manner, but the plates must have larger holes.

Others bury a pot in the ground, and place over it another pot with a hole at the bottom, in which pyrites or cadmia, or other sulphurous stones are so enclosed that the sulphur cannot exhale. A fierce fire heats the sulphur, and it drips away and flows down into the lower pot, which contains water. (Illustration p. 582).

Bitumen[14] is made from bituminous waters, from liquid bitumen, and from mixtures of bituminous substances. The water, bituminous as well as salty, at Babylon, as Pliny writes, was taken from the wells to the salt works and heated by the great heat of the sun, and condensed partly into liquid bitumen and partly into salt. The bitumen being lighter, floats on the top, while the salt being heavier, sinks to the bottom. Liquid bitumen, if there is much floating on springs, streams and rivers, is drawn up in buckets or other vessels; but, if there is little, it is collected with goose wings, pieces of linen, ralla, shreds of reeds, and other things to which it easily adheres, and it is boiled in large brass or iron pots by fire and condensed. As this bitumen is put to divers uses, some mix pitch with the liquid, others old cart-grease, in order to temper its viscosity; these, however long they are boiled in the pots, cannot be made hard. The mixtures containing bitumen are also treated in the same manner as those containing sulphur, in pots having a hole in the bottom, and it is rare that such bitumen is not highly esteemed.

Since all solidified juices and earths, if abundantly and copiously mixed with the water, are deposited in the beds of springs, streams or rivers, and the stones therein are coated by them, they do not require the heat of the sun or fire to harden them. This having been pondered over by wise men, they discovered methods by which the remainder of these solidified juices and unusual earths can be collected. Such waters, whether flowing from springs or tunnels, are collected in many wooden tubs or tanks arranged in consecutive order, and deposit in them such juices or earths; these being scraped off every year, are collected, as chrysocolla[15] in the Carpathians and as ochre in the Harz.

There remains glass, the preparation of which belongs here, for the reason that it is obtained by the power of fire and subtle art from certain solidified juices and from coarse or fine sand. It is transparent, as are certain solidified juices, gems, and stones; and can be melted like fusible stones and metals. First I must speak of the materials from which glass is made; then of the furnaces in which it is melted; then of the methods by which it is produced.

It is made from fusible stones and from solidified juices, or from other juicy substances which are connected by a natural relationship. Stones which are fusible, if they are white and translucent, are more excellent than the others, for which reason crystals take the first place. From these, when pounded, the most excellent transparent glass was made in India, with which no other could be compared, as Pliny relates. The second place is accorded to stones which, although not so hard as crystal, are yet just as white and transparent. The third is given to white stones, which are not transparent. It is necessary, however, first of all to heat all these, and afterward they are subjected to the pestle in order to break and crush them into coarse sand, and then they are passed through a sieve. If this kind of coarse or fine sand is found by the glass-makers near the mouth of a river, it saves them much labour in burning and crushing. As regards the solidified juices, the first place is given to soda; the second to white and translucent rock-salt; the third to salts which are made from lye, from the ashes of the musk ivy, or from other salty herbs. Yet there are some who give to this latter, and not to the former, the second place. One part of coarse or fine sand made from fusible stones should be mixed with two parts of soda or of rock-salt or of herb salts, to which are added minute particles of magnes.[16] It is true that in our day, as much as in ancient times, there exists the belief in the singular power of the latter to attract to itself the vitreous liquid just as it does iron, and by attracting it to purify and transform green or yellow into white; and afterward fire consumes the magnes. When the said juices are not to be had, two parts of the ashes of oak or holmoak, or of hard oak or Turkey oak, or if these be not available, of beech or pine, are mixed with one part of coarse or fine sand, and a small quantity of salt is added, made from salt water or sea-water, and a small particle of magnes; but these make a less white and translucent glass. The ashes should be made from old trees, of which the trunk at a height of six feet is hollowed out and fire is put in, and thus the whole tree is consumed and converted into ashes. This is done in winter when the snow lies long, or in summer when it does not rain, for the showers at other times of the year, by mixing the ashes with earth, render them impure; for this reason, at such times, these same trees are cut up into many pieces and burned under cover, and are thus converted into ashes.

Some glass-makers use three furnaces, others two, others only one. Those who use three, melt the material in the first, re-melt it in the second, and in the third they cool the glowing glass vessels and other articles. Of these the first furnace must be vaulted and similar to an oven. In the upper chamber, which is six feet long, four feet wide, and two feet high, the mixed materials are heated by a fierce fire of dry wood until they melt and are converted into a vitreous mass. And if they are not satisfactorily purified from dross, they are taken out and cooled and broken into pieces; and the vitreous pieces are heated in pots in the same furnace.

The second furnace is round, ten feet in diameter and eight feet high, and on the outside, so that it may be stronger, it is encompassed by five arches, one and one half feet thick; it consists in like manner of two chambers, of which the lower one is vaulted and is one and one half feet thick. In front this chamber has a narrow mouth, through which the wood can be put into the hearth, which is on the ground. At the top and in the middle of its vault, there is a large round hole which opens to the upper chamber, so that the flames can penetrate into it. Between the arches in the walls of the upper chamber are eight windows, so large that the big-bellied pots may be placed through them on to the floor of the chamber, around the large hole. The thickness of these pots is about two digits, their height the same number of feet, and the diameter of the belly one and a half feet, and of the mouth and bottom one foot. In the back part of the furnace is a rectangular hole, measuring in height and width a palm, through which the heat penetrates into a third furnace which adjoins it.

This third furnace is rectangular, eight feet long and six feet wide; it also consists of two chambers, of which the lower has a mouth in front, so that firewood may be placed on the hearth which is on the ground. On each side of this opening in the wall of the lower chamber is a recess for oblong earthenware receptacles, which are about four feet long, two feet high, and one and a half feet wide. The upper chamber has two holes, one on the right side, the other on the left, of such height and width that earthenware receptacles may be conveniently placed in them. These latter receptacles are three feet long, one and a half feet high, the lower part one foot wide, and the upper part rounded. In these receptacles the glass articles, which have been blown, are placed so that they may cool in a milder temperature; if they were not cooled slowly they would burst asunder. When the vessels are taken from the upper chamber, they are immediately placed in the receptacles to cool.

Some who use two furnaces partly melt the mixture in the first, and not only re-melt it in the second, but also replace the glass articles there. Others partly melt and re-melt the material in different chambers of the second furnace. Thus the former lack the third furnace, and the latter, the first. But this kind of second furnace differs from the other second furnace, for it is, indeed, round, but the interior is eight feet in diameter and twelve feet high, and it consists of three chambers, of which the lowest is not unlike the lowest of the other second furnace. In the middle chamber wall there are six arched openings, in which are placed the pots to be heated, and the remainder of the small windows are blocked up with lute. In the middle top of the middle chamber is a square opening a palm in length and width. Through this the heat penetrates into the upper chamber, of which the rear part has an opening to receive the oblong earthenware receptacles, in which are placed the glass articles to be slowly cooled. On this side, the ground of the workshop is higher, or else a bench is placed there, so that the glass-makers may stand upon it to stow away their products more conveniently.

Those who lack the first furnace in the evening, when they have accomplished their day's work, place the material in the pots, so that the heat during the night may melt it and turn it into glass. Two boys alternately, during night and day, keep up the fire by throwing dry wood on to the hearth. Those who have but one furnace use the second sort, made with three chambers. Then in the evening they pour the material into the pots, and in the morning, having extracted the fused material, they make the glass objects, which they place in the upper chamber, as do the others.

The second furnace consists either of two or three chambers, the first of which is made of unburnt bricks dried in the sun. These bricks are made of a kind of clay that cannot be easily melted by fire nor resolved into powder; this clay is cleaned of small stones and beaten with rods. The bricks are laid with the same kind of clay instead of lime. From the same clay the potters also make their vessels and pots, which they dry in the shade. These two parts having been completed, there remains the third.

The vitreous mass having been made in the first furnace in the manner I described, is broken up, and the assistant heats the second furnace, in order that the fragments may be re-melted. In the meantime, while they are doing this, the pots are first warmed by a slow fire in the first furnace, so that the vapours may evaporate, and then by a fiercer fire, so that they become red in drying. Afterward the glass-makers open the mouth of the furnace, and, seizing the pots with tongs, if they have not cracked and fallen to pieces, quickly place them in the second furnace, and they fill them up with the fragments of the heated vitreous mass or with glass. Afterward they close up all the windows with lute and bricks, with the exception that in each there are two little windows left free; through one of these they inspect the glass contained in the pot, and take it up by means of a blow-pipe; in the other they rest another blow-pipe, so that it may get warm. Whether it is made of brass, bronze, or iron, the blow-pipe must be three feet long. In front of the window is inserted a lip of marble, on which rests the heaped-up clay and the iron shield. The clay holds the blow-pipe when it is put into the furnace, whereas the shield preserves the eyes of the glass-maker from the fire. All this having been carried out in order, the glass-makers bring the work to completion. The broken pieces they re-melt with dry wood, which emits no smoke, but only a flame. The longer they re-melt it, the purer and more transparent it becomes, the fewer spots and blisters there are, and therefore the glass-makers can carry out their work more easily. For this reason those who only melt the material from which glass is made for one night, and then immediately make it up into glass articles, make them less pure and transparent than those who first produce a vitreous mass and then re-melt the broken pieces again for a day and a night. And, again, these make a less pure and transparent glass than do those who melt it again for two days and two nights, for the excellence of the glass does not consist solely in the material from which it is made, but also in the melting. The glass-makers often test the glass by drawing it up with the blowpipes; as soon as they observe that the fragments have been re-melted and purified satisfactorily, each of them with another blow-pipe which is in the pot, slowly stirs and takes up the glass which sticks to it in the shape of a ball like a glutinous, coagulated gum. He takes up just as much as he needs to complete the article he wishes to make; then he presses it against the lip of marble and kneads it round and round until it consolidates. When he blows through the pipe he blows as he would if inflating a bubble; he blows into the blow-pipe as often as it is necessary, removing it from his mouth to re-fill his cheeks, so that his breath does not draw the flames into his mouth. Then, twisting the lifted blow-pipe round his head in a circle, he makes a long glass, or moulds the same in a hollow copper mould, turning it round and round, then warming it again, blowing it and pressing it, he widens it into the shape of a cup or vessel, or of any other object he has in mind. Then he again presses this against the marble to flatten the bottom, which he moulds in the interior with his other blow-pipe. Afterward he cuts out the lip with shears, and, if necessary, adds feet and handles. If it so please him, he gilds it and paints it with various colours. Finally, he lays it in the oblong earthenware receptacle, which is placed in the third furnace, or in the upper chamber of the second furnace, that it may cool. When this receptacle is full of other slowly-cooled articles, he passes a wide iron bar under it, and, carrying it on the left arm, places it in another recess.

The glass-makers make divers things, such as goblets, cups, ewers, flasks, dishes, plates, panes of glass, animals, trees, and ships, all of which excellent and wonderful works I have seen when I spent two whole years in Venice some time ago. Especially at the time of the Feast of the Ascension they were on sale at Morano, where are located the most celebrated glass-works. These I saw on other occasions, and when, for a certain reason, I visited Andrea Naugerio in his house which he had there, and conversed with him and Francisco Asulano.

END OF BOOK XII.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The history of salt-making in salt-pans, from sea-water or salt springs, goes further back than human records. From an historical point of view the real interest attached to salt lies in the bearing which localities rich in either natural salt or salt springs, have had upon the movements of the human race. Many ancient trade routes have been due to them, and innumerable battles have been fought for their possession. Salt has at times served for currency, and during many centuries in nearly every country has served as a basis of taxation. These subjects do not, however, come within the scope of this text. For the quotation from Pliny referred to, see Note 14 below, on bitumen.

[2] The first edition gives graviorem, the latter editions gratiorem, which latter would have quite the reverse meaning from the above.

[3] The following are approximately the English equivalents:--

Pints. Quarts. Gallons. 1 Cyathus .08 3 Cyathi = 1 Quartarius .24 4 Quartarii = 1 Sextarius .99 6 Sextarii = 1 Congius 5.94 2.97 16 Sextarii = 1 Modius 15.85 7.93 1.98 8 Congii = 1 Amphora 47.57 23.78 5.94

The dipper mentioned would thus hold about one and one quarter gallons, and the cask ten gallons.

[4] The salt industry, founded upon salt springs, is still of importance to this city. It was a salt centre of importance to the Germanic tribes before Charles, the son of Charlemagne, erected a fortress here in 806. Mention of the salt works is made in the charter by Otto I., conveying the place to the Diocese of Magdeburg, in 968.

[5] Pliny XXXI., 39-40. "In the Gallic provinces in Germany they pour salt water upon burning wood. The Spaniards in a certain place draw the brine from wells, which they call Muria. They indeed think that the wood turns to salt, and that the oak is the best, being the kind which is itself salty. Elsewhere the hazel is praised. Thus the charcoal even is turned into salt when it is steeped in brine. Whenever salt is made with wood it is black."

[6] We have elsewhere in this book used the word "soda" for the Latin term nitrum, because we believe as used by Agricola it was always soda, and because some confusion of this term with its modern adaptation for saltpetre (nitre) might arise in the mind of the reader. Fortunately, Agricola usually carefully mentions other alkalis, such as the product from lixiviation of ashes, separately from his nitrum. In these paragraphs, however, he has soda and potash hopelessly mixed, wherefore we have here introduced the Latin term. The actual difference between potash and soda--the nitrum of the Ancients, and the alkali of Geber (and the glossary of Agricola), was not understood for two hundred years after Agricola, when Duhamel made his well-known determinations; and the isolation of sodium and potassium was, of course, still later by fifty years. If the reeds and rushes described in this paragraph grew near the sea, the salt from lixiviation would be soda, and likewise the Egyptian product was soda, but the lixiviation of wood-ash produces only potash; as seen above, all are termed nitrum except the first.

HISTORICAL NOTES.--The word nitrum, nitron, nitri, neter, nether, or similar forms, occurs in innumerable ancient writings. Among such references are Jeremiah (II., 22) Proverbs (XXV., 20), Herodotus (II., 86, 87), Aristotle (Prob. I., 39, De Mirab. 54), Theophrastus (De Igne 435 ed. Heinsii, Hist. Plants III., 9), Dioscorides (V., 89), Pliny (XIV., 26, and XXXI., 46). A review of disputations on what salts this term comprised among the Ancients would itself fill a volume, but from the properties named it was no doubt mostly soda, more rarely potash, and sometimes both mixed with common salt. There is every reason to believe from the properties and uses mentioned, that it did not generally comprise nitre (saltpetre)--into which superficial error the nomenclature has led many translators. The preparation by way of burning, and the use of nitrum for purposes for which we now use soap, for making glass, for medicines, cosmetics, salves, painting, in baking powder, for preserving food, embalming, etc., and the descriptions of its taste in "nitrous" waters,--all answer for soda and potash, but not for saltpetre. It is possible that the common occurrence of saltpetre as an efflorescence on walls might naturally lead to its use, but in any event its distinguishing characteristics are nowhere mentioned. As sal-ammoniac occurred in the volcanoes in Italy, it also may have been included in the nitrum mentioned. Nitrum was in the main exported from Egypt, but Theophrastus mentions its production from wood-ash, and Pliny very rightly states that burned lees of wine (argol) had the nature of nitrum. Many of the ancient writers understood that it was rendered more caustic by burning, and still more so by treatment with lime. According to Beckmann (Hist. of Inventions II., p. 488), the form of the word natron was first introduced into Europe by two travellers in Egypt, Peter Ballon and Prosper Alpinus, about 1550. The word was introduced into mineralogy by Linnaeus in 1736. In the first instance natron was applied to soda and potash in distinction to nitre for saltpetre, and later natron was applied solely to soda.

It is desirable to mention here two other forms of soda and potash which are frequently mentioned by Agricola. "Ashes which wool dyers use" (cineres quo infectores lanarum utuntur).--There is no indication in any of Agricola's works as to whether this was some special wood-ash or whether it was the calcined residues from wool washing. The "yolk" or "suint" of wool, originating from the perspiration of the animal, has long been a source of crude potash. The water, after washing the wool, is evaporated, and the residue calcined. It contains about 85% K_{2}CO_{3}, the remainder being sodium and potassium sulphates. Another reason for assuming that it was not a wood-ash product, is that these products are separately mentioned. In either event, whether obtained from wool residues or from lixiviation of wood-ash, it would be an impure potash. In some methods of wool dyeing, a wash of soda was first given, so that it is barely possible that this substance was sodium carbonate.

"Salt made from the ashes of musk ivy" (sal ex anthyllidis cinere factus,--Glossary, salalkali). This would be largely potash.

[7] This wondrous illustration of soda-making from Nile water is no doubt founded upon Pliny (XXXI., 46). "It is made in almost the same manner as salt, except that sea-water is put into salt pans, whereas in the nitrous pans it is water of the Nile; these, with the subsidence of the Nile during the forty days, are impregnated with nitrum."

[8] This paragraph displays hopeless ignorance. Borax was known to Agricola and greatly used in his time; it certainly was not made from these compounds, but was imported from Central Asia. Sal-ammoniac was also known in his time, and was used like borax as a soldering agent. The reaction given by Agricola would yield free ammonia. The following historical notes on borax and sal-ammoniac may be of service.

BORAX.--The uncertainties of the ancient distinctions in salts involve borax deeply. The word Baurach occurs in Geber and the other early Alchemistic writings, but there is nothing to prove that it was modern borax. There cannot be the slightest doubt, however, that the material referred to by Agricola as borax was our borax, because of the characteristic qualities incidentally mentioned in Book VII. That he believed it was an artificial product from nitrum is evident enough from his usual expression "chrysocolla made from nitrum, which the Moors call borax." Agricola, in De Natura Fossilium (p. 206-7), makes the following statements, which could leave no doubt on the subject:--"Native nitrum is found in the earth or on the surface.... It is from this variety that the Venetians make chrysocolla, which I call borax.... The second variety of artificial nitrum is made at the present day from the native nitrum, called by the Arabs tincar, but I call it usually by the Greek name chrysocolla; it is really the Arabic borax.... This nitrum does not decrepitate nor fly out of the fire; however, the native variety swells up from within." The application of the word chrysocolla (chrysos, gold; colla, solder) to soldering materials, and at the same time to the copper mineral, is of Greek origin. If any further proof were needed as to the substance meant by Agricola, it lies in the word tincar. For a long time the borax of Europe was imported from Central Asia, through Constantinople and Venice, under the name of tincal or tincar. When this trade began, we do not know; evidently before Agricola's time. The statement here of making borax from alum and sal-ammoniac is identical with the assertion of Biringuccio (II., 9).

SAL-AMMONIAC.--The early history of this--ammonium chloride--is also under a cloud. Pliny (XXXI., 39) speaks of a sal-hammoniacum, and Dioscorides (V., 85) uses much the same word. Pliny describes it as from near the temple of Ammon in Egypt. None of the distinctive characteristics of sal-ammoniac are mentioned, and there is every reason to believe it was either common salt or soda. Herodotus, Strabo, and others mention common salt sent from about the same locality. The first authentic mention is in Geber, who calls it sal-ammoniacum, and describes a method of making, and several characteristic reactions. It was known in the Middle Ages under various names, among them sal-aremonicum. Agricola (De Nat. Fos., III., p. 206) notes its characteristic quality of volatilization. "Sal-ammoniac ... in the fire neither crackles nor flies out, but is totally consumed." He also says (p. 208): "Borax is used by goldsmiths to solder gold, likewise silver. The artificers who make iron needles (tacks?) similarly use sal-ammoniac when they cover the heads with tin." The statement from Pliny mentioned in this paragraph is from XXXIII., 29, where he describes the chrysocolla used as gold solder as made from verdigris, nitrum, and urine in the way quoted. It is quite possible that this solder was sal-ammoniac, though not made in quite this manner. Pliny refers in several places (XXXIII., 26, 27, 28, and 29, XXXV., 28, etc.) to chrysocolla, about which he is greatly confused as between gold-solder, the copper mineral, and a green pigment, the latter being of either mineral origin.

[9] Saltpetre was secured in the Middle Ages in two ways, but mostly from the treatment of calcium nitrate efflorescence on cellar and similar walls, and from so-called saltpetre plantations. In this description of the latter, one of the most essential factors is omitted until the last sentence, i.e., that the nitrous earth was the result of the decay of organic or animal matter over a long period. Such decomposition, in the presence of potassium and calcium carbonates--the lye and lime--form potassium and calcium nitrates, together with some magnesium and sodium nitrates. After lixiviation, the addition of lye converts the calcium and magnesium nitrates into saltpetre, i.e., Ca(NO_{3}){2} + K{2}CO_{3} = CaCO_{3} + 2KNO_{3}. The carbonates precipitate out, leaving the saltpetre in solution, from which it was evaporated and crystallized out. The addition of alum as mentioned would scarcely improve the situation.

The purification by repeated re-solution and addition of lye, and filtration, would eliminate the remaining other salts. The purification with sulphur, however, is more difficult to understand. In this case the saltpetre is melted and the sulphur added and set alight. Such an addition to saltpetre would no doubt burn brilliantly. The potassium sulphate formed would possibly settle to the bottom, and if the "greasy matter" were simply organic impurities, they might be burned off. This method of refining appears to have been copied from Biringuccio (X., 1), who states it in almost identical terms.

HISTORICAL NOTE.--As mentioned in Note 6 above, it is quite possible that the Ancients did include efflorescence of walls under nitrum; but, so far as we are aware, no specific mention of such an occurrence of nitrum is given, and, as stated before, there is every reason to believe that all the substances under that term were soda and potash. Especially the frequent mention of the preparation of nitrum by way of burning, argues strongly against saltpetre being included, as they would hardly have failed to notice the decrepitation. Argument has been put forward that Greek fire contained saltpetre, but it amounts to nothing more than argument, for in those receipts preserved, no salt of any kind is mentioned. It is most likely that the leprosy of house-walls of the Mosaic code (Leviticus XIV., 34 to 53) was saltpetre efflorescence. The drastic treatment by way of destruction of such "unclean" walls and houses, however, is sufficient evidence that this salt was not used. The first certain mention of saltpetre (sal petrae) is in Geber. As stated before, the date of this work is uncertain; in any event it was probably as early as the 13th Century. He describes the making of "solvative water" with alum and saltpetre, so there can be no doubt as to the substance (see Note on p. 460, on nitric acid). There is also a work by a nebulous Marcus Graecus, where the word sal petrosum is used. And it appears that Roger Bacon (died 1294) and Albertus Magnus (died 1280) both had access to that work. Bacon uses the term sal petrae frequently enough, and was the first to describe gunpowder (De Mirabili Potestate Artis et Naturae 1242). He gives no mention of the method of making his sal petrae. Agricola uses throughout the Latin text the term halinitrum, a word he appears to have coined himself. However, he gives its German equivalent in the Interpretatio as salpeter. The only previous description of the method of making saltpetre, of which we are aware, is that of Biringuccio (1540), who mentions the boiling of the excrescences from walls, and also says a good deal about boiling solutions from "nitrous" earth, which may or may not be of "plantation" origin. He also gives this same method of refining with sulphur. In any event, this statement by Agricola is the first clear and complete description of the saltpetre "plantations." Saltpetre was in great demand in the Middle Ages for the manufacture of gunpowder, and the first record of that substance and of explosive weapons necessarily involves the knowledge of saltpetre. However, authentic mention of such weapons only begins early in the 14th Century. Among the earliest is an authority to the Council of Twelve at Florence to appoint persons to make cannon, etc., (1326), references to cannon in the stores of the Tower of London, 1388, &c.

[10] There are three methods of manufacturing alum described by Agricola, the first and third apparently from shales, and the second from alum rock or "alunite." The reasons for assuming that the first process was from shales, are the reference to the "aluminous earth" as ore (venae) coming from "veins," and also the mixture of vitriol. In this process the free sulphuric acid formed by the oxidation of pyrites reacts upon the argillaceous material to form aluminium sulphate. The decomposed ore is then placed in tanks and lixiviated. The solution would contain aluminium sulphate, vitriol, and other impurities. By the addition of urine, the aluminium sulphate would be converted into ammonia alum. Agricola is, of course, mistaken as to the effect of the addition, being under the belief that it separated the vitriol from the alum; in fact, this belief was general until the latter part of the 18th Century, when Lavoisier determined that alum must have an alkali base. Nor is it clear from this description exactly how they were separated. In a condensed solution allowed to cool, the alum would precipitate out as "alum meal," and the vitriol would "float on top"--in solution. The reference to "meal" may represent this phenomenon, and the re-boiling referred to would be the normal method of purification by crystallization. The "asbestos" and gypsum deposited in the caldrons were no doubt feathery and mealy calcium sulphate. The alum produced would, in any event, be mostly ammonia alum.

The second process is certainly the manufacture from "alum rock" or "alunite" (the hydrous sulphate of aluminium and potassium), such as that mined at La Tolfa in the Papal States, where the process has been for centuries identical with that here described. The alum there produced is the double basic potassium alum, and crystallizes into cubes instead of octahedra, i.e., the Roman alum of commerce. The presence of much ferric oxide gives the rose colour referred to by Agricola. This account is almost identical with that of Biringuccio (II., 4), and it appears from similarity of details that Agricola, as stated in his preface, must have "refreshed his mind" from this description; it would also appear from the preface that he had himself visited the locality.

The third process is essentially the same as the first, except that the decomposition of the pyrites was hastened by roasting. The following obscure statement of some interest occurs in Agricola's De Natura Fossilium, p. 209:--"... alum is made from vitriol, for when oil is made from the latter, alum is distilled out (expirat). This absorbs the clay which is used in cementing glass, and when the operation is complete the clay is macerated with pure water, and the alum is soon afterward deposited in the shape of small cubes." Assuming the oil of vitriol to be sulphuric acid and the clay "used in cementing glass" to be kaolin, we have here the first suggestion of a method for producing alum which came into use long after.

"Burnt alum" (alumen coctum).--Agricola frequently uses this expression, and on p. 568, describes the operation, and the substance is apparently the same as modern dehydrated alum, often referred to as "burnt alum."

HISTORICAL NOTES.--Whether the Ancients knew of alum in the modern sense is a most vexed question. The Greeks refer to a certain substance as stypteria, and the Romans refer to this same substance as alumen. There can be no question as to their knowledge and common use of vitriol, nor that substances which they believed were entirely different from vitriol were comprised under the above names. Beckmann (Hist. of Inventions, Vol. I., p. 181) seems to have been the founder of the doctrine that the ancient alumen was vitriol, and scores of authorities seem to have adopted his arguments without inquiry, until that belief is now general. One of the strongest reasons put forward was that alum does not occur native in appreciable quantities. Apart from the fact that the weight of this argument has been lost by the discovery that alum does occur in nature to some extent as an aftermath of volcanic action, and as an efflorescence from argillaceous rocks, we see no reason why the Ancients may not have prepared it artificially. One of the earliest mentions of such a substance is by Herodotus (II., 180) of a thousand talents of stypteria, sent by Amasis from Egypt as a contribution to the rebuilding of the temple of Delphi. Diodorus (V., 1) mentions the abundance which was secured from the Lipari Islands (Stromboli, etc.), and a small quantity from the Isle of Melos. Dioscorides (V., 82) mentions Egypt, Lipari Islands, Melos, Sardinia, Armenia, etc., "and generally in any other places where one finds red ochre (rubrica)." Pliny (XXXV., 52) gives these same localities, and is more explicit as to how it originates--"from an earthy water which exudes from the earth." Of these localities, the Lipari Islands (Stromboli, etc.), and Melos are volcanic enough, and both Lipari and Melos are now known to produce natural alum (Dana. Syst. Min., p. 95; and Tournefort, "Relation d'un voyage du Levant." London, 1717, Lettre IV., Vol. 1.). Further, the hair-like alum of Dioscorides, repeated by Pliny below, was quite conceivably fibrous kalinite, native potash alum, which occurs commonly as an efflorescence. Be the question of native alum as it may--and vitriol is not much more common--our own view that the ancient alumen was alum, is equally based upon the artificial product. Before entering upon the subject, we consider it desirable to set out the properties of the ancient substance, a complete review of which is given by Pliny (XXXV., 52), he obviously quoting also from Dioscorides, which, therefore, we do not need to reproduce. Pliny says:--

"Not less important, or indeed dissimilar, are the uses made of alumen; by which name is understood a sort of salty earth. Of this, there are several kinds. In Cyprus there is a white alumen, and a darker kind. There is not a great difference in their colour, though the uses made of them are very dissimilar,--the white alumen being employed in a liquid state for dyeing wool bright colours, and the dark-coloured alumen, on the other hand, for giving wool a sombre tint. Gold is purified with black alumen. Every kind of alumen is from a limus water which exudes from the earth. The collection of it commences in winter, and it is dried by the summer sun. That portion of it which first matures is the whitest. It is obtained in Spain, Egypt, Armenia, Macedonia, Pontus, Africa, and the islands of Sardinia, Melos, Lipari, and Strongyle; the most esteemed, however, is that of Egypt, the next best from Melos. Of this last there are two kinds, the liquid alumen, and the solid. Liquid alumen, to be good, should be of a limpid and milky appearance; when rubbed, it should be without roughness, and should give a little heat. This is called phorimon. The mode of detecting whether it has been adulterated is by pomegranate juice, for, if genuine, the mixture turns black. The other, or solid, is pale and rough and turns dark with nut-galls; for which reason it is called paraphoron. Liquid alumen is naturally astringent, indurative, and corrosive; used in combination with honey, it heals ulcerations.... There is one kind of solid alumen, called by the Greeks schistos, which splits into filaments of a whitish colour; for which reason some prefer calling it trichitis (hair like). Alumen is produced from the stone chalcitis, from which copper is also made, being a sort of coagulated scum from that stone. This kind of alumen is less astringent than the others, and is less useful as a check upon bad humours of the body.... The mode of preparing it is to cook it in a pan until it has ceased being a liquid. There is another variety of alumen also, of a less active nature, called strongyle. It is of two kinds. The fungous, which easily dissolves, is utterly condemned. The better kind is the pumice-like kind, full of small holes like a sponge, and is in round pieces, more nearly white in colour, somewhat greasy, free from grit, friable, and does not stain black. This last kind is cooked by itself upon charcoal until it is reduced to pure ashes. The best kind of all is that called melinum, from the Isle of Melos, as I have said, none being more effectual as an astringent, for staining black, and for indurating, and none becomes more dry.... Above all other properties of alumen is its remarkable astringency, whence its Greek name.... It is injected for dysentry and employed as a gargle." The lines omitted refer entirely to medical matters which have no bearing here. The following paragraph (often overlooked) from Pliny (XXXV., 42) also has an important bearing upon the subject:--"In Egypt they employ a wonderful method of dyeing. The white cloth, after it is pressed, is stained in various places, not with dye stuffs, but with substances which absorb colours. These applications are not apparent on the cloth, but when it is immersed in a caldron of hot dye it is removed the next moment brightly coloured. The remarkable circumstance is that although there be only one dye in the caldron yet different colours appear in the cloth."

It is obvious from Pliny's description above, and also from the making of vitriol (see Note 11, p. 572), that this substance was obtained from liquor resulting from natural or artificial lixiviation of rocks--in the case of vitriols undoubtedly the result of decomposition of pyritiferous rocks (such as chalcitis). Such liquors are bound to contain aluminum sulphate if there is any earth or clay about, and whether they contained alum would be a question of an alkali being present. If no alkali were present in this liquor, vitriol would crystallize out first, and subsequent condensation would yield aluminum sulphate. If alkali were present, the alum would crystallize out either before or with the vitriol. Pliny's remark, "that portion of it which first matures is whitest", agrees well enough with this hypothesis. No one will doubt that some of the properties mentioned above belong peculiarly to vitriol, but equally convincing are properties and uses that belong to alum alone. The strongly astringent taste, white colour, and injection for dysentry, are more peculiar to alum than to vitriol. But above all other properties is that displayed in dyeing, for certainly if we read this last quotation from Pliny in conjunction with the statement that white alumen produces bright colours and the dark kind, sombre colours, we have the exact reactions of alum and vitriol when used as mordants. Therefore, our view is that the ancient salt of this character was a more or less impure mixture ranging from alum to vitriol--"the whiter the better." Further, considering the ancient knowledge of soda (nitrum), and the habit of mixing it into almost everything, it does not require much flight of imagination to conceive its admixture to the "water," and the absolute production of alum.

Whatever may have been the confusion between alum and vitriol among the Ancients, it appears that by the time of the works attributed to Geber (12th or 13th Century), the difference was well known. His work (Investigationes perfectiones, IV.) refers to alumen glaciale and alumen jameni as distinguished from vitriol, and gives characteristic reactions which can leave no doubt as to the distinction. We may remark here that the repeated statement apparently arising from Meyer (History of Chemistry, p. 51) that Geber used the term alum de rocca is untrue, this term not appearing in the early Latin translations. During the 15th Century alum did come to be known in Europe as alum de rocca. Various attempts have been made to explain the origin of this term, ranging from the Italian root, a "rock," to the town of Rocca in Syria, where alum was supposed to have been produced. In any event, the supply for a long period prior to the middle of the 15th Century came from Turkey, and the origin of the methods of manufacture described by Agricola, and used down to the present day, must have come from the Orient.

In the early part of the 15th Century, a large trade in alum was done between Italy and Asia Minor, and eventually various Italians established themselves near Constantinople and Smyrna for its manufacture (Dudae, Historia Byzantina Venetia, 1729, p. 71). The alum was secured by burning the rock, and lixiviation. With the capture of Constantinople by the Turks (1453), great feeling grew up in Italy over the necessity of buying this requisite for their dyeing establishments from the infidel, and considerable exertion was made to find other sources of supply. Some minor works were attempted, but nothing much eventuated until the appearance of one John de Castro. From the Commentaries of Pope Pius II. (1614, p. 185), it appears that this Italian had been engaged in dyeing cloth in Constantinople, and thus became aware of the methods of making alum. Driven out of that city through its capture by the Turks, he returned to Italy and obtained an office under the Apostolic Chamber. While in this occupation he discovered a rock at Tolfa which appeared to him identical with that used at Constantinople in alum manufacture. After experimental work, he sought the aid of the Pope, which he obtained after much vicissitude. Experts were sent, who after examination "shed tears of joy, they kneeling down three times, worshipped God and praised His kindness in conferring such a gift on their age." Castro was rewarded, and the great papal monopoly was gradually built upon this discovery. The industry firmly established at Tolfa exists to the present day, and is the source of the Roman alum of commerce. The Pope maintained this monopoly strenuously, by fair means and by excommunication, gradually advancing the price until the consumers had greater complaint than against the Turks. The history of the disputes arising over the papal alum monopoly would alone fill a volume.

By the middle of the 15th Century alum was being made in Spain, Holland, and Germany, and later in England. In her efforts to encourage home industries and escape the tribute to the Pope, Elizabeth (see Note on p. 283) invited over "certain foreign chymistes and mineral masters" and gave them special grants to induce them to "settle in these realmes." Among them was Cornelius Devoz, to whom was granted the privilege of "mining and digging in our Realm of England for allom and copperas." What Devoz accomplished is not recorded, but the first alum manufacture on a considerable scale seems to have been in Yorkshire, by one Thomas Chaloner (about 1608), who was supposed to have seduced workmen from the Pope's alum works at Tolfa, for which he was duly cursed with all the weight of the Pope and Church. (Pennant, Tour of Scotland, 1786).

[11] The term for vitriol used by the Roman authors, followed by Agricola, is atramentum sutorium, literally shoemaker's blacking, the term no doubt arising from its ancient (and modern) use for blackening leather. The Greek term was chalcanthon. The term "vitriol" seems first to appear in Albertus Magnus (De Mineralibus, Liber V.), who died in 1280, where he uses the expression "atramentum viride a quibusdam vitreolum vocatur." Agricola (De Nat. Foss., p. 213) states, "In recent years the name vitriolum has been given to it." The first adequate description of vitriol is by Dioscorides (V., 76), as follows:--"Vitriol (chalcanthon) is of one genus, and is a solidified liquid, but it has three different species. One is formed from the liquids which trickle down drop by drop and congeal in certain mines; therefore those who work in the Cyprian mines call it stalactis. Petesius calls this kind pinarion. The second kind is that which collects in certain caverns; afterward it is poured into trenches, where it congeals, whence it derives its name pectos. The third kind is called hephthon and is mostly made in Spain; it has a beautiful colour but is weak. The manner of preparing it is as follows: dissolving it in water, they boil it, and then they transfer it to cisterns and leave it to settle. After a certain number of days it congeals and separates into many small pieces, having the form of dice, which stick together like grapes. The most valued is blue, heavy, dense, and translucent." Pliny (XXXIV., 32) says:--"By the name which they have given to it, the Greeks indicate the similar nature of copper and atramentum sutorium, for they call it chalcanthon. There is no substance of an equally miraculous nature. It is made in Spain from wells of this kind of water. This water is boiled with an equal quantity of pure water, and is then poured into wooden tanks (fish ponds). Across these tanks there are fixed beams, to which hang cords stretched by little stones. Upon these cords adheres the limus (Agricola's 'juice') in drops of a vitreous appearance, somewhat resembling a bunch of grapes. After removal, it is dried for thirty days. It is of a blue colour, and of a brilliant lustre, and is very like glass. Its solution is the blacking used for colouring leather. Chalcanthon is made in many other ways: its kind of earth is sometimes dug from ditches, from the sides of which exude drops, which solidify by the winter frosts into icicles, called stalagmia, and there is none more pure. When its colour is nearly white, with a slight tinge of violet, it is called leukoion. It is also made in rock basins, the rain water collecting the limus into them, where it becomes hardened. It is also made in the same way as salt by the intense heat of the sun. Hence it is that some distinguish two kinds, the mineral and the artificial; the latter being paler than the former and as much inferior to it in quality as it is in colour."

While Pliny gives prominence to blue vitriol, his solution for colouring leather must have been the iron sulphate. There can be no doubt from the above, however, that both iron and copper sulphates were known to the Ancients. From the methods for making vitriol given here in De Re Metallica, it is evident that only the iron sulphate would be produced, for the introduction of iron strips into the vats would effectually precipitate any copper. It is our belief that generally throughout this work, the iron sulphate is meant by the term atramentum sutorium. In De Natura Fossilium (p. 213-15) Agricola gives three varieties of atramentum sutorium,--viride, caeruleum, and candidum, i.e., green, blue, and white. Thus the first mention of white vitriol (zinc sulphate) appears to be due to him, and he states further (p. 213): "A white sort is found, especially at Goslar, in the shape of icicles, transparent like crystals." And on p. 215: "Since I have explained the nature of vitriol and its relatives, which are obtained from cupriferous pyrites, I will next speak of an acrid solidified juice which commonly comes from cadmia. It is found at Annaberg in the tunnel driven to the Saint Otto mine; it is hard and white, and so acrid that it kills mice, crickets, and every kind of animal. However, that feathery substance which oozes out from the mountain rocks and the thick substance found hanging in tunnels and caves from which saltpetre is made, while frequently acrid, does not come from cadmia." Dana (Syst. of Min., p. 939) identifies this as Goslarite--native zinc sulphate. It does not appear, however, that artificial zinc vitriol was made in Agricola's time. Schlueter (Huette-Werken, Braunschweig 1738, p. 597) states it to have been made for the first time at Rammelsberg about 1570.

It is desirable here to enquire into the nature of the substances given by all of the old mineralogists under the Latinized Greek terms chalcitis, misy, sory, and melanteria. The first mention of these minerals is in Dioscorides, who (V., 75-77) says: "The best chalcitis is like copper. It is friable, not stony, and is intersected by long brilliant veins.... Misy is obtained from Cyprus; it should have the appearance of gold, be hard, and when pulverised it should have the colour of gold and sparkle like stars. It has the same properties as chalcitis.... The best is from Egypt.... One kind of melanteria congeals like salt in the entries to copper mines. The other kind is earthy and appears on the surface of the aforesaid mines. It is found in the mines of Cilicia and other regions. The best has the colour of sulphur, is smooth, pure, homogenous, and upon contact with water immediately becomes black.... Those who consider sory to be the same as melanteria, err greatly. Sory is a species of its own, though it is not dissimilar. The smell of sory is oppressive and provokes nausea. It is found in Egypt and in other regions, as Libya, Spain, and Cyprus. The best is from Egypt, and when broken is black, porous, greasy, and astringent." Pliny (XXXIV., 29-31) says:--"That is called chalcitis from which, as well as itself copper (?) is extracted by heat. It differs from cadmia in that this is obtained from rocks near the surface, while that is taken from rocks below the surface. Also chalcitis is immediately friable, being naturally so soft as to appear like compressed wool. There is also this other distinction; chalcitis contains three other substances, copper, misy, and sory. Of each of these we shall speak in their appropriate places. It contains elongated copper veins. The most approved kind is of the colour of honey; it is streaked with fine sinuous veins and is friable and not stony. It is considered most valuable when fresh.... The sory of Egypt is the most esteemed, being much superior to that of Cyprus, Spain, and Africa; although some prefer the sory from Cyprus for affections of the eyes. But from whatever nation it comes, the best is that which has the strongest odour, and which, when ground up, becomes greasy, black, and spongy. It is a substance so unpleasant to the stomach that some persons are nauseated by its smell. Some say that misy is made by the burning of stones in trenches, its fine yellow powder being mixed with the ashes of pine-wood. The truth is, as I said above, that though obtained from the stone, it is already made and in solid masses, which require force to detach them. The best comes from the works of Cyprus, its characteristics being that when broken it sparkles like gold, and when ground it presents a sandy appearance, but on the contrary, if heated, it is similar to chalcitis. Misy is used in refining gold...."

Agricola's views on the subject appear in De Natura Fossilium. He says (p. 212):--"The cupriferous pyrites (pyrites aerosus) called chalcitis is the mother and cause of sory--which is likewise known as mine vitriol (atramentum metallicum)--and melanteria. These in turn yield vitriol and such related things. This may be seen especially at Goslar, where the nodular lumps of dark grey colour are called vitriol stone (lapis atramenti). In the centre of them is found greyish pyrites, almost dissolved, the size of a walnut. It is enclosed on all sides, sometimes by sory, sometimes by melanteria. From them start little veinlets of greenish vitriol which spread all over it, presenting somewhat the appearance of hairs extending in all directions and cohering together.... There are five species of this solidified juice, melanteria, sory, chalcitis, misy, and vitriol. Sometimes many are found in one place, sometimes all of them, for one originates from the other. From pyrites, which is, as one might say, the root of all these juices, originates the above-mentioned sory and melanteria. From sory, chalcitis, and melanteria originate the various kinds of vitriol.... Sory, melanteria, chalcitis, and misy are always native; vitriol alone is either native or artificial. From them vitriol effloresces white, and sometimes green or blue. Misy effloresces not only from sory, melanteria, and chalcitis, but also from all the vitriols, artificial as well as natural.... Sory and melanteria differ somewhat from the others, but they are of the same colours, grey and black; but chalcitis is red and copper-coloured; misy is yellow or gold-coloured. All these native varieties have the odour of lightning (brimstone), but sory is the most powerful. The feathery vitriol is soft and fine and hair-like, and melanteria has the appearance of wool and it has a similarity to salt; all these are rare and light; sory, chalcitis, and misy have the following relations. Sory because of its density has the hardness of stone, although its texture is very coarse. Misy has a very fine texture. Chalcitis is between the two; because of its roughness and strong odour it differs from melanteria, although they do not differ in colour. The vitriols, whether natural or artificial, are hard and dense ... as regarding shape, sory, chalcitis, misy, and melanteria are nodular, but sory is occasionally porous, which is peculiar to it. Misy when it effloresces in no great quantity from the others is like a kind of pollen, otherwise it is nodular. Melanteria sometimes resembles wool, sometimes salt."

The sum and substance, therefore, appears to be that misy is a yellowish material, possibly ochre, and sory a blackish stone, both impregnated with vitriol. Chalcitis is a partially decomposed pyrites; and melanteria is no doubt native vitriol. From this last term comes the modern melanterite, native hydrous ferrous sulphate. Dana (System of Mineralogy, p. 964) considers misy to be in part copiapite--basic ferric sulphate--but any such part would not come under Agricola's objection to it as a source of vitriol. The disabilities of this and chalcitis may, however, be due to their copper content.

[12] Agricola (De Nat. Fos., 221) says:--"There is a species of artificial sulphur made from sulphur and iron hammer-scales, melted together and poured into moulds. This, because it heals scabs of horses, is generally called caballinum." It is difficult to believe such a combination was other than iron sulphide, but it is equally difficult to understand how it was serviceable for this purpose.

[13] Inasmuch as pyrites is discussed in the next paragraph, the material of the first distillation appears to be native sulphur. Until the receiving pots became heated above the melting point of the sulphur, the product would be "flowers of sulphur," and not the wax-like product. The equipment described for pyrites in the next paragraph would be obviously useful only for coarse material.

But little can be said on the history of sulphur; it is mentioned often enough in the Bible and also by Homer (Od. XXII., 481). The Greeks apparently knew how to refine it, although neither Dioscorides nor Pliny specifically describes such an operation. Agricola says (De Nat. Fos., 220): "Sulphur is of two kinds; the mineral, which the Latins call vivum, and the Greeks apyron, which means 'not exposed to the fire' (ignem non expertum) as rightly interpreted by Celsius; and the artificial, called by the Greeks pepyromenon, that is, 'exposed to the fire.'" In Book X., the expression sulfur ignem non expertum frequently appears, no doubt in Agricola's mind for native sulphur, although it is quite possible that the Greek distinction was between "flowers" of sulphur and the "wax-like" variety.

[14] The substances referred to under the names bitumen, asphalt, maltha, naphtha, petroleum, rock-oil, etc., have been known and used from most ancient times, and much of our modern nomenclature is of actual Greek and Roman ancestry. These peoples distinguished three related substances,--the Greek asphaltos and Roman bitumen for the hard material,--Greek pissasphaltos and Roman maltha for the viscous, pitchy variety--and occasionally the Greek naphtha and Roman naphtha for petroleum proper, although it is often enough referred to as liquid bitumen or liquid asphaltos. The term petroleum apparently first appears in Agricola's De Natura Fossilium (p. 222), where he says the "oil of bitumen ... now called petroleum." Bitumen was used by the Egyptians for embalming from pre-historic times, i.e., prior to 5000 B.C., the term "mummy" arising from the Persian word for bitumen, mumiai. It is mentioned in the tribute from Babylonia to Thotmes III., who lived about 1500 B.C. (Wilkinson, Ancient Egyptians I., p. 397). The Egyptians, however, did not need to go further afield than the Sinai Peninsula for abundant supplies. Bitumen is often cited as the real meaning of the "slime" mentioned in Genesis (XI., 3; XIV., 10), and used in building the Tower of Babel. There is no particular reason for this assumption, except the general association of Babel, Babylon, and Bitumen. However, the Hebrew word sift for pitch or bitumen does occur as the cement used for Moses's bulrush cradle (Exodus II., 3), and Moses is generally accounted about 1300 B.C. Other attempts to connect Biblical reference to petroleum and bitumen revolve around Job XXIX., 6, Deut. XXXII., 13, Maccabees II., I, 18, Matthew V., 13, but all require an unnecessary strain on the imagination.

The plentiful occurrence of bitumen throughout Asia Minor, and particularly in the Valley of the Euphrates and in Persia, is the subject of innumerable references by writers from Herodotus (484-424 B.C.) down to the author of the company prospectus of recent months. Herodotus (I., 179) and Diodorus Siculus (I) state that the walls of Babylon were mortared with bitumen--a fact partially corroborated by modern investigation. The following statement by Herodotus (VI., 119) is probably the source from which Pliny drew the information which Agricola quotes above. In referring to a well at Ardericca, a place about 40 miles from ancient Susa, in Persia, Herodotus says:--"For from the well they get bitumen, salt, and oil, procuring it in the way that I will now describe: they draw with a swipe, and instead of a bucket they make use of the half of a wine-skin; with this the man dips and, after drawing, pours the liquid into a reservoir, wherefrom it passes into another, and there takes three different shapes. The salt and bitumen forthwith collect and harden, while the oil is drawn off into casks. It is called by the Persians rhadinace, is black, and has an unpleasant smell." (Rawlinson's Trans. III., p. 409). The statement from Pliny (XXXI., 39) here referred to by Agricola, reads:--"It (salt) is made from water of wells poured into salt-pans. At Babylon the first condensed is a bituminous liquid like oil which is burned in lamps. When this is taken off, salt is found beneath. In Cappadocia also the water from both wells and springs is poured into salt-pans." When petroleum began to be used as an illuminant it is impossible to say. A passage in Aristotle's De Mirabilibus (127) is often quoted, but in reality it refers only to a burning spring, a phenomenon noted by many writers, but from which to its practical use is not a great step. The first really definite statement as to the use of petroleum as an illuminant is Strabo's quotation (XVI., 1, 15) from Posidonius: "Asphaltus is found in great abundance in Babylonia. Eratosthenes describes it as follows:--The liquid asphaltus, which is called naphtha, is found in Susa; the dry kind, which can be made solid, in Babylonia. There is a spring of it near the Euphrates.... Others say that the liquid kind is also found in Babylonia.... The liquid kind, called naphtha, is of a singular nature. When it is brought near the fire, the fire catches it.... Posidonius says that there are springs of naphtha in Babylonia, some of which produce white, others black naphtha; the first of these, I mean white naphtha, which attracts flame, is liquid sulphur; the second or black naphtha is liquid asphaltus, and is burnt in lamps instead of oil." (Hamilton's Translation, Vol. III., p. 151). Eratosthenes lived about 200 B.C., and Posidonius about 100 years later. Dioscorides (I., 83), after discussing the usual sources of bitumen says: "It is found in a liquid state in Agrigentum in Sicily, flowing on streams; they use it for lights in lanterns in place of oil. Those who call the Sicilian kind oil are under a delusion, for it is agreed that it is a kind of liquid bitumen." Pliny adds nothing much new to the above quotations, except in regard to these same springs (XXXV., 51) that "The inhabitants collect it on the panicles of reeds, to which it quickly adheres and they use it for burning in lamps instead of oil." Agricola (De Natura Fossilium, Book IV.) classifies petroleum, coal, jet, and obsidian, camphor, and amber as varieties of bitumen, and devotes much space to the refutation of the claims that the last two are of vegetable origin.

[15] Agricola (De Natura Fossilium, p. 215) in discussing substances which originate from copper, gives among them green chrysocolla (as distinguished from borax, etc., see Note 8 above), and says: "Native chrysocolla originates in veins and veinlets, and is found mostly by itself like sand, or adhering to metallic substances, and when scraped off from this appears similar to its own sand. Occasionally it is so thin that very little can be scraped off. Or else it occurs in waters which, as I have said, wash these minerals, and afterward it settles as a powder. At Neusohl in the Carpathians, green water flowing from an ancient tunnel wears away this chrysocolla with it. The water is collected in thirty large reservoirs, where it deposits the chrysocolla as a sediment, which they collect every year and sell,"--as a pigment. This description of its occurrence would apply equally well to modern chrysocolla or to malachite. The solution from copper ores would deposit some sort of green incrustation, of carbonates mostly.

[16] The statement in Pliny (XXXVI., 66) to which Agricola refers is as follows: "Then as ingenuity was not content with the mixing of nitrum, they began the addition of lapis magnes, because of the belief that it attracts liquefied glass as well as iron. In a similar manner many kinds of brilliant stones began to be added to the melting, and then shells and fossil sand. Authors tell us that the glass of India is made of broken crystal, and in consequence nothing can compare with it. Light and dry wood is used for fusing, cyprium (copper?) and nitrum being added, particularly nitrum from Ophir etc."

A great deal of discussion has arisen over this passage, in connection with what this lapis magnes really was. Pliny (XXXVI., 25) describes the lodestone under this term, but also says: "There (in Ethiopia) also is haematites magnes, a stone of blood colour, which shows a red colour if crushed, or of saffron. The haematites has not the same property of attracting iron as magnes." Relying upon this sentence for an exception to the ordinary sort of magnes, and upon the impossible chemical reaction involved, most commentators have endeavoured to show that lodestone was not the substance meant by Pliny, but manganese, and thus they find here the first knowledge of this mineral. There can be little doubt that Pliny assumed it to be the lodestone, and Agricola also. Whether the latter had any independent knowledge on this point in glass-making or was merely quoting Pliny--which seems probable--we do not know. In any event, Biringuccio, whose work preceded De Re Metallica by fifteen years, does definitely mention manganese in this connection. He dismisses this statement of Pliny with the remark (p. 37-38): "The Ancients wrote about lodestones, as Pliny states, and they mixed it together with nitrum in their first efforts to make glass." The following passage from this author (p. 36-37), however, is not only of interest in this connection, but also as possibly being the first specific mention of manganese under its own name. Moreover, it has been generally overlooked in the many discussions of the subject. "Of a similar nature (to zaffir) is also another mineral called manganese, which is found, besides in Germany, at the mountain of Viterbo in Tuscany ... it is the colour of ferrigno scuro (iron slag?). In melting it one cannot obtain any metal ... but it gives a very fine colour to glass, so that the glass workers use it in their pigments to secure an azure colour.... It also has such a property that when put into melted glass it cleanses it and makes it white, even if it were green or yellow. In a hot fire it goes off in a vapour like lead, and turns into ashes."

To enter competently into the discussion of the early history of glass-making would employ more space than can be given, and would lead but to a sterile end. It is certain that the art was pre-Grecian, and that the Egyptians were possessed of some knowledge of making and blowing it in the XI Dynasty (according to Petrie 3,500 B.C.), the wall painting at Beni Hassen, which represents glass-blowing, being attributed to that period. The remains of a glass factory at Tel el Amarna are believed to be of the XVIII Dynasty. (Petrie, 1,500 B.C.). The art reached a very high state of development among the Greeks and Romans. No discussion of this subject omits Pliny's well-known story (XXXVI, 65), which we also add: "The tradition is that a merchant ship laden with nitrum being moored at this place, the merchants were preparing their meal on the beach, and not having stones to prop up their pots, they used lumps of nitrum from the ship, which fused and mixed with the sands of the shore, and there flowed streams of a new translucent liquid, and thus was the origin of glass."

APPENDIX A.

AGRICOLA'S WORKS.

Georgius Agricola was not only the author of works on Mining and allied subjects, usually associated with his name, but he also interested himself to some extent in political and religious subjects. For convenience in discussion we may, therefore, divide his writings on the broad lines of (1) works on mining, geology, mineralogy, and allied subjects; (2) works on other subjects, medical, religious, critical, political, and historical. In respect especially to the first division, and partially with regard to the others, we find three principal cases: (a) Works which can be authenticated in European libraries to-day; (b) references to editions of these in bibliographies, catalogues, etc., which we have been unable to authenticate; and (c) references to works either unpublished or lost. The following are the short titles of all of the published works which we have been able to find on the subjects allied to mining, arranged according to their present importance:--De Re Metallica, first edition, 1556; De Natura Fossilium, first edition, 1546; De Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum, first edition, 1546; Bermannus, first edition, 1530; Rerum Metallicarum Interpretatio, first edition, 1546; De Mensuris et Ponderibus, first edition, 1533; De Precio Metallorum et Monetis, first edition, 1550; De Veteribus et Novis Metallis, first edition, 1546; De Natura eorum quae Effluunt ex Terra, first edition, 1546; De Animantibus Subterraneis, first edition, 1549.

Of the "lost" or unpublished works, on which there is some evidence, the following are the most important:--De Metallicis et Machinis, De Ortu Metallorum Defensio ad Jacobum Scheckium, De Jure et Legibus Metallicis, De Varia Temperie sive Constitutione Aeris, De Terrae Motu, and Commentariorum, Libri VI.

The known published works upon other subjects are as follows:--Latin Grammar, first edition, 1520; Two Religious Tracts, first edition, 1522; Galen (Joint Revision of Greek Text), first edition, 1525; De Bello adversus Turcam, first edition, 1528; De Peste, first edition, 1554.

The lost or partially completed works on subjects unrelated to mining, of which some trace has been found, are:--De Medicatis Fontibus, De Putredine solidas partes, etc., Castigationes in Hippocratem, Typographia Mysnae et Toringiae, De Traditionibus Apostolicis, Oratio de rebus gestis Ernesti et Alberti, Ducum Saxoniae.

REVIEW OF PRINCIPAL WORKS.

Before proceeding with the bibliographical detail, we consider it desirable to review briefly the most important of the author's works on subjects related to mining.

De Natura Fossilium. This is the most important work of Agricola, excepting De Re Metallica. It has always been printed in combination with other works, and first appeared at Basel, 1546. This edition was considerably revised by the author, the amended edition being that of 1558, which we have used in giving references. The work comprises ten "books" of a total of 217 folio pages. It is the first attempt at systematic mineralogy, the minerals[1] being classified into (1) "earths" (clay, ochre, etc.), (2) "stones properly so-called" (gems, semi-precious and unusual stones, as distinguished from rocks), (3) "solidified juices" (salt, vitriol, alum, etc.), (4) metals, and (5) "compounds" (homogeneous "mixtures" of simple substances, thus forming such minerals as galena, pyrite, etc.). In this classification Agricola endeavoured to find some fundamental basis, and therefore adopted solubility, fusibility, odour, taste, etc., but any true classification without the atomic theory was, of course, impossible. However, he makes a very creditable performance out of their properties and obvious characteristics. All of the external characteristics which we use to-day in discrimination, such as colour, hardness, lustre, etc., are enumerated, the origin of these being attributed to the proportions of the Peripatetic elements and their binary properties. Dana, in his great work[2], among some fourscore minerals which he identifies as having been described by Agricola and his predecessors, accredits a score to Agricola himself. It is our belief, however, that although in a few cases Agricola has been wrongly credited, there are still more of which priority in description might be assigned to him. While a greater number than fourscore of so-called species are given by Agricola and his predecessors, many of these are, in our modern system, but varieties; for instance, some eight or ten of the ancient species consist of one form or another of silica.

Book I. is devoted to mineral characteristics--colour, brilliance, taste, shape, hardness, etc., and to the classification of minerals; Book II., "earths"--clay, Lemnian earth, chalk, ochre, etc.; Book III., "solidified juices"--salt, nitrum (soda and potash), saltpetre, alum, vitriol, chrysocolla, caeruleum (part azurite), orpiment, realgar, and sulphur; Book IV., camphor, bitumen, coal, bituminous shales, amber; Book V., lodestone, bloodstone, gypsum, talc, asbestos, mica, calamine, various fossils, geodes, emery, touchstones, pumice, fluorspar, and quartz; Book VI., gems and precious stones; Book VII., "rocks"--marble, serpentine, onyx, alabaster, limestone, etc.; Book VIII., metals--gold, silver, quicksilver, copper, lead, tin, antimony, bismuth, iron, and alloys, such as electrum, brass, etc.; Book IX., various furnace operations, such as making brass, gilding, tinning, and products such as slags, furnace accretions, pompholyx (zinc oxide), copper flowers, litharge, hearth-lead, verdigris, white-lead, red-lead, etc.; Book X., "compounds," embracing the description of a number of recognisable silver, copper, lead, quicksilver, iron, tin, antimony, and zinc minerals, many of which we set out more fully in Note 8, page 108.

De Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum. This work also has always been published in company with others. The first edition was printed at Basel, 1546; the second at Basel, 1558, which, being the edition revised and added to by the author, has been used by us for reference. There are five "books," and in the main they contain Agricola's philosophical views on geologic phenomena. The largest portion of the actual text is occupied with refutations of the ancient philosophers, the alchemists, and the astrologers; and these portions, while they exhibit his ability in observation and in dialectics, make but dull reading. Those sections of the book which contain his own views, however, are of the utmost importance in the history of science, and we reproduce extensively the material relating to ore deposits in the footnotes on pages 43 to 52. Briefly, Book I. is devoted to discussion of the origin and distribution of ground waters and juices. The latter part of this book and a portion of Book II. are devoted to the origin of subterranean heat, which he assumes is in the main due to burning bitumen--a genus which with him embraced coal--and also, in a minor degree, to friction of internal winds and to burning sulphur. The remainder of Book II. is mainly devoted to the discussion of subterranean "air", "vapour", and "exhalations", and he conceives that volcanic eruptions and earthquakes are due to their agency, and in these hypotheses he comes fairly close to the modern theory of eruptions from explosions of steam. "Vapour arises when the internal heat of the earth or some hidden fire burns earth which is moistened with vapour. When heat or subterranean fire meets with a great force of vapour which cold has contracted and encompassed in every direction, then the vapour, finding no outlet, tries to break through whatever is nearest to it, in order to give place to the insistent and urgent cold. Heat and cold cannot abide together in one place, but expel and drive each other out of it by turns".

As he was, we believe, the first to recognise the fundamental agencies of mountain sculpture, we consider it is of sufficient interest to warrant a reproduction of his views on this subject: "Hills and mountains are produced by two forces, one of which is the power of water, and the other the strength of the wind. There are three forces which loosen and demolish the mountains, for in this case, to the power of the water and the strength of the wind we must add the fire in the interior of the earth. Now we can plainly see that a great abundance of water produces mountains, for the torrents first of all wash out the soft earth, next carry away the harder earth, and then roll down the rocks, and thus in a few years they excavate the plains or slopes to a considerable depth; this may be noticed in mountainous regions even by unskilled observers. By such excavation to a great depth through many ages, there rises an immense eminence on each side. When an eminence has thus arisen, the earth rolls down, loosened by constant rain and split away by frost, and the rocks, unless they are exceedingly firm, since their seams are similarly softened by the damp, roll down into the excavations below. This continues until the steep eminence is changed into a slope. Each side of the excavation is said to be a mountain, just as the bottom is called a valley. Moreover, streams, and to a far greater extent rivers, effect the same results by their rushing and washing; for this reason they are frequently seen flowing either between very high mountains which they have created, or close by the shore which borders them.... Nor did the hollow places which now contain the seas all formerly exist, nor yet the mountains which check and break their advance, but in many parts there was a level plain, until the force of winds let loose upon it a tumultuous sea and a scathing tide. By a similar process the impact of water entirely overthrows and flattens out hills and mountains. But these changes of local conditions, numerous and important as they are, are not noticed by the common people to be taking place at the very moment when they are happening, because, through their antiquity, the time, place, and manner in which they began is far prior to human memory. The wind produces hills and mountains in two ways: either when set loose and free from bonds, it violently moves and agitates the sand; or else when, after having been driven into the hidden recesses of the earth by cold, as into a prison, it struggles with a great effort to burst out. For hills and mountains are created in hot countries, whether they are situated by the sea coasts or in districts remote from the sea, by the force of winds; these no longer held in check by the valleys, but set free, heap up the sand and dust, which they gather from all sides, to one spot, and a mass arises and grows together. If time and space allow, it grows together and hardens, but if it be not allowed (and in truth this is more often the case), the same force again scatters the sand far and wide.... Then, on the other hand, an earthquake either rends and tears away part of a mountain, or engulfs and devours the whole mountain in some fearful chasm. In this way it is recorded the Cybotus was destroyed, and it is believed that within the memory of man an island under the rule of Denmark disappeared. Historians tell us that Taygetus suffered a loss in this way, and that Therasia was swallowed up with the island of Thera. Thus it is clear that water and the powerful winds produce mountains, and also scatter and destroy them. Fire only consumes them, and does not produce at all, for part of the mountains--usually the inner part--takes fire."

The major portion of Book III. is devoted to the origin of ore channels, which we reproduce at some length on page 47. In the latter part of Book III., and in Books IV. and V., he discusses the principal divisions of the mineral kingdom given in De Natura Fossilium, and the origin of their characteristics. It involves a large amount of what now appears fruitless tilting at the Peripatetics and the alchemists; but nevertheless, embracing, as Agricola did, the fundamental Aristotelian elements, he must needs find in these same elements and their subordinate binary combinations cause for every variation in external character.

Bermannus. This, Agricola's first work in relation to mining, was apparently first published at Basel, 1530. The work is in the form of a dialogue between "Bermannus," who is described as a miner, mineralogist, and "a student of mathematics and poetry," and "Nicolaus Ancon" and "Johannes Naevius," both scholars and physicians. Ancon is supposed to be of philosophical turn of mind and a student of Moorish literature, Naevius to be particularly learned in the writings of Dioscorides, Pliny, Galen, etc. "Bermannus" was probably an adaptation by Agricola of the name of his friend Lorenz Berman, a prominent miner. The book is in the main devoted to a correlation of the minerals mentioned by the Ancients with those found in the Saxon mines. This phase is interesting as indicating the natural trend of Agricola's scholastic mind when he first comes into contact with the sciences to which he devoted himself. The book opens with a letter of commendation from Erasmus, of Rotterdam, and with the usual dedication and preface by the author. The three conversationalists are supposed to take walks among the mines and to discuss, incidentally, matters which come to their attention; therefore the book has no systematic or logical arrangement. There are occasional statements bearing on the history, management, titles, and methods used in the mines, and on mining lore generally. The mineralogical part, while of importance from the point of view of giving the first description of several minerals, is immensely improved upon in De Natura Fossilium, published 15 years later. It is of interest to find here the first appearance of the names of many minerals which we have since adopted from the German into our own nomenclature. Of importance is the first description of bismuth, although, as pointed out on page 433, the metal had been mentioned before. In the revised collection of collateral works published in 1558, the author makes many important changes and adds some new material, but some of the later editions were made from the unrevised older texts.

Rerum Metallicarum Interpretatio. This list of German equivalents for Latin mineralogical terms was prepared by Agricola himself, and first appears in the 1546 collection of De Ortu et Causis, De Natura Fossilium, etc., being repeated in all subsequent publications of these works. It consists of some 500 Latin mineralogical and metallurgical terms, many of which are of Agricola's own coinage. It is of great help in translation and of great value in the study of mineralogic nomenclature.

De Mensuris et Ponderibus. This work is devoted to a discussion of the Greek and Roman weights and measures, with some correlation to those used in Saxony. It is a careful work still much referred to by students of these subjects. The first edition was published at Paris in 1533, and in the 1550 edition at Basel appears, for the first time, De Precio Metallorum et Monetis.

De Veteribus et Novis Metallis. This short work comprises 31 folio pages, and first appears in the 1546 collection of collateral works. It consists mainly of historical and geographical references to the occurrence of metals and mines, culled from the Greek and Latin classics, together with some information as to the history of the mines in Central Europe. The latter is the only original material, and unfortunately is not very extensive. We have incorporated some of this information in the footnotes.

De Animantibus Subterraneis. This short work was first printed in Basel, 1549, and consists of one chapter of 23 folio pages. Practically the whole is devoted to the discussion of various animals who at least a portion of their time live underground, such as hibernating, cave-dwelling, and burrowing animals, together with cave-dwelling birds, lizards, crocodiles, serpents, etc. There are only a few lines of remote geological interest as to migration of animals imposed by geologic phenomena, such as earthquakes, floods, etc. This book also discloses an occasional vein of credulity not to be expected from the author's other works, in that he apparently believes Aristotle's story of the flies which were born and lived only in the smelting furnace; and further, the last paragraph in the book is devoted to underground gnomes. This we reproduce in the footnote on page 217.

De Natura eorum quae Effluunt ex Terra. This work of four books, comprising 83 folio pages, first appears in the 1546 collection. As the title indicates, the discussion is upon the substances which flow from the earth, such as water, bitumen, gases, etc. Altogether it is of microscopic value and wholly uninteresting. The major part refers to colour, taste, temperature, medicinal uses of water, descriptions of rivers, lakes, swamps, and aqueducts.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES.

For the following we have mainly to thank Miss Kathleen Schlesinger, who has been employed many months in following up every clue, and although the results display very considerable literary activity on the part of the author, they do not by any means indicate Miss Schlesinger's labours. Agricola's works were many of them published at various times in combination, and therefore to set out the title and the publication of each work separately would involve much repetition of titles, and we consequently give the titles of the various volumes arranged according to dates. For instance, De Natura Fossilium, De Ortu et Causis, De Veteribus et Novis Metallis, De Natura eorum quae Effluunt ex Terra, and Interpretatio have always been published together, and the Latin and Italian editions of these works always include Bermannus as well. Moreover, the Latin De Re Metallica of 1657 includes all of these works.

We mark with an asterisk the titles to editions which we have been able to authenticate by various means from actual books. Those unmarked are editions which we are satisfied do exist, but the titles of which are possibly incomplete, as they are taken from library catalogues, etc. Other editions to which we find reference and of which we are not certain are noted separately in the discussion later on.[3]

*1530 (8vo):

Georgii Agricolae Medici, Bermannus sive de re Metallica.

(Froben's mark).

Basileae in aedibus Frobenianis Anno. MDXXX.

Bound with this edition is (p. 131-135), at least occasionally, Rerum metallicarum appellationes juxta vernaculam Germanorum linguam, autori Plateano.

Basileae in officina Frobeniana, Anno. MDXXX.

*1533 (8vo):

Georgii Agricolae Medici libri quinque de Mensuris et Ponderibus: in quibus plaeraque a Budaeo et Portio parum animadversa diligenter excutiuntur. Opus nunc primum in lucem aeditum.

(Wechelus's Mark).

Parisiis. Excudebat Christianus Wechelus, in vico Iacobaeo, sub scuto Basileiensi, Anno MDXXXIII.

261 pages and index of 5 pages.

*1533 (4to):

Georgii Agricolae Medici Libri quinque. De Mensuris et Ponderibus: In quibus pleraque a Budaeo et Portio parum animadversa diligenter excutiuntur.

(Froben's Mark).

Basileae ex Officina Frobeniana Anno MDXXXIII. Cum gratia et privilegio Caesareo ad sex annos.

1534 (4to):

Georgii Agricolae. Epistola ad Plateanum, cui sunt adiecta aliquot loca castigata in libris de mensuris et ponderibus nuper editis.

Froben, Basel, 1534.

*1535 (8vo):

Georgii Agricolae Medici libri V. de Mensuris et Ponderibus: in quibus pleraque a Budaeo et Portio parum animadversa diligenter excutiuntur.

(Printer's Mark).

At the end of Index: _Venitues per Juan Anto. de Nicolinis de Sabio, sumptu vero et requisitione Dni Melchionis Sessae. Anno. Dni MDXXXV. Mense Julii._ 116 folios.

On back of title page is given: Liber primus de mensuris Romanis, Secundus de mensuris Graecis, Tertius de rerum quas metimur pondere, Quartus de ponderibus Romanis, Quintus de ponderibus Graecis.

*1541 (8vo):

Georgii Agricolae Medici Bermannus sive de re metallica.

Parisiis. Apud Hieronymum Gormontiu. In Vico Jacobeo sub signotrium coronarum. 1541.

*1546 (8vo):

Georgii Agricolae medici Bermannus, sive de metallica ab accurata autoris recognitione et emendatione nunc primum editus cum nomenclatura rerum metallicarum. Eorum Lipsiae In officina Valentini Papae Anno. MDXLVI.

*1546 (folio):

Georgii Agricolae De ortu et causis subterraneorum Lib. V. De natura eorum quae effluunt ex terra Lib. IIII. De natura fossilium Lib. X. De veteribus et novis metallis, Lib. II. Bermannus sive De re Metallica dialogus. Interpretatio Germanica vocum rei metallicae addito Indice faecundissimo.

_Apud Hieron Frobenium et Nicolaum Episcopium Basileae, MDXLVI. Cum privilegio Imp. Maiestatis ad quinquennium._

*1549 (8vo):

Georgii Agricolae de animantibus subterraneis Liber.

Froben, Basel, MDXLIX.

*1550 (8vo):

Di Georgio Agricola De la generatione de le cose, che sotto la terra sono, e de le cause de' loro effetti e natura, Lib. V. De La Natura di quelle cose, che de la terra scorrono Lib. IIII. De La Natura de le cose Fossili, e che sotto la terra si Cavano Lib. X. De Le Minere antiche e moderne Lib. II. Il Bermanno, o de le cose Metallice Dialogo, Recato tutto hora dal Latino in Buona Lingua volgare.

(Vignette of Sybilla surrounded by the words)--_Qv Al Piv Fermo E Il Mio Foglio E Il Mio Presaggio._

Col Privilegio del Sommo Pontefice Papa Giulio III. Et del Illustriss. Senato Veneto per anni. XX.

(Colophon). In Vinegia per Michele Tramezzino, MDL.

*1550 (folio):

Georgii Agricolae. De Mensuris et ponderibus Rom. atque Graec. lib. V. De externis mensuris et ponderibus Lib. II. Ad ea quae Andreas Alciatus denuo disputavit De Mensuris et Ponderibus brevis defensio Lib. I. De Mensuris quibus intervalla metimur Lib. I. De restituendis ponderibus atque mensuris. Lib. I. De precio metallorum et monetis. Lib. III.

Basileae. Froben. MDL. Cum privilegio Imp. Maiestatis ad quinquennium.[4]

*1556 (folio):

Georgii Agricolae De Re Metallica Libri XII. quibus Officia, Instrumenta, Machinae, ac omnia denique ad Metallicam spectantia, non modo luculentissime describuntur, sed et per effigies, suis locis insertas, adjunctis Latinis, Germanicisque appellationibus ita ob oculos ponuntur, ut clarius tradi non possint Eiusdem De Animantibus Subterraneis Liber, ab Autore recognitus: cum Indicibus diversis, quicquid in opere tractatum est, pulchre demonstrantibus.

(Froben's Mark).

Basileae MDLVI. Cum Privilegio Imperatoris in annos V. et Galliarum Regis ad Sexennium.

Folio 538 pages and preface, glossary and index amounting to 86 pages. This is the first edition of De Re Metallica. We reproduce this title-page on page XIX.

*1557 (folio):

Vom Bergkwerck xii Buecher darinn alle Empter, Instrument, Gezeuge, unnd Alles zu disem Handel gehoerig, mitt schoenen figuren vorbildet, und Klaerlich beschriben seindt erstlich in Lateinischer Sprach durch den Hochgelerten und weittberuempten Herrn Georgium Agricolam, Doctorn und. Buergermeistern der Churfuerstlichen statt Kempnitz, jezundt aber verteuescht durch den Achtparen. unnd Hochgelerten Herrn Philippum Bechium, Philosophen, Artzer und in der Loblichen Universitet zu Basel Professorn.

_Gedruckt zu Basel durch Jeronymus Froben Und Niclausen Bischoff im 1557 Jar mitt Keiserlicher Freyheit._

*1558 (folio):

Georgii Agricolae De ortu et causis subterraneorum Lib. V. De natura eorum quae effluunt ex terra Lib. IV. De natura fossilium Lib. X. De veteribus et novis metallis Lib. II. Bermannus, sive De Re Metallica Dialogus Liber. Interpretatio Germanica vocum rei metallicae, addito duplici Indice, altero rerum, altero locorum Omnia ab ipso authore, cum haud poenitenda accessione, recens recognita.

Froben, et Episcop. Basileae MDLVIII. Cum Imp. Maiestatis renovato privilegio ad quinquennium.

270 pages and index. As the title states, this is a revised edition by the author, and as the changes are very considerable it should be the one used. The Italian translation and the 1612 Wittenberg edition, mentioned below, are taken from the 1546 edition, and are, therefore, very imperfect.

*1561 (folio):

Second edition of De Re Metallica including De Animantibus Subterraneis, with same title as the first edition except the addition, after the body of the title, of the words Atque omnibus nunc iterum ad archetypum diligenter restitutis et castigatis and the year MDLXI. 502 pages and 72 pages of glossary and index.

*1563 (folio):

Opera di Giorgio Agricola de L'arte de Metalli Partita in XII. libri, ne quali si descrivano tutte le sorti, e qualita de gli uffizii, de gli strumenti, delle macchine, e di tutte l'altre cose attenenti a cotal arte, non pure con parole chiare ma eziandio si mettano a luoghi loro le figure di dette cose, ritratte al naturale, con l'aggiunta de nomi di quelle, cotanto chiari, e spediti, che meglio non si puo desiderare, o havere.

_Aggiugnesi il libro del medesimo autore, che tratta de gl' Animali di sottoterra da lui stesso corretto et riveduto. Tradotti in lingua Toscana da M. Michelangelo Florio Fiorentino._

Con l'Indice di tutte le cose piu notabili alla fine (Froben's mark) _in Basilea per Hieronimo Frobenio et Nicolao Episcopio, MDLXIII._

542 pages with 6 pages of index.

*1580 (folio):

Bergwerck Buch: Darinn nicht Allain alle Empte Instrument Gezeug und alles so zu diesem Handel gehoerig mit figuren vorgebildet und klaerlich beschriben, etc. Durch den Hochgelehrten ... Herrn Georgium Agricolam der Artzney Doctorn und Burgermeister der Churfuerstlichen Statt Kemnitz erstlich mit grossem fleyss muehe und arbeit in Latein beschriben und in zwoelff Buecher abgetheilt: Nachmals aber durch den Achtbarn und auch Hochgelehrten Philippum Bechium Philosophen Artzt und in der Loeblichen Universitet zu Basel Professorn mit sonderm fleyss Teutscher Nation zu gut verteutscht und an Tag geben. Allen Berckherrn Gewercken Berckmeistern Geschwornen Schichtmeistern Steigern Berckheuwern Waeschern und Schmeltzern nicht allein nuetzlich und dienstlich sondern auch zu wissem hochnotwendig.

Mit Roemischer Keys. May Freyheit nicht nachzutrucken.

Getruckt in der Keyserlichen Reichsstatt, Franckfort am Mayn, etc. Im Jahr MDLXXX.

*1612 (12mo):

Georgii Agricolae De ortu et causis subterraneorum Lib. V. De natura eorum quae effluunt ex terra, Lib. IV. De natura fossilium Lib. X. De veteribus et novis metallis Lib. II. Bermannus, sive de re metallica Dialogus. Interpretatio Germanica vocum rei metallicae.

Addito Indice faecundissimo, Plurimos jam annos a Germanis, et externarum quoque nationum doctissimis viris, valde desiderati et expetiti.

Nunc vero in rei metallicae studiosorum gratiam recensiti, in certa capita distributi, capitum argumentis, et nonnullis scholiis marginalibus illustrati a Johanne Sigfrido Philos: et Medicinae Doctore et in illustri Julia Professore ordinario.

Accesserunt De metallicis rebus et nominibus observationes variae et eruditae, ex schedis Georgii Fabricii, quibus ea potissimum explicantur, quae Georgius Agricola praeteriit.

Wittebergae Sumptibus Zachariae Schuereri Bibliopolae Typis Andreae Ruedingeri, 1612.

There are 970 pages in the work of Agricola proper, the notes of Fabricius comprising a further 44 pages, and the index 112 pages.

*1614 (8vo):

Georgii Agricolae De Animantibus Subterraneis Liber Hactenus a multis desideratus, nunc vero in gratiam studiosorum seorsim editus, in certa capita divisus, capitum argumentis et nonnullis marginalibus exornatus a Johanne Sigfrido, Phil. & Med. Doctore, etc.

Wittebergae. Typis Meisnerianis: Impensis Zachariae. Schureri Bibliop. Anno. MDCXIV.

*1621 (folio):

Georgii Agricolae Kempnicensis Medici ac Philosophi Clariss. De Re Metallica Libri XII Quibus Officia, Instrumenta, Machinae, ac omnia denique ad metallicam spectantia, non modo Luculentissime describuntur; sed et per effigies, suis locis insertas adjunctis Latinis, Germanicisque; appellationibus, ita ob oculos ponuntur, ut clarius tradi non possint.

Ejusdem De Animantibus Subterraneis Liber, ab Autore recognitus cum Indicibus diversis quicquid in Opere tractatum est, pulchre demonstrantibus.

(Vignette of man at assay furnace).

_Basileae Helvet. Sumptibus itemque typis chalcographicis Ludovici Regis Anno MDCXXI._

502 pages and 58 pages glossary and indices.

*1621 (folio):

Bergwerck Buch Darinnen nicht allein alle Empter Instrument Gezeug und alles so zu disem Handel gehoerig mit Figuren vorgebildet und klaerlich beschrieben:.... Durch den Hochgelehrten und weitberuehmten Herrn Georgium Agricolam, der Artzney Doctorn und Burgermeister der Churfuerstlichen Statt Kemnitz Erstlich mit grossem fleiss muehe und arbeit in Latein beschrieben und in zwoelff Buecher abgetheilt: Nachmals aber durch den Achtbarn und auch Hochgelehrten Philippum Bechium. Philosophen, Artzt, und in der loblichen Universitet zu Basel Professorn mit sonderm fleiss Teutscher Nation zu gut verteutscht und an Tag geben und nun zum andern mal getruckt.

Allen Bergherrn Gewercken Bergmeistern Geschwornen Schichtmeistern Steigern Berghaewern Waeschern unnd Schmeltzern nicht allein nutzlich und dienstlich sondern auch zu wissen hochnohtwendig.

(Vignette of man at assay furnace).

Getruckt zu Basel inverlegung Ludwig Koenigs Im Jahr, MDCXXI.

491 pages 5 pages glossary--no index.

*1657 (folio):

Georgii Agricolae Kempnicensis Medici ac Philosophi Clariss. De Re Metallica Libri XII. Quibus Officia, instrumenta, machinae, ac omnia denique ad metallicam spectantia, non modo luculentissime describuntur: sed et per effigies, suis locis insertas, adjunctis Latinis, Germanicisque appellationibus, ita ob oculos ponuntur, ut clarius tradi non possint. Quibus accesserunt hac ultima editione, Tractatus ejusdem argumenti, ab eodem conscripti, sequentes.

_De Animantibus Subterraneis Lib. I., De Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum Lib. V., De Natura eorum quae effluunt ex Terra Lib. IV., De Natura Fossilium Lib. X., De Veteribus et Novis Metallis Lib. II., Bermannus sive de Re Metallica, Dialogus Lib. I._

Cum Indicibus diversis, quicquid in Opere tractatum est, pulchre demonstrantibus.

(Vignette of assayer and furnace).

Basileae Sumptibus et Typis Emanuelis Koenig. Anno MDCLVII.

Folio, 708 pages and 90 pages of glossary and indices. This is a very serviceable edition of all of Agricola's important works, and so far as we have noticed there are but few typographical errors.

*1778 (8vo):

Gespraech vom Bergwesen, wegen seiner Fuertrefflich keit aus dem Lateinischen in das Deutsche uebersetzet, mit nuetzl. Anmerkungen erlaeutert. u. mit einem ganz neuen Zusatze von Zlueglicher Anstellung des Bergbaues u. von der Zugutemachung der Erze auf den Huettenwerken versehen von Johann Gottlieb Stoer.

Rotenburg a. d. Fulda, Hermstaedt 1778. 180 pages.

*1806 (8vo):

_Georg Agricola's Bermannus eine Einleitung in die metallurgischen Schriften desselben, uebersetzt und mit Exkursionen herausgegeben von Friedrich August Schmid. Haushalts- und Befahrungs-Protokollist im Churf. vereinigten Bergamte zu St. Annaberg._

Freyberg 1806. Bey Craz und Gerlach.

*1807-12 (8vo).

Georg Agrikola's Mineralogische Schriften uebersetzt und mit erlaeuternden Anmerkungen. Begleitet von Ernst Lehmann Bergamts-Assessor, Berg- Gegen- und Receszschreiber in Dem Koenigl. Saechs. Bergamte Voigtsberg der jenaischen Societaet fuer die gesammte Mineralogie Ehrenmitgliede.

Freyberg, 1807-12. Bey Craz und Gerlach.

This German translation consists of four parts: the first being De Ortu et Causis, the second De Natura eorum quae effluunt ex terra, and the third in two volumes De Natura Fossilium, the fourth De Veteribus et Novis Metallis; with glossary and index to the four parts.

We give the following notes on other possible prints, as a great many references to the above works occur in various quarters, of date other than the above. Unless otherwise convinced it is our belief that most of these refer to the prints given above, and are due to error in giving titles or dates. It is always possible that such prints do exist and have escaped our search.

De Re Metallica. Leupold, Richter, Schmid, van der Linden, Mercklinus and Eloy give an 8vo edition of De Re Metallica without illustrations, Schweinfurt, 1607. We have found no trace of this print. Leupold, van der Linden, Richter, Schmid and Eloy mention an 8vo edition, Wittenberg, 1614. It is our belief that this refers to the 1612 Wittenberg edition of the selected works, which contains a somewhat similar title referring in reality to Bermannus, which was and is still continually confused with De Re Metallica. Ferguson mentions a German edition, Schweinfurt, 8vo, 1687. We can find no trace of this; it may refer to the 1607 Schweinfurt edition mentioned above.

De Natura Fossilium. Leupold and Gatter refer to a folio edition of 1550. This was probably an error for either the 1546 or the 1558 editions. Watt refers to an edition of 1561 combined with De Medicatis Fontibus. We find no trace of such edition, nor even that the latter work was ever actually printed. He also refers to an edition of 1614 and one of 1621, this probably being an error for the 1612 edition of the subsidiary works and the De Re Metallica of 1621. Leupold also refers to an edition of 1622, this probably being an error for 1612.

De Ortu et Causis. Albinus, Hofmann, Jacobi, Schmid, Richter, and Reuss mention an edition of 1544. This we believe to be an error in giving the date of the dedication instead of that of the publication (1546). Albinus and Ferguson give an edition of 1555, which date is, we believe, an error for 1558. Ferguson gives an edition of the Italian translation as 1559; we believe this should be 1550. Draud gives an edition of 1621; probably this should be 1612.

Bermannus. Albinus, Schmid, Reuss, Richter, and Weinart give the first edition as 1528. We have been unable to learn of any actual copy of that date, and it is our belief that the date is taken from the dedication instead of from the publication, and should be 1530. Leupold, Schmid, and Reuss give an edition by Froben in 1549; we have been unable to confirm this. Leupold also gives an edition of 1550 (folio), and Joecher gives an edition of Geneva 1561 (folio); we have also been unable to find this, and believe the latter to be a confusion with the De Re Metallica of 1561, as it is unlikely that Bermannus would be published by itself in folio. The catalogue of the library at Siena (Vol. III., p. 78) gives Il Bermanno, Vinegia, 1550, 8vo. We have found no trace of this edition elsewhere.

De Mensuris et Ponderibus. Albinus and Schmid mention an edition of 1539, and one of 1550. The Biographie Universelle, Paris, gives one of 1553, and Leupold one of 1714, all of which we have been unable to find. An epitome of this work was published at various times, sometimes in connection with editions of Vitruvius; so far as we are aware on the following dates, 1552, 1585, 1586, 1829. There also appear extracts in relation to liquid measures in works entitled Vocabula rei numariae ponderum et mensurarum, etc. Paul Eber and Caspar Peucer, Lipsiae, 1549, and in same Wittenberg, 1552.

De Veteribus et Novis Metallis. Watt gives an edition, Basel, 1530, and Paris, 1541; we believe this is incorrect and refers to Bermannus. Reuss mentions a folio print of Basel, 1550. We consider this very unlikely.

De Natura eorum quae Effluunt ex Terra. Albinus, Hofmann, Schmid, Jacobi, Richter, Reuss, and Weinart give an edition of 1545. We believe this is again the dedication instead of the publication date (1546).

De Animantibus Subterraneis. Van der Linden gives an edition at Schweinfurt, 8vo, 1607. Although we have been unable to find a copy, this slightly confirms the possibility of an octavo edition of De Re Metallica of this date, as they were usually published together. Leupold gives assurance that he handled an octavo edition of Wittenberg, 1612, cum notis Johann Sigfridi. We think he confused this with Bermannus sive de re metallica of that date and place. Schmid, Richter, and Draud all refer to an edition similarly annotated, Leipzig, 1613, 8vo. We have no trace of it otherwise.

UNPUBLISHED WORKS ON SUBJECTS RELATED TO MINING.

Agricola apparently projected a complete series of works covering the whole range of subjects relating to minerals: geology, mineralogy, mining, metallurgy, history of metals, their uses, laws, etc. In a letter[5] from Fabricius to Meurer (March, 1553), the former states that Agricola intended writing about 30 books (chapters) in addition to those already published, and to the twelve books De Re Metallica which he was about to publish. Apparently a number of these works were either unfinished or unpublished at Agricola's death, for his friend George Fabricius seems to have made some effort to secure their publication, but did not succeed, through lack of sympathy on the part of Agricola's family. Hofmann[6] states on this matter: "His intentions were frustrated mainly through the lack of support with which he was met by the heirs of the Mineralogist. These, as he complains to a Councillor of the Electorate, Christopher von Carlovitz, in 1556, and to Paul Eber in another letter, adopted a grudging and ungracious tone with regard to his proposal to collect all Agricola's works left behind, and they only consented to communicate to him as much as they were obliged by express command of the Prince. At the Prince's command they showed him a little, but he supposed that there was much more that they had suppressed or not preserved. The attempt to purchase some of the works--the Elector had given Fabricius money for the purpose (30 nummos unciales)--proved unavailing, owing to the disagreeableness of Agricola's heirs. It is no doubt due to these regrettable circumstances that all the works of the industrious scholar did not come down to us." The "disagreeableness" was probably due to the refusal of the Protestant townsfolk to allow the burial of Agricola in the Cathedral at Chemnitz. So far as we know the following are the unpublished or lost works.

De Jure et Legibus Metallicis. This work on mining law is mentioned at the end of Book IV. of De Re Metallica, and it is referred to by others apparently from that source. We have been unable to find any evidence that it was ever published.

De Varia temperie sive Constitutione Aeris. In a letter[7] to Johann Naevius, Agricola refers to having a work in hand of this title.

De Metallis et Machinis. Hofmann[8] states that a work of this title by Agricola, dated Basel 1543, was sold to someone in America by a Frankfort-on-Main bookseller in 1896. This is apparently the only reference to it that we know of, and it is possibly a confusion of titles or a "separate" of some chapters from De Re Metallica.

De Ortu Metallorum Defensio ad Jacobum Scheckium. Referred to by Fabricius in a letter[9] to Meurer. If published was probably only a tract.

De Terrae Motu. In a letter[10] from Agricola to Meurer (Jan. 1, 1544) is some reference which might indicate that he was formulating a work on earthquakes under this title, or perhaps may be only incidental to the portions of De Ortu et Causis dealing with this subject.

Commentariorum in quibus utriusque linguae scriptorum locos difficiles de rebus subterraneis explicat, Libri VI. Agricola apparently partially completed a work under some such title as this, which was to embrace chapters entitled De Methodis and De Demonstratione. The main object seems to have been a commentary on the terms and passages in the classics relating to mining, mineralogy, etc. It is mentioned in the Preface of De Veteribus et Novis Metallis, and in a letter[11] from one of Froben's firm to Agricola in 1548, where it is suggested that Agricola should defer sending his new commentaries until the following spring. The work is mentioned by Albinus[12], and in a letter from Georg Fabricius to Meurer on the 2nd Jan. 1548,[13] in another from G. Fabricius, to his brother Andreas on Oct. 28, 1555,[14] and in a third from Fabricius to Melanchthon on December 8th, 1555[15], in which regret is expressed that the work was not completed by Agricola.

WRITINGS NOT RELATED TO MINING, INCLUDING LOST OR UNPUBLISHED WORKS.

Latin Grammar. This was probably the first of Agricola's publications, the full title to which is Georgii Agricolae Glaucii Libellus de prima ac simplici institutione grammatica. Excusum Lipsiae in Officina Melchioris Lottheri. Anno MDXX. (4to), 24 folios.[16] There is some reason to believe that Agricola also published a Greek grammar, for there is a letter[17] from Agricola dated March 18th, 1522, in which Henicus Camitianus is requested to send a copy to Stephan Roth.

Theological Tracts. There are preserved in the Zwickau Rathsschul Library[18] copies by Stephan Roth of two tracts, the one entitled, Deum non esse auctorem Peccati, the other, Religioso patri Petri Fontano, sacre theologie Doctori eximio Georgius Agricola salutem dicit in Christo. The former was written from Leipzig in 1522, and the latter, although not dated, is assigned to the same period. Both are printed in Zwei theologische Abhandlungen des Georg Agricola, an article by Otto Clemen, Neuen Archiv fur Saechsische Geschichte, etc., Dresden, 1900. There is some reason (from a letter of Fabricius to Melanchthon, Dec. 8th, 1555) to believe that Agricola had completed a work on the unwritten traditions concerning the Church. There is no further trace of it.

Galen. Agricola appears to have been joint author with Andreas Asulanus and J. B. Opizo of a revision of this well-known Greek work. It was published at Venice in 1525, under the title of Galeni Librorum, etc., etc. Agricola's name is mentioned in a prefatory letter to Opizo by Asulanus.

De Bello adversus Turcam. This political tract, directed against the Turks, was written in Latin and first printed by Froben, Basel, 1528. It was translated into German apparently by Agricola's friend Laurenz Berman, and published under the title Oration Anrede Und Vormanunge ... widder den Tuercken by Frederich Peypus, Nuremberg, in 1531 (8vo), and either in 1530 or 1531 by Wolfgang Stoeckel, Dresden, 4to. It was again printed in Latin by Froben, Basel, 1538, 4to; by H. Grosius, Leipzig, 1594, 8vo; it was included among other works published on the same subject by Nicholas Reusnerus, Leipzig, 1595; by Michael Lantzenberger, Frankfurt-am-Main, 1597, 4to. Further, there is reference by Watt to an edition at Eisleben, 1603, of which we have no confirmation. There is another work on the subject, or a revision by the author mentioned by Albinus[19] as having been, after Agricola's death, sent to Froben by George Fabricius to be printed; nothing further appears in this matter however.

De Peste. This work on the Plague appears to have been first printed by Froben, Basel, 1554, 8vo. The work was republished at Schweinfurt, 1607, and at Augsburg in 1614, under various editors. It would appear from Albinus[20] that the work was revised by Agricola and in Froben's hands for publication after the author's death.

De Medicatis Fontibus. This work is referred to by Agricola himself in De Natura Eorum,[21] in the prefatory letter in De Veteribus et Novis Metallis; and Albinus[22] quotes a letter of Agricola to Sebastian Munster on the subject. Albinus states (Bergchronik, p. 193) that to his knowledge it had not yet been published. Conrad Gesner, in his work Excerptorum et observationum de Thermis, which is reprinted in De Balneis, Venice, 1553, after Agricola's De Natura Eorum, states[23] concerning Agricola in libris quos de medicatis fontibus instituerit copiosus se dicturum pollicetur. Watt mentions it as having been published in 1549, 1561, 1614, and 1621. He, however, apparently confuses it with De Natura Eorum. We are unable to state whether it was ever printed or not. A note of inquiry to the principal libraries in Germany gave a negative result.

De Putredine solidas partes humani corporis corrumpente. This work, according to Albinus was received by Fabricius a year after Agricola's death, but whether it was published or not is uncertain.[24]

Castigationes in Hippocratem et Galenum. This work is referred to by Agricola in the preface of Bermannus, and Albinus[25] mentions several letters referring to the preparation of the work. There is no evidence of publication.

Typographia Mysnae et Toringiae. It seems from Agricola's letter[26] to Munster that Agricola prepared some sort of a work on the history of Saxony and of the Royal Family thereof at the command of the Elector and sent it to him when finished, but it was never published as written by Agricola. Albinus, Hofmann, and Struve give some details of letters in reference to it. Fabricius in a letter[27] dated Nov. 11, 1536 asks Meurer to send Agricola some material for it; in a letter from Fabricius to Meurer dated Oct. 30, 1554, it appears that the Elector had granted Agricola 200 thalers to assist in the work. After Agricola's death the material seems to have been handed over to Fabricius, who made use of it (as he states in the preface) in preparing the work he was commissioned by the Elector to write, the title of which was, Originum illustrissimae stirpis Saxonicae Libri, and was published in Leipzig, 1597. It includes on page 880 a fragment of a work entitled Oratio de rebus Gestis Ernesti et Alberti Ducum Saxoniae, by Agricola.

WORKS WRONGLY ATTRIBUTED TO GEORGIUS AGRICOLA.

The following works have been at one time or another wrongly attributed to Georgius Agricola:--

Galerazeya sive Revelator Secretorum De Lapide Philosophorum, Cologne, 1531 and 1534, by one Daniel Agricola, which is merely a controversial book with a catch-title, used by Catholics for converting heretics.

Rechter Gebrauch der Alchimey, a book of miscellaneous receipts which treats very slightly of transmutation.[28]

Chronik der Stadt Freiberg by a Georg Agricola (died 1630), a preacher at Freiberg.

Dominatores Saxonici, by the same author.

Breviarum de Asse by Guillaume Bude.

De Inventione Dialectica by Rudolph Agricola.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] See footnote 4, page 1.

[2] System of Mineralogy.

[3] The following are the titles of the works referred to in this discussion:--

Petrus Albinus: Meissnische Land und Berg Chronica In welcher ein wollnstendige description des Landes, etc., Dresden, 1590 (contains part I, Commentatorium de Mysnia). Newe Chronica und Beschreibung des Landes zu Meissen, pp. 1 to 449, besides preface and index, and Part II. Meissnische Bergk Chronica, Dresden, 1590, pp. 1 to 205, besides preface and index.

Adam Daniel Richter: Umstaendliche ... Chronica der ... Stadt Chemnitz nebst beygefuegten Urkunden, 2 pts. 4to, Zittau & Leipzig, 1767.

Ben. G. Weinart: Versuch einer Litteratur d. Saechsischen Geschichte und Staats kunde, Leipzig, 1885.

Friedrich August Schmid: Georg Agrikola's Bermannus: Einleitung in die metallurgischen Schriften desselben, Freyberg, Craz & Gerlach. 1806, pp. VIII., 1-260.

Franz Ambros Reuss: Mineralogische Geographie van Boehmen. 2 vols. 4to, Dresden, 1793-97. (Agricola Vol. I, p. 2).

Jacob Leupold: Prodromus Bibliothecae Metallicae, corrected, continued, and augmented by F. E. Brueckmann. Wolfenbuettel, 1732, s.v. Agricola.

Christian Gottlieb Goecher: Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexicon, with continuation and supplements by Adelung, Leipzig, 1750, s.v. Agricola.

John Anton Van der Linden: De Scriptis medicis, Libri duo, Amsterdam, 1662, s.v. Georgius Agricola.

Nicolas Francois Joseph Eloy: Dictionnaire Historique de la Medecine, Liege & Francfort (chez J. F. Bassompierre), 1755, 8vo (Agricola p. 28, vol. I).

Georg Abraham Mercklinus: Lindenius Renovatus de scriptis medicis continuati ... amplificati, etc., Amsterdam, 1686, s.v. Georgius Agricola.

John Ferguson: Bibliotheca Chemica: A catalogue of the Alchemical, Chemical, and Pharmaceutical books in the collection of the late James Young of Kelly & Durris, Esq., L.L.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Glasgow, 1906, 4to, 2 vols., s.v. Agricola.

Christoph Wilhelm Gatterer: Allgemeines Repertorium der mineralogischen, bergwerks und Salz werkswissenschaftlichen Literatur, Goettingen, 1798, vol. I.

Dr. Reinhold Hofmann: Dr. Georg Agricola, Ein Gelehrtenleben aus dem Zeitalter der Reformation, 8vo, Gotha, 1905.

Georg Heinrich Jacobi: Der Mineralog Georgius Agricola und sein Verhaeltnis zur wissenschaft seiner Zeit, etc., 8vo. Zwickau (1889), (Dissertation--Leipzig).

Georg Draud: Bibliotheca Classica, Frankfurt-am-Main, 1611.

B. G. Struve: Bibliotheca Saxonica, 8vo, Halle, 1736.

[4] Albinus states (p. 354): Omnes simul editi Anno. 1549, iterum 1550, Basileae, as though two separate editions.

[5] G. Fabricii epistolae ad W. Meurerum et alios aequales, by Baumgarten-Crusius, Leipzig, 1845, p. 83.

[6] Dr. Georg Agricola, Gotha, 1905, pp. 60-61.

[7] Albinus, Landchronik, pp. 354-5.

[8] Dr. Georg Agricola, p. 63.

[9] Baumgarten-Crusius, p. 115.

[10] Virorum Clarorum Saec. XVI. et XVII. Epistolae Selectae by Ernst Weber, Leipzig, 1894, p. 2.

[11] Nicholas Episcopius to Georg Agricola, Sept. 17, 1548, published in Schmid's Bermannus p. 38. See also Hofmann, op. cit. pp. 62 and 140.

[12] Meissnische Landchronik, Dresden, 1589, p. 354.

[13] Printed in Baumgarten-Crusius, pp. 48-49, letter XLVIII.

[14] Printed in Hermann Peter's Meissner Jahresbericht der Fuerstenschule, 1891, p. 24.

[15] Baumgarten-Crusius. Georgii Fabricii Chemnicensis Epistolae, Leipzig, 1845, p. 139.

[16] There is a copy of this work in the Rathsschul Library at Zwickau.

[17] In the Rathsschul Library at Zwickau.Return to passage

[18] Contained in Vols. XXXVII. and XL. of Stephan Roth's Kollectanenbaende Volumes of Transcripts.Return to passage

[19] Landchronik, p. 354.Return to passage

[20] Op. cit., p. 354.Return to passage

[21] Book IV.Return to passage

[22] Op. cit., p. 355.Return to passage

[23] Page 291.Return to passage

[24] See Baumgarten-Crusius, p. 114, letter from Georg Fabricius.Return to passage

[25] Op. cit., p. 354.Return to passage

[26] Albinus, Op. cit., p. 355.Return to passage

[27] Baumgarten-Crusius, p. 2.Return to passage

[28] See Ferguson, Bibliotheca Chemica, s.v. Daniel Agricola.Return to passage

APPENDIX B.

ANCIENT AUTHORS.

We give the following brief notes on early works containing some reference to mineralogy, mining, or metallurgy, to indicate the literature available to Agricola and for historical notes bearing upon the subject. References to these works in the footnotes may be most easily consulted through the personal index.

GREEK AUTHORS.--Only a very limited Greek literature upon subjects allied to mining or natural science survives. The whole of the material of technical interest could be reproduced on less than twenty of these pages. Those of most importance are: Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), Theophrastus (371-288 B.C.), Diodorus Siculus (1st Century B.C.), Strabo (64 B.C.-25 A.D.), and Dioscorides (1st Century A.D.).

Aristotle, apart from occasional mineralogical or metallurgical references in De Mirabilibus, is mostly of interest as the author of the Peripatetic theory of the elements and the relation of these to the origin of stones and metals. Agricola was, to a considerable measure, a follower of this school, and their views colour much of his writings. We, however, discuss elsewhere[1] at what point he departed from them. Especially in De Ortu et Causis does he quote largely from Aristotle's Meteorologica, Physica, and De Coelo on these subjects. There is a spurious work on stones attributed to Aristotle of some interest to mineralogists. It was probably the work of some Arab early in the Middle Ages.

Theophrastus, the principal disciple of Aristotle, appears to have written at least two works relating to our subject--one "On Stones", and the other on metals, mining or metallurgy, but the latter is not extant. The work "On Stones" was first printed in Venice in 1498, and the Greek text, together with a fair English translation by Sir John Hill, was published in London in 1746 under the title "Theophrastus on Stones"; the translation is, however, somewhat coloured with Hill's views on mineralogy. The work comprises 120 short paragraphs, and would, if reproduced, cover but about four of these pages. In the first paragraphs are the Peripatetic view of the origin of stones and minerals, and upon the foundation of Aristotle he makes some modifications. The principal interest in Theophrastus' work is the description of minerals; the information given is, however, such as might be possessed by any ordinary workman, and betrays no particular abilities for natural philosophy. He enumerates various exterior characteristics, such as colour, tenacity, hardness, smoothness, density, fusibility, lustre, and transparence, and their quality of reproduction, and then proceeds to describe various substances, but usually omits his enumerated characteristics. Apart from the then known metals and certain "earths" (ochre, marls, clay, etc.), it is possible to identify from his descriptions the following rocks and minerals:--marble, pumice, onyx, gypsum, pyrites, coal, bitumen, amber, azurite, chrysocolla, realgar, orpiment, cinnabar, quartz in various forms, lapis lazuli, emerald, sapphire, diamond, and ruby. Altogether there are some sixteen distinct mineral species. He also describes the touchstone and its uses, the making of white-lead and verdigris, and of quicksilver from cinnabar.

Diodorus Siculus was a Greek native of Sicily. His "historical library" consisted of some 40 books, of which parts of 15 are extant. The first print was in Latin, 1472, and in Greek in 1539; the first translation into English was by Thomas Stocker, London, 1568, and later by G. Booth, 1700. We have relied upon Booth's translation, but with some amendments by friends, to gain more literal statement. Diodorus, so far as relates to our subject, gives merely the occasional note of a traveller. The most interesting paragraphs are his quotation from Agatharchides on Egyptian mining and upon British tin.

Strabo was also a geographer. His work consists of 17 books, and practically all survive. We have relied upon the most excellent translation of Hamilton and Falconer, London, 1903, the only one in English. Mines and minerals did not escape such an acute geographer, and the matters of greatest interest are those with relation to Spanish mines.

Dioscorides was a Greek physician who wrote entirely from the standpoint of materia medica, most of his work being devoted to herbs; but Book V. is devoted to minerals and rocks, and their preparation for medicinal purposes. The work has never been translated into English, and we have relied upon the Latin translation of Matthioli, Venice, 1565, and notes upon the Greek text prepared for us by Mr. C. Katopodes. In addition to most of the substances known before, he, so far as can be identified, adds schist, cadmia (blende or calamine), chalcitis (copper sulphide), misy, melanteria, sory (copper or iron sulphide oxidation minerals). He describes the making of certain artificial products, such as copper oxides, vitriol, litharge, pompholyx, and spodos (zinc and/or arsenical oxides). His principal interest for us, however, lies in the processes set out for making his medicines.

Occasional scraps of information relating to the metals or mines in some connection are to be found in many other Greek writers, and in quotations by them from others which are not now extant, such as Polybius, Posidonius, etc. The poets occasionally throw a gleam of light on ancient metallurgy, as for instance in Homer's description of Vulcan's foundry; while the historians, philosophers, statesmen, and physicians, among them Herodotus, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Galen, and many others, have left some incidental references to the metals and mining, helpful to gleaners from a field, which has been almost exhausted by time. Even Archimedes made pumps, and Hero surveying instruments for mines.

ROMAN AUTHORS.--Pre-eminent among all ancient writers on these subjects is, of course, Pliny, and in fact, except some few lines by Vitruvius, there is practically little else in extant Roman literature of technical interest, for the metallurgical metaphors of the poets and orators were threadbare by this time, and do not excite so much interest as upon their first appearance among the Greeks and Hebrews.

Pliny (Caius Plinius Secundus) was born 23 A.D., and was killed by eruption of Vesuvius 79 A.D. His Natural History should be more properly called an encyclopaedia, the whole comprising 37 books; but only portions of the last four books relate to our subject, and over one-half of the material there is upon precious stones. To give some rough idea of the small quantity of even this, the most voluminous of ancient works upon our subject, we have made an estimate that the portions of metallurgical character would cover, say, three pages of this text, on mining two pages, on building and precious stones about ten pages. Pliny and Dioscorides were contemporaries, and while Pliny nowhere refers to the Greek, internal evidence is most convincing, either that they drew from the same source, or that Pliny drew from Dioscorides. We have, therefore, throughout the text given precedence in time to the Greek author in matters of historical interest. The works of Pliny were first printed at Venice in 1469. They have passed dozens of editions in various languages, and have been twice translated into English. The first translation by Philemon Holland, London, 1601, is quite impossible. The second translation, by Bostock and Riley, London, 1855, was a great advance, and the notes are most valuable, but in general the work has suffered from a freedom justifiable in the translation of poetry, but not in science. We have relied upon the Latin edition of Janus, Leipzig, 1870. The frequent quotations in our footnotes are sufficient indication of the character of Pliny's work. In general it should be remembered that he was himself but a compiler of information from others, and, so far as our subjects are concerned, of no other experience than most travellers. When one considers the reliability of such authors to-day on technical subjects, respect for Pliny is much enhanced. Further, the text is no doubt much corrupted through the generations of transcription before it was set in type. So far as can be identified with any assurance, Pliny adds but few distinct minerals to those enumerated by Theophrastus and Dioscorides. For his metallurgical and mining information we refer to the footnotes, and in general it may be said that while those skilled in metallurgy can dimly see in his statements many metallurgical operations, there is little that does not require much deduction to arrive at a conclusion. On geology he offers no new philosophical deductions of consequence; the remote connection of building stones is practically all that can be enumerated, lest one build some assumption of a knowledge of ore-deposits on the use of the word "vein". One point of great interest to this work is that in his search for Latin terms for technical purposes Agricola relied almost wholly upon Pliny, and by some devotion to the latter we have been able to disentangle some very puzzling matters of nomenclature in De Re Metallica, of which the term molybdaena may be cited as a case in point.

Vitruvius was a Roman architect of note of the 1st Century B.C. His work of ten books contains some very minor references to pumps and machinery, building stones, and the preparation of pigments, the latter involving operations from which metallurgical deductions can occasionally be safely made. His works were apparently first printed in Rome in 1496. There are many editions in various languages, the first English translation being from the French in 1692. We have relied upon the translation of Joseph Gwilt, London, 1875, with such alterations as we have considered necessary.

MEDIAEVAL AUTHORS.--For convenience we group under this heading the writers of interest from Roman times to the awakening of learning in the early 16th Century. Apart from Theophilus, they are mostly alchemists; but, nevertheless, some are of great importance in the history of metallurgy and chemistry. Omitting a horde of lesser lights upon whom we have given some data under the author's preface, the works principally concerned are those ascribed to Avicenna, Theophilus, Geber, Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon, and Basil Valentine. Judging from the Preface to De Re Metallica, and from quotations in his subsidiary works, Agricola must have been not only familiar with a wide range of alchemistic material, but also with a good deal of the Arabic literature, which had been translated into Latin. The Arabs were, of course, the only race which kept the light of science burning during the Dark Ages, and their works were in considerable vogue at Agricola's time.

Avicenna (980-1037) was an Arabian physician of great note, a translator of the Greek classics into Arabic, and a follower of Aristotle to the extent of attempting to reconcile the Peripatetic elements with those of the alchemists. He is chiefly known to the world through the works which he compiled on medicine, mostly from the Greek and Latin authors. These works for centuries dominated the medical world, and were used in certain European Universities until the 17th century. A great many works are attributed to him, and he is copiously quoted by Agricola, principally in his De Ortu et Causis, apparently for the purpose of exposure.

Theophilus was a Monk and the author of a most illuminating work, largely upon working metal and its decoration for ecclesiastical purposes. An excellent translation, with the Latin text, was published by Robert Hendrie, London, 1847, under the title "An Essay upon various Arts, in three books, by Theophilus, called also Rugerus, Priest and Monk." Hendrie, for many sufficient reasons, places the period of Theophilus as the latter half of the 11th century. The work is mainly devoted to preparing pigments, making glass, and working metals, and their conversion into ecclesiastical paraphernalia, such as mural decoration, pictures, windows, chalices, censers, bells, organs, etc. However, he incidentally describes the making of metallurgical furnaces, cupellation, parting gold and silver by cementation with salt, and by melting with sulphur, the smelting of copper, liquating lead from it, and the refining of copper under a blast with poling.

Geber was until recent years considered to be an Arab alchemist of a period somewhere between the 7th and 12th centuries. A mere bibliography of the very considerable literature which exists in discussion of who, where, and at what time the author was, would fill pages. Those who are interested may obtain a start upon such references from Hermann Kopp's Beitraege zur Geschichte der Chemie, Braunschweig, 1875, and in John Ferguson's Bibliotheca Chemica, Glasgow, 1906. Berthelot, in his Chimie au Moyen Age, Paris, 1893, considers the works under the name of Geber were not in the main of Arabic origin, but composed by some Latin scholar in the 13th century. In any event, certain works were, under this name, printed in Latin as early as 1470-80, and have passed innumerable editions since. They were first translated into English by Richard Russell, London, 1678, and we have relied upon this and the Nuremberg edition in Latin of 1541. This work, even assuming Berthelot's view, is one of the most important in the history of chemistry and metallurgy, and is characterised by a directness of statement unique among alchemists. The making of the mineral acids--certainly nitric and aqua regia, and perhaps hydrochloric and sulphuric--are here first described. The author was familiar with saltpetre, sal-ammoniac, and alkali, and with the acids he prepared many salts for the first time. He was familiar with amalgamation, cupellation, the separation of gold and silver by cementation with salt and by nitric acid. His views on the primary composition of bodies dominated the alchemistic world for centuries. He contended that all metals were composed of "spiritual" sulphur (or arsenic, which he seems to consider a special form of sulphur) and quicksilver, varying proportions and qualities yielding different metals. The more the quicksilver, the more "perfect" the metal.

Albertus Magnus (Albert von Bollstadt) was a Dominican Monk, afterwards Bishop, born about 1205, and died about 1280. He was rated the most learned man of his time, and evidence of his literary activities lies in the complete edition of his works issued by Pierre Jammy, Lyons, 1651, which comprises 21 folio volumes. However, there is little doubt that a great number of works attributed to him, especially upon alchemy, are spurious. He covered a wide range of theology, logic, alchemy, and natural science, and of the latter the following works which concern our subject are considered genuine:--De Rebus Metallicis et Mineralibus, De Generatione et Corruptione, and De Meteoris. They are little more than compilations and expositions of the classics muddled with the writings of the Arabs, and in general an attempt to conciliate the Peripatetic and Alchemistic schools. His position in the history of science has been greatly over-estimated. However, his mineralogy is, except for books on gems, the only writing of any consequence at all on the subject between Pliny and Agricola, and while there are but two or three minerals mentioned which are not to be found in the ancient authors, this work, nevertheless, deserves some place in the history of science, especially as some attempt at classification is made. Agricola devotes some thousands of words to the refutation of his "errors."

Roger Bacon (1214-1294) was a Franciscan Friar, a lecturer at Oxford, and a man of considerable scientific attainments for his time. He was the author of a large number of mathematical, philosophical, and alchemistic treatises. The latter are of some importance in the history of chemistry, but have only minute bearing upon metallurgy, and this chiefly as being one of the earliest to mention saltpetre.

Basil Valentine is the reputed author of a number of alchemistic works, of which none appeared in print until early in the 17th century. Internal evidence seems to indicate that the "Triumphant Chariot of Antimony" is the only one which may possibly be authentic, and could not have been written prior to the end of the 15th or early 16th century, although it has been variously placed as early as 1350. To this work has been accredited the first mention of sulphuric and hydrochloric acid, the separation of gold and silver by the use of antimony (sulphide), the reduction of the antimony sulphide to the metal, the extraction of copper by the precipitation of the sulphate with iron, and the discovery of various antimonial salts. At the time of the publication of works ascribed to Valentine practically all these things were well known, and had been previously described. We are, therefore, in much doubt as to whether this author really deserves any notice in the history of metallurgy.

EARLY 16th CENTURY WORKS.--During the 16th century, and prior to De Re Metallica, there are only three works of importance from the point of view of mining technology--the Nuetzlich Bergbuechlin, the Probierbuechlein, and Biringuccio's De La Pirotechnia. There are also some minor works by the alchemists of some interest for isolated statements, particularly those of Paracelsus. The three works mentioned, however, represent such a stride of advance over anything previous, that they merit careful consideration.

Eyn Nuetzlich Bergbuechlin. Under this title we frequently refer to a little booklet on veins and ores, published at the beginning of the 16th century. The title page of our copy is as below:--

This book is small 8vo, comprises 24 folios without pagination, and has no typographical indications upon the title page, but the last line in the book reads: Gedruckt zu Erffurd durch Johan Loersfelt, 1527. Another edition in our possession, that of "Frankfurt am Meyn", 1533, by Christian Egenolph, is entitled Bergwerk und Probierbuechlin, etc., and contains, besides the above, an extract and plates from the Probierbuechlein (referred to later on), and a few recipes for assay tests. All of these booklets, of which we find mention, comprise instructions from Daniel, a skilled miner, to Knappius, "his mining boy". Although the little books of this title are all anonymous, we are convinced, largely from the statement in the Preface of De Re Metallica, that one Calbus of Freiberg was the original author of this work. Agricola says: "Two books have been written in our tongue: the one on the assaying of mineral substances and metals, somewhat confused, whose author is unknown; the other 'On Veins', of which Pandulfus Anglus is also said to have written, although the German book was written by Calbus of Freiberg, a well-known doctor; but neither of them accomplished the task he had begun." He again refers to Calbus at the end of Book III.[2] of De Re Metallica, and gives an almost verbatim quotation from the Nuetzlich Bergbuechlin. Jacobi[3] says: "Calbus Fribergius, so called by Agricola himself, is certainly no other than the Freiberg doctor, Ruehlein von C(K)albe." There are also certain internal evidences that support Agricola's statement, for the work was evidently written in Meissen, and the statement of Agricola that the book was unfinished is borne out by a short dialogue at the end of the earlier editions, designed to introduce further discussion. Calbus (or Dr. Ulrich Ruehlein von Kalbe) was a very active citizen of Freiberg, having been a town councillor in 1509, burgomaster in 1514, a mathematician, mining surveyor, founder of a school of liberal arts, and in general a physician. He died in 1523.[4] The book possesses great literary interest, as it is, so far as we are aware, undoubtedly the first work on mining geology, and in consequence we have spent some effort in endeavour to find the date of its first appearance. Through the courtesy of M. Polain, who has carefully examined for us the Nuetzlich Bergbuechlein described in Marie Pellechet's Catalogue General des Incunables des Bibliotheques Publiques de France,[5] we have ascertained that it is similar as regards text and woodcuts to the Erfurt edition, 1527. This copy in the Bibliotheque Nationale is without typographical indications, and M. Polain considers it very possible that it is the original edition printed at the end of the fifteenth or beginning of the sixteenth centuries. Mr. Bennett Brough,[6] quoting Hans von Dechen,[7] states that the first edition was printed at Augsburg in 1505, no copy of which seems to be extant. The Librarian at the School of Mines at Freiberg has kindly furnished us with the following notes as to the titles of the copies in that Institution:--(1) Eyn Wolgeordent und Nuetzlich Bergbuechlein, etc., Worms, 1512[8] and 1518[9] (the place and date are written in), (2) the same as ours (1527); (3) the same, Heinrich Steyner, Augsburg, 1534; (4) the same, 1539. On comparing these various editions (to which may be added one probably published in Nuernberg by Friedrich Peypus in 1532[10]) we find that they fall into two very distinct groups, characterised by their contents and by two entirely different sets of woodcuts.

Group I.

(a) Eyn Nuetzlich Bergbuechlein (in Bibl. Nat., Paris) before 1500 (?).

(b) Ditto, Erfurt, 1527.

Group II.

(c) Wolgeordent Nuetzlich Bergbuechlein, Worms, Peter Schoefern, 1512.

(d) Wolgeordent Nuetzlich Bergbuechlein, Worms, Peter Schoefern, 1518.

(e) Bergbuechlin von Erkantnus der Berckwerck, Nuernberg, undated, 1532 (?).

(f) Bergwerckbuch & Probirbuch, Christian Egenolph, Frankfurt-am-Meyn, 1533.

(g) Wolgeordent Nuetzlich Bergbuechlein, Augsburg, Heinrich Steyner, 1534.

(h) Wolgeordent Nuetzlich Bergbuechlein, Augsburg, Heinrich Steyner, 1539.

There are also others of later date toward the end of the sixteenth century.

The Buechlein of Group I. terminate after the short dialogue between Daniel and Knappius with the words: Mitt welchen das kleinspeissig ertz geschmeltzt soil werden; whereas in those of Group II. these words are followed by a short explanation of the signs used in the woodcuts, and by directions for colouring the woodcuts, and in some cases by several pages containing definitions of some 92 mining terms. In the editions of Group I. the woodcut on the title page represents a miner hewing ore in a vein and two others working a windlass. In those of Group II. the woodcut on the title page represents one miner hewing on the surface, another to the right carting away ore in a handcart, and two others carrying between them a heavy timber. In our opinion Group I. represents the older and original work of Calbus; but as we have not seen the copy in the Bibliotheque Nationale, and the Augsburg edition of 1505 has only so far been traced to Veith's catalogue,[11] the question of the first edition cannot be considered settled at present. In any event, it appears that the material grafted on in the second group was later, and by various authors.

The earliest books comprise ten chapters, in which Daniel delivers about 6,000 words of instruction. The first four chapters are devoted to the description of veins and the origin of the metals, of the remaining six chapters one each to silver, gold, tin, copper, iron, lead, and quicksilver. Among the mining terms are explained the meaning of country rock (zechstein), hanging and footwalls (hangends and liegends), the strike (streichen), dip (fallen), and outcrop (ausgehen). Of the latter two varieties are given, one of the "whole vein," the other of the gesteins, which may be the ore-shoot. Various veins are illustrated, and also for the first time a mining compass. The account of the origin of the metals is a muddle of the Peripatetics, the alchemists, and the astrologers, for which acknowledgment to Albertus Magnus is given. They are represented to originate from quicksilver and sulphur through heat, cold, dampness, and dryness, and are drawn out as exhalations through the veins, each metal owing its origin to the special influence of some planet; the Moon for silver, Saturn for lead, etc. Two types of veins are mentioned, "standing" (stehendergang) and flat (flachgang). Stringers are given the same characteristics as veins, but divided into hanging, footwall, and other varieties. Prominence is also given to the geschick (selvage seams or joints?). The importance of the bearing of the junctions of veins and stringers on enrichment is elaborated upon, and veins of east-west strike lying upon a south slope are considered the best. From the following notes it will be seen that two or three other types of deposits besides veins are referred to.

In describing silver veins, of peculiar interest is the mention of the association of bismuth (wismuth), this being, we believe, the first mention of that metal, galena (glantz), quartz (quertz), spar (spar), hornstone (hornstein), ironstone and pyrites (kies), are mentioned as gangue materials, "according to the mingling of the various vapours." The term glasertz is used, but it is difficult to say if silver glance is meant; if so, it is the first mention of this mineral. So far as we know, this is the first use of any of the terms in print. Gold alluvial is described, part of the gold being assumed as generated in the gravel. The best alluvial is in streams running east and west. The association of gold with pyrites is mentioned, and the pyrites is found "in some places as a complete stratum carried through horizontally, and is called a schwebender gang." This sort of occurrence is not considered very good "because the work of the heavens can be but little completed on account of the unsuitability of the position." Gold pyrites that comes in veins is better. Tin is mentioned as found in alluvial, and also in veins, the latter being better or worse, according to the amount of pyrites, although the latter can be burned off. Tin-stone is found in masses, copper ore in schist and in veins sometimes with pyrites. The ore from veins is better than schist. Iron ore is found in masses, and sometimes in veins; the latter is the best. "The iron veins with good hanging- and foot-walls are not to be despised, especially if their strike be from east to west, their dip to the south, the foot-wall and outcrop to the north, then if the ironstone is followed down, the vein usually reveals gold or other valuable ore". Lead ore is found in schwebenden gang and stehenden gang. Quicksilver, like other ore, is sometimes found in brown earth, and sometimes, again, in caves where it has run out like water. The classification of veins is the same as in De Re Metallica.[12] The book generally, however, seems to have raised Agricola's opposition, for the quotations are given in order to be demolished.

Probierbuechlein. Agricola refers in the Preface of De Re Metallica to a work in German on assaying and refining metals, and it is our belief that it was to some one of the little assay books published early in the 16th century. There are several of them, seemingly revised editions of each other; in the early ones no author's name appears, although among the later editions various names appear on the title page. An examination of these little books discloses the fact that their main contents are identical, for they are really collections of recipes after the order of cookery books, and intended rather to refresh the memory of those already skilled than to instruct the novice. The books appear to have grown by accretions from many sources, for a large number of methods are given over and over again in the same book with slight variations. We reproduce the title page of our earliest copy.

The following is a list of these booklets so far as we have been able to discover actual copies:--

Date. Place. Publisher. Title (Short). Author.

Unknown Unknown Unknown Probierbuechlein Anon. (Undated; but catalogue of British Museum suggests Augsburg, 1510.)

1524 Magdeburg Probirbuechleyn Anon. tzu Gotteslob

1531 Augsburg Unknown Probierbuch aller Anon. Sachsischer Ertze

1533 Frankfurt a. Bergwerck und Anon. Meyn Probierbuechlein

1534 Augsburg Heinrich Probirbuechlein Anon. Steyner, 8vo.

1546 Augsburg Ditto, ditto Probirbuechlein Anon.

1549 Augsburg Ditto, ditto Probirbuechlein Anon.

1564 Augsburg Math. Francke, Probirbuechlein Zach. Lochner 4to

1573 Augsburg 8vo. Probirbuch Sam. Zimmermann

1574 Franckfurt Probierbuechlein Anon. a. Meyn

1578 Ditto Probierbuechlein Fremde Cyriacus und subtile Kunst Schreittmann

1580 Ditto Probierbuechlein Anon.

1595 Ditto Probierbuechlein darinn Modestin Fachs gruendlicher Bericht

1607 Dresden 4to _Metallische Probier C. C. Schindler Kunst_ _Bericht vom Ursprung und Erkenntniss der Metallischen erze_

1669 Amsterdam Probierbuechlein darinn Modestin Fachs gruendlicher Bericht

1678 Leipzig Probierbuechlein darinn Modestin Fachs gruendlicher Bericht

1689 Leipzig Probierbuechlein darinn Modestin Fachs gruendlicher Bericht

1695 Nuernberg 12mo. Deutliche Vorstellung Anon. der Probier Kunst

1744 Luebeck 8vo. Neu-eroeffnete Probier Anon. Buch

1755 Frankfurt 8vo. _Scheid-Kuenstler ... Anon. and Leipzig alle Ertz und Metalle ... probiren_

1782 Rotenburg an 8vo. Probierbuch aus K. A. Scheidt der Fulde Erfahrung aufgesetzt

As mentioned under the Nuetzlich Bergbuechlein, our copy of that work, printed in 1533, contains only a portion of the Probierbuechlein. Ferguson[13] mentions an edition of 1608, and the Freiberg School of Mines Catalogue gives also Frankfort, 1608, and Nuernberg, 1706. The British Museum copy of earliest date, like the title page reproduced, contains no date. The title page woodcut, however, in the Museum copy is referred from that above, possibly indicating an earlier date of the Museum copy.

The booklets enumerated above vary a great deal in contents, the successive prints representing a sort of growth by accretion. The first portion of our earliest edition is devoted to weights, in which the system of "lesser weights" (the principle of the "assay ton") is explained. Following this are exhaustive lists of touch-needles of various composition. Directions are given with regard to assay furnaces, cupels, muffles, scorifiers, and crucibles, granulated and leaf metals, for washing, roasting, and the preparation of assay charges. Various reagents, including glass-gall, litharge, salt, iron filings, lead, "alkali", talc, argol, saltpetre, sal-ammoniac, alum, vitriol, lime, sulphur, antimony, aqua fortis, or scheidwasser, etc., are made use of. Various assays are described and directions given for crucible, scorification, and cupellation tests. The latter part of the book is devoted to the refining and parting of precious metals. Instructions are given for the separation of silver from iron, from lead, and from antimony; of gold from silver with antimony (sulphide) and sulphur, or with sulphur alone, with "scheidwasser," and by cementation with salt; of gold from copper with sulphur and with lead. The amalgamation of gold and silver is mentioned.

The book is diffuse and confused, and without arrangement or system, yet a little consideration enables one of experience to understand most statements. There are over 120 recipes, with, as said before, much repetition; for instance, the parting of gold and silver by use of sulphur is given eight times in different places. The final line of the book is: "Take this in good part, dear reader, after it, please God, there will be a better." In truth, however, there are books on assaying four centuries younger that are worse. This is, without doubt, the first written word on assaying, and it displays that art already full grown, so far as concerns gold and silver, and to some extent copper and lead; for if we eliminate the words dependent on the atomic theory from modern works on dry assaying, there has been but very minor progress. The art could not, however, have reached this advanced stage but by slow accretion, and no doubt this collection of recipes had been handed from father to son long before the 16th century. It is of wider interest that these booklets represent the first milestone on the road to quantitative analysis, and in this light they have been largely ignored by the historians of chemistry. Internal evidence in Book VII. of De Re Metallica, together with the reference in the Preface, leave little doubt that Agricola was familiar with these booklets. His work, however, is arranged more systematically, each operation stated more clearly, with more detail and fresh items; and further, he gives methods of determining copper and lead which are but minutely touched upon in the Probierbuechlein, while the directions as to tin, bismuth, quicksilver, and iron are entirely new.

Biringuccio (Vanuccio). We practically know nothing about this author. From the preface to the first edition of his work it appears he was styled a mathematician, but in the text[14] he certainly states that he was most of his time engaged in metallurgical operations, and that in pursuit of such knowledge he had visited Germany. The work was in Italian, published at Venice in 1540, the title page of the first edition as below:--

It comprises ten chapters in 168 folios demi-octavo. Other Italian editions of which we find some record are the second at Venice, 1552; third, Venice, 1558; fourth, Venice, 1559; fifth, Bologna, 1678. A French translation, by Jacques Vincent, was published in Paris, 1556, and this translation was again published at Rouen in 1627. Of the ten chapters the last six are almost wholly devoted to metal working and founding, and it is more largely for this description of the methods of making artillery, munitions of war and bells that the book is celebrated. In any event, with the exception of a quotation which we give on page 297 on silver amalgamation, there is little of interest on our subject in the latter chapters. The first four chapters are undoubtedly of importance in the history of metallurgical literature, and represent the first work on smelting. The descriptions are, however, very diffuse, difficult to follow, and lack arrangement and detail. But like the Probierbuechlein, the fact that it was written prior to De Re Metallica demands attention for it which it would not otherwise receive. The ores of gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, and iron are described, but much interrupted with denunciations of the alchemists. There is little of geological or mineralogical interest, he too holding to a muddle of the classic elements astrology and alchemy. He has nothing of consequence to say on mining, and dismisses concentration with a few words. Upon assaying his work is not so useful as the Probierbuechlein. On ore smelting he describes the reduction of iron and lead ores and cupriferous silver or gold ores with lead. He gives the barest description of a blast furnace, but adds an interesting account of a reverbero furnace. He describes liquation as consisting of one operation; the subsequent treatment of the copper by refining with an oxidizing blast, but does not mention poling; the cupellation of argentiferous lead and the reduction of the litharge; the manufacture of nitric acid and that method of parting gold and silver. He also gives the method of parting with antimony and sulphur, and by cementation with common salt. Among the side issues, he describes the method of making brass with calamine; of making steel; of distilling quicksilver; of melting out sulphur; of making vitriol and alum. He states that arsenico and orpimento and etrisagallio (realgar) are the same substance, and are used to colour copper white.

In general, Biringuccio should be accredited with the first description (as far as we are aware) of silver amalgamation, of a reverberatory furnace, and of liquation, although the description is not complete. Also he is, so far as we are aware, the first to mention cobalt blue (Zaffre) and manganese, although he classed them as "half" metals. His descriptions are far inferior to Agricola's; they do not compass anything like the same range of metallurgy, and betray the lack of a logical mind.

Other works. There are several works devoted to mineralogy, dating from the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, which were, no doubt, available to Agricola in the compilation of his De Natura Fossilium. They are, however, practically all compiled from the jeweller's point of view rather than from that of the miner. Among them we may mention the poem on precious stones by Marbodaeus, an author who lived from 1035 to 1123, but which was first printed at Vienna in 1511; Speculum Lapidum, a work on precious stones, by Camilli Leonardi, first printed in Venice in 1502. A work of wider interest to mineralogists is that by Christoph Entzelt (or Enzelius, Encelio, Encelius, as it is variously given), entitled De Re Metallica, and first printed in 1551. The work is five years later than De Natura Fossilium, but contains much new material and was available to Agricola prior to his revised editions.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] See pages 44 and 46.

[2] Page 75.

[3] Der Mineralog Georgius Agricola, Zwickau, 1889, p. 46.

[4] Andreas Moeller, Theatrum Freibergense Chronicum, etc., Freiberg, 1653.

[5] Paris, 1897, Vol. I. p. 501.

[6] Cantor Lectures, London, April 1892.

[7] Hans von Dechen, Das aelteste deutsche Bergwerksbuch, reprint from Zts. fuer Bergrecht Bd. XXVI., Bonn, 1885.

[8] Panzer's Annalen, Nuernberg, 1782, p. 422, gives an edition Worms bei Peter Schoefern, 1512.

[9] The Royal Library at Dresden and the State Library at Munich have each a copy, dated 1518, Worms.

[10] Hans von Decken op. cit., p. 48-49.

[11] Annales typographiae augustanae ab ejus origine, MCCCLXVI. usque ad. an. M.D.XXX. Accedit dom Franc. Ant. Veith. Diatribe de origine ... artis typographicae in urbe augusta vindelica edidit.... Georgius G. Zapf., Augsburg, 1778, X. p. 23.

[12] See p. 44.

[13] Bibliotheca Chemica.

[14] Book I., Chap. 2.

APPENDIX C.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

As stated in the preface, the nomenclature to be adopted for weights and measures has presented great difficulty. Agricola uses, throughout, the Roman and the Romanized Greek scales, but in many cases he uses these terms merely as lingual equivalents for the German quantities of his day. Moreover the classic language sometimes failed him, whereupon he coined new Latin terms adapted from the Roman scale, and thus added further confusion. We can, perhaps, make the matter clearer by an illustration of a case in weights. The Roman centumpondium, composed of 100 librae, the old German centner of 100 pfundt, and the English hundredweight of 112 pounds can be called lingual equivalents. The first weighs about 494,600 Troy grains, the second 721,900, and the third 784,000. While the divisions of the centumpondium and the centner are the same, the libra is divided into 12 unciae and the pfundt into 16 untzen, and in most places a summation of the units given proves that the author had in mind the Roman ratios. However, on p. 509 he makes the direct statement that the centumpondium weighs 146 librae, which would be about the correct weight if the centumpondium referred to was a centner. If we take an example such as "each centumpondium of lead contains one uncia of silver", and reduce it according to purely lingual equivalents, we should find that it runs 24.3 Troy ounces per short ton, on the basis of Roman values, and 18.25 ounces per short ton, on the basis of old German. If we were to translate these into English lingual equivalents of one ounce per hundredweight, then the value would be 17.9 ounces per short ton.

Several possibilities were open in translation: first, to calculate the values accurately in the English units; second, to adopt the nearest English lingual equivalent; third, to introduce the German scale of the period; or, fourth, to leave the original Latin in the text. The first would lead to an indefinite number of decimals and to constant doubt as to whether the values, upon which calculations were to be based, were Roman or German. The second, that is the substitution of lingual equivalents, is objectionable, not only because it would indicate values not meant by the author, but also because we should have, like Agricola, to coin new terms to accommodate the lapses in the scales, or again to use decimals. In the third case, that is in the use of the old German scale, while it would be easier to adapt than the English, it would be more unfamiliar to most readers than the Latin, and not so expressive in print, and further, in some cases would present the same difficulties of calculation as in using the English scale. Nor does the contemporary German translation of De Re Metallica prove of help, for its translator adopted only lingual equivalents, and in consequence the summation of his weights often gives incorrect results. From all these possibilities we have chosen the fourth, that is simply to reproduce the Latin terms for both weights and measures. We have introduced into the footnotes such reductions to the English scale as we considered would interest readers. We have, however, digressed from the rule in two cases, in the adoption of "foot" for the Latin pes, and "fathom" for passus. Apart from the fact that these were not cases where accuracy is involved, Agricola himself explains (p. 77) that he means the German values for these particular terms, which, fortunately, fairly closely approximate to the English. Further, we have adopted the Anglicized words "digit", "palm", and "cubit", instead of their Latin forms.

For purposes of reference, we reproduce the principal Roman and old German scales, in so far as they are used by Agricola in this work, with their values in English. All students of weights and measures will realize that these values are but approximate, and that this is not an occasion to enter upon a discussion of the variations in different periods or by different authorities. Agricola himself is the author of one of the standard works on Ancient Weights and Measures (see Appendix A), and further gives fairly complete information on contemporary scales of weight and fineness for precious metals in Book VII. p. 262 etc., to which we refer readers.

ROMAN SCALES OF WEIGHTS.

Troy Grains. 1 Siliqua = 2.87 6 Siliquae = 1 Scripulum 17.2 4 Scripula = 1 Sextula 68.7 6 Sextulae = 1 Uncia 412.2 12 Unciae = 1 Libra 4946.4 100 Librae = 1 Centumpondium 494640.0

Also

1 Scripulum = 17.2 3 Scripula = 1 Drachma 51.5 2 Drachmae = 1 Sicilicus 103.0 4 Sicilici = 1 Uncia 412.2 8 Unciae = 1 Bes 3297.6

SCALE OF FINENESS (AGRICOLA'S ADAPTATION).

4 Siliquae = 1 Unit of Siliquae 3 Units of Siliquae = 1 Semi-sextula 4 Semi-sextulae = 1 Duella 24 Duellae = 1 Bes

OLD GERMAN SCALE OF WEIGHTS. Troy Grains. 1 Pfennig = 14.1 4 Pfennige = 1 Quintlein 56.4 4 Quintlein = 1 Loth 225.6 2 Loth = 1 Untzen 451.2 8 Untzen = 1 Mark 3609.6 2 Mark = 1 Pfundt 7219.2 100 Pfundt = 1 Centner 721920.0

SCALE OF FINENESS.

3 Grenlin = 1 Gran 4 Gran = 1 Krat 24 Krat = 1 Mark

ROMAN LONG MEASURE. Inches. 1 Digitus = .726 4 Digiti = 1 Palmus 2.90 4 Palmi = 1 Pes 11.61 1-1/2 Pedes = 1 Cubitus 17.41 5 Pedes = 1 Passus 58.1

Also

1 Roman Uncia = .97 12 Unciae = Pes 11.61

GREEK LONG MEASURE. Inches. 1 Dactylos = .758 4 Dactyloi = 1 Palaiste 3.03 4 Palaistai = 1 Pous 12.135 1-1/2 Pous = 1 Pechus 18.20 6 Pous = 1 Orguia 72.81

OLD GERMAN LONG MEASURE. Inches. 1 Querfinger = .703 16 Querfinger = 1 Werckschuh 11.247 2 Werckschuh = 1 Elle 22.494 3 Elle = 1 Lachter 67.518

Also

1 Zoll = .85 12 Zoll = 1 Werkschuh

ROMAN LIQUID MEASURE. Cubic inches. Pints. 1 Quartarius = 8.6 .247 4 Quartarii = 1 Sextarius 31.4 .991 6 Sextarii = 1 Congius 206.4 5.947 16 Sextarii = 1 Modius 550.4 15.867 8 Congii = 1 Amphora 1650.0 47.577

(Agricola nowhere uses the Saxon liquid measures, nor do they fall into units comparable with the Roman).

GENERAL INDEX.

NOTE.--The numbers in heavy type refer to the Text; those in plain type to the Footnotes, Appendices, etc.

Abandonment of Mines, =217=

Abertham. Mines at, =74=; =92=; 74

Abolite, 113

Abstrich, 465; 492

Abydos. Gold mines of, =26=; 27 Lead figure from, 390

Abzug, 464; 465; 475

Achates (see Agate).

Accidents To Miners, =214-218=

Accounts (Mining), =96-98=

Adit, 101

Aeris flos (see Copper Flowers).

Aeris squama (see Copper Scales).

Aes caldarium, 109

Aes luteum, 109

Aes nigrum, 109

Aes purum fossile (see Native Copper).

Aes rude plumbei coloris (see Copper Glance).

Aes ustum (see Roasted Copper).

Aetites, 2

Africa. Iron, 420 Tin, 412

Agate, 114

Agriculture. Mining compared with, =5=

Ailments of Miners (see Maladies of Miners).

Air Currents in Mines, =121=; =200=

Alabaster, 114

Alchemists, XXVII-XXX; 44; 608 Agricola's opinion of, XII; =XXVII.= Amalgamation, 297 Assaying, =248=; 219 Discovery of acids, 439; 460 Distillation, 441

Aljustrel Tablet, 83-84

Alkali, 558

Alloys, Assaying of, =247-252=

Alluvial Mining, =321-348=; 330-332

Alston Moor, 84

Altenberg, =XXXI=; VI. Collapse of mine, =216= Miners poisoned, =214= Tin working appliances, =290=; =304=; =318=

Alum, =564-568=; 564-570 A solidified juice, 1 Elizabethan Charter, 283 In roasted pyrites, =350= In Sal artificiosus, =463= Latin and German terms, 220; 221 Papal monopoly, 570 Use in making nitric acid, =439=; 460

Amalgam. Parting the gold from, =298=; 297

Amalgamation, 297 Of gilt objects, =461= Mills, =295-299=

Amber, =34=; 35

Amethyst, 114

Amiantus (see Asbestos).

Ampulla, =445-447=; 220

Annaberg, VI; =XXXI=; =42=; =75=; 75 Profits, =92=

Ant, venomous, =216=

Antimony, 220; 428; 354 Minerals, 110 Smelting of, =400=; =428= Use as type-metal, 2; 429

Antimony Sulphide, 220; 428; 451 Parting gold and silver with, =451=; 451; 461 Parting gold from copper, =463= Parting silver and iron, =544=

Antwerp, Scale of Weights, =263=

Apex Law, 81; 83-86

Aqua regia, 439; 441; 354

Aqua valens (see also Nitric Acid), =439-443=; 439; 220 Clarification with silver, =443=; 443 Cleansing gold-dust with, =396= Parting precious metals with, =443-447=

Arbores dissectae (Lagging), 101

Archimedes, Screw of, 149

Architecture. Knowledge necessary for miners, =4=

Area fodinarum (see Meer).

Argentiferous Copper Ores, Smelting of, =404-407=

Argentite, 109

Argentum purum in venis (see Native Silver).

Argentum rude plumbei coloris (see Silver Glance).

Argentum rude rubrum translucidum (see Ruby Silver).

Argol, 234; 220 As a flux, =234=; =238=; =243= Use in melting silver nitrate, =447= Use in smelting gold dust, =396-398=

Argonauts, 330

Arithmetical Science. Knowledge necessary for miners, =4=

Armenia, Stone of, 115

Arsenic (see also Orpiment and Realgar), 111; 214

Arsenicum, 111

Arsenopyrite, 111

Asbestos, =440=; 440; 114

Ash-coloured Copper, =539-540=; 540; 523-524; 492 From liquation, =529-530=

Ashes which Wool Dyers use (see also Potash), 233; 559; 220 Use in assaying, =236-238=

Ash of Lead, =237-238=; 237; 220

Ash of Musk Ivy (see also Potash and Nitrum), =236-238=; 220

Asphalt, 581

Asphaltites (see Dead Sea).

Assay Balances (see Balances).

Assay Fluxes (see Fluxes).

Assay Furnaces, =224-228=; 220 Crucible, =226-227= Muffle, =224-228=; =239=

Assaying (see also Probierbuechlein), =219=; 219; 220; 354 Amalgamation, =243= Bismuth, =247= Copper, =244= Cupellation, =240= Gold and silver alloys, =248= Gold ore, =242-244= Iron ore, =247= Lead, =245-246= Silver, =242-245= Silver and copper alloys, =249-250= Tin, =246= Tin and silver alloys, =251=

Assay Muffles (see Muffles).

Assay Ton, =261=; 242

Assyrian Copper, 402

Asthma, =214=

Astronomy. Knowledge necessary for miners, =4=

Atarnea. Mines near, =26=; 27

Athens. Mining law, 83 Sea power and mines, 27 Silver mines (see Mt. Laurion, Mines of).

Atramentum Sutorium (see also Vitriol), 572; 110

Atramentum Sutorium candidum, 113

Atramentum Sutorium rubrum, =274=; 274

Aurichalcum, 409; 404

Auripigmentum (see Orpiment).

Azure, 1; 109; 220 An indication of copper, =116= An indication of gold, =117= Colour of flame, =235=

Azurite 109; 220; 402

Babel, Tower of, 582

Babylonia. Bitumen in, 582 Use of lead, 391

Babytace. Gold buried by inhabitants, =9=; =15=

Baebelo, =42=; 42

Balances, =224=; =264-265=

Barite, 115

Barmaster, of High Peak, 77

Bars, for Furnace Work, =382=

Baskets, for Hoisting, =153=

Batea, =156=

Beer, =230=; 220

Bell, to call Workmen, =100=

Bellows, =362-373=; =419= Ancient use of, 354; 355; 362 Assay furnace, =226=; =245= Mine ventilation with, =207-210=

Beni Hassen, Inscriptions at, 586

Berg-geel, 111

Bergmeister, =33=; =81=; =95=; =77=; 77; 78 Deals with forfeited shares, =92-93= Jurors, =96=

Bergmeister's Clerk, =95=; 78

Bergzinober (see Quicksilver).

Bermius (Bermium), Mt. (see Mt. Bermius).

Bismuth, =433=; 354; 220 Assaying ores of, =247= Indication of silver, =116= Minerals, 2; 111 Smelting of, =433-437=; =400= The "roof of silver," =117=; 433 Zaffre, 112

Bitumen. Ancient knowledge of, 220; 581-582; 354 Colour of fumes, =235= Dead Sea, =33= Distillation, =581= From springs, =582= Harmful to metals, =273= Roasting from ore, =273=; =276=; =351= Solidified juice, =1=

Bituminosa cadmia (see Cadmia bituminosa).

Blast, Regulation of, =380=; =386=

Blasting, 119

Blende, 113

Bleyberg, 239

Bloodstone, 111; 2

Bloom, 420

Bluetstein (see Ironstone).

Bohemia. Antimony sulphide, 428 Pestilential vapours, =216= Sifting ore in, =293= Smelting, =384=

Bone-ash, =230=; 466

Borax, 560; 221; 110 Method of manufacture, =560= Use in gold smelting, =444=; =457=; =464= Use in assaying, =245=; =246=

Bornite, 109

Boundary Stones, =87=; 129

Boundaries, =77=; =147=

Bowls for Alluvial Washing, =322=; =324=; =334=; =336=

Brass, 410; 354; 2 Ancient methods of making, 404-405; 112

Breaking Ore, =117-119=

Brick Dust. Used in cementation, =454=; 454 Used in making nitric acid, =440=

Brine (see also Salt). Evaporation of, =547-548=

Britain. Lead-silver smelting, 392 Miners mentioned by Pliny, 83 Tin trade, 411-413

British Museum. Egyptian gold-mining, 399 Egyptian lead, 390 Egyptian steel, 402

Bromyrite, 109

Bronze. Historical notes, 411; 402; 354

Bronze Age, 355; =402=; 411

Bryle (Outcrop), 101

Buckets, for Hoisting Ore, =153-154=; =157=

Buddle, 281; 282; 267 Divided, =302-303= Simple, =300-302=; =312-315=

Bullion, Pouring into Bars, =382=

Burning Ore, =231=; =273=; 267

Burnt Alum, =233=; 565; 221

Cadmia (see also Zinc, Pompholyx, and Cobalt), =542=; 542; 112-113 Ancient ore of brass, 410 From dust chambers, =394= From liquation, =539=; 542 From roasting matte, =349= Poisonous to miners, =214=; 214 Roasting, =276= Smelting for gold and silver, =410=

Cadmia bituminosa, =276=; 273; 113

Cadmia fornacis (see Furnace Accretions).

Cadmia fossilis (see Calamine and Blende).

Cadmia metallica (see also Cobalt), =403=; 113

Caeruleum (see Azure).

Cakes of Melted Pyrites, 379; 222 A flux, =234= Roasting of, =349-351= Use in smelting, =379=

Calaem (see also Zinc), =409=

Calamine, 112; 113; 409; 410

Calcite, 114

Calcspar, =116=; 114

Caldarium Copper, =512=; =542=; 404; 511

Caldrons, for Evaporating Salts, =548=

Calmei (see Calamine).

Cameros. Zinc found at, 409

Camphor, =238=; 238; 221

Cam-shaft, =282-283=; 267

Canales (Ore Channels), 43; 46; 47 Ore shoots in, =117=

Cannon, =11=

Cardinal Points, =57=; =58=

Carnelian, 114

Carneol (see Carnelian).

Carni, 390 Cupellation, =483= Smelting of lead ores, =390=

Carpathian Mountains. Liquation practice in, =540=; =544= Sieves, =289= Stamp-milling, =319=

Carthage. Mines in Spain, =27=

Castulo (Cazlona), 42

Cementation (see also Parting Gold from Silver), =453-457=; 453; 458

Centumpondium, 616; 242; 509 Scale of weights, =260-261=

Cerargurite, 109

Cerussa (see White-lead).

Cerussite, 110

Chain Pumps, =171-175=

Chalcanthite, 110

Chalcanthum (see also Vitriol), 109; 572

Chalcedony, 114

Chalcitis, 573; 109 Indication of copper, =116=

Chalcocite, 109; 402

Chalcopyrite, 109

Chaldean Antimony, 429

Chemistry. Origin, XXVII; 220

Chemnitz. Agricola appointed city physician, VII. Agricola elected burgomaster, VIII; IX. Quarrel over Agricola's burial, XI.

China, Grand Canal of, 129

Chinese. Early copper smelting, 402 Early iron, 421 Early silver metallurgy, 391 Early zinc smelting, 409

Chrysocolla (see also Borax), 110; 221; 584; 1 Collection in vats, =584= Colour of fumes, =235= Indication of copper, =116= Indication of gold, =117= Mineral, 109 Smelting of, =401=

Church, Share in Mines, =91=

Cimolite, 31

Cinnabar (see Quicksilver and Minium).

Claim, in American Title, 77

Cloth. Lining sluices, =322= Ventilation by shaking, =210=

Coal, 34

Cobalt, 354; 542; 112-113 Cobalt-blue, 112; 433 From lead smelting, 408 King Hiram's experience with, 214 Poisonous to miners, 214 Relation to cadmia, 112 Relation to bismuth, 435 Smelting ores of, 401

Cobalt-Arsenic Minerals (see Arsenic).

Cobaltite, 113

Cobaltum cineraceum (see Smallite).

Cobaltum ferri colore (see Cobaltite).

Cobaltum nigrum (see Abolite).

Coiners, =95=; 78

Coins, =251-253=; =457=

Colchis. Alluvial gold washing, =330=

Cologne. Scale of weights, =263=

Companies, Mining, =89-93=; 90 Fraudulent dealing, =22= Investment in, =29=

Compass, =141-142=; 56; 129 Divisions of the, =56=; =57= Swiss, =145=; 137

Concentrates. From washing liquation products, =542= Sintering of, =401= Smelting of, =394=; =396-399=; =401=

Concentration, =267-348=; 279; 354

Congius, 153; 172, 617

Constantinople, Alum Trade, 569

Consumption. Miners liable to, =214=

Conterfei (see Zinc).

Contracts, Method of Setting, =96=

Copiapite, 111

Copper (see also Liquation), 109; 402; 511 Assay of, =244=; =249= Granulation of, =250= Indications of, =116= Parting from gold, =462-464= Parting gold from silver, =448-451=; 448 Ratio in liquation cakes, 505; 506 Residues from liquation, =521= Rosette, =538=

Copper-filings, =233=; 233; 221

Copper flowers, =538=; 110; 233; 538 Pliny's description, 404

Copper Glance, =401=; 109

Copper Matte. Roasting, =350= Smelting, =404-407=

Copper Ore (see also Copper Smelting, etc.), 109 Assaying, =244-245=

Copper Pyrites, =117=; 109

Copper Refining, =530-538=; 354; 492; 535-536 Breaking cakes, =501-503= Enrichment of silver by settling, 510 Roman method, 404 Rosette copper, 535

Copper Scales, 110; 221; 233; 539 Use in assaying, =245=

Copper Schists (see also Mannsfeld Copper Slates), 127 Method of smelting, =408=

Copper Smelting, =388-390=; =401=; =404=; 402 Invention of appliances, 353-354

Cornwall. Ancient tin mining, 413 Early German miners, 282 Early mining law, 85 Early ore dressing, 282 Influence on German mining, 283 "Knockers," 217 Mining terms, 77; 101; 267; 282 Royal Geol. Soc. Transactions, 84

Coticula (see Touchstone).

Counterfeht (see Zinc).

Crane. For cupellation furnaces, =476-477= For lead cakes, =500= For liquation cakes, =514=

Cremnitz. Age of mines, =5= Width of veins, =52=

Crinoid Stems, 115

Croppings, =37=; 37

Crosscuts, =106=

Crowbars, =152=

Crucible. Assay, =228=; =230=; =241=; =245=; 221 Of blast furnaces, =376=; =377=

Crudaria, 65

Crushing Mills (see Stamp-mill and Mills).

Crushing Ore, =231=; =279-287=; 279

Crystal (Crystallum), 114

Cumberland. Early report on ores of, 267 Roman lead furnaces, 392

Cup-Bearer. Right to a meer, =81=

Cupellation, =464-483=; 465-466 Buildings and furnaces, =464-472=; 492 Brightening of the silver, =241=, =475= In assaying, =240= In "tests," =483= Latin and German terms, 221; 492 Litharge, =475=

Cupels, =228-230=; 221; 466 Drying of, =240= Moulds, =231=

Cupric Oxide, 221

Cuprite, 109; 402

Cyanus (see also Azurite), 110

Cyprus. Ancient copper smelting, 402

Dach, 127

Dactylos, 617; 78

Dangers to Miners, =214-218=

Darrlinge, 492

Darrofen, 492

Darrsoehle, 492

Dawling, of a Vein, 101

Dead Sea. Bitumen in, =33=

Decemviral College, =96=

Decumanus (see Tithe Gatherer).

Demensum (see Measure).

Demons (see also Gnomes), =217=; 217

Derbyshire (see also High Peak). Early ore washing, 281 Introduction jigging sieve, 283 Mining law, 77; 84-85

Descent into Mines, =212=

Devon. Mining law, 85

Dilleugher, 267

Dioptra, 129

Diphrygum, 404

Dip of Veins, =65-75=

Dippas, 101

Dippers, =157= Of pumps, =172=

Discretores (see Sorters).

Distillation, 441 For making nitric acid, =441= Of amalgam, =244= Of quicksilver, =426-432=

Distributor, 78

Divining Rod, =38-40=; 38; 40

Divisions of the Compass, =56=; =57=

Drainage of Mines, =121=; =171-198= With buckets, =171= With chain pumps, =172= With rag and chain pumps, =188= With suction pumps, =172= With water bags, =198=

Drawing. Knowledge necessary for miners, =4=

Drifts, =104=; =105=; 101 Timbering of, =125=

Drusy Veins, =107=; 107

"Drying" Liquation Residues (see also Liquation), =527-529=; 491; 492 Furnaces for, =521=; =526=; 492 Silver extracted by, =529= Slags from, 523

Dumps, Working of, =30=

Dust Chambers, =394=; =416=; 354

Dutins, (Timbers), 101

Dynamite, 119

"Earths." Agricola's view of, 1; 46; 48 Extraordinary, =115= Peripatetic view of, 46; 47

Egyptians. Alluvial mining, 330 Antimony, 428 Bronze, 402; 411 Copper smelting, 402 Crushing and concentration, 279 Furnaces, 355 Glass making, 586 Gold mining, 399 Iron, 421 Maps, 129 Mining law, 83 Silver and lead metallurgy, 390 Tin, 411; 412

Egyptian Screw (see Archimedes, Screw of).

Eifel. Spalling ore, =272=

Eisenertz (see Ironstone).

Eisenglantz (see Ironstone).

Eisleben. Heap roasting, =279=; 274

Electrum, 458; 2; 35

Elements, Peripatetic Theory of, 44

Emery, 115

Erbisdorff. Tin strakes, =304=

Excoctores (see Smelters).

Exhalations. From veins, =38=; =44=

Exhausted Liquation Cakes (see Liquation Cakes, Exhausted).

Fans, Ventilation, =203-207=

Fathom, 616; =77=; 78

Federwis, (see also Asbestos), 114; 274

Feldspar, 114

Ferrugo (see Iron-rust).

Ferrum purum (see Native Iron).

Fibrae (see Stringers).

Fineness, Scales of, 253; 617

Fire-setting, =118-120=; 118-119

Firstum Mines (see Fuerst).

Fissure Vein (see Vena profunda).

Flame. Determination of metal by, =235= Determination of required flux by, =235=

Flint, as a Flux, 380

Float, from Veins, =37=

Flookan, 101

Flue-dust, =394-396=

Fluores (see Fluorspar).

Fluorspar, 115; 380; 381 Indication of ore, =116=

Fluesse (see Fluorspar).

Fluxes (see also Argol, Saltpetre, Limestone, Stones which easily melt, etc.), =232-239=; 232; 237; 380; 221 Basic, 237 De-sulphurizing, =236=; 237 For smelting, =379=; =380=; =386=; =390= Reducing, =236=; 237 Stock fluxes for assaying, =236= Sulphurizing, =236=; 237

Footwall, =68=; =117=

Forehearth, =356=; =375-378=; =386=; 355 For tin furnaces, =411=; =413=

Foreman (see Mining Foreman).

Forest-Fires, =36=; 36

Forest of Dean, 84

Forest of Mendip, 84

Formae, 101

Fossa latens (see also Drifts), 101

Fossa latens transversa (see also Crosscuts), 101

Fossores (see Miners).

Founders' Hoards, 355; 402

Fractional Meers, =80=

France. Mediaeval mining law, 84

Free Mining Cities, 84

Freiberg, =XXXI.= Age of the mines, =5= Bergmeister, =95= Division of shares, =81=; =90=; =91= First discovery of veins, =35=; 36 Flooding of mines, =218= Method of cupellation, =482=

Fullers' Earth, 115

Fumes. From heated ore, =235= Poisonous, =215-216=

Fundamentum (see also Footwall), 101

Fundgrube (see also Meer), 77

Furnaces, =374-378=; =386=; =388=; 355; 492 Assaying (see Assay Furnaces). Bismuth smelting, =433-437= Burning tin concentrates, =349= Cementation, =455= Copper smelting, =401-408= Cupellation, =467-468=; =482-483= "Drying" liquated copper, =522-526= Enriching copper bottoms, =510= Gold and silver ores, =382-384= Heating copper cakes, =503= Iron smelting, =420-421=; 420 Latin and German terms, 220 Lead ores, =408-410= Liquation of silver, =515= Melting lead cakes, =498= Nitric acid making, =441= Parting precious metals with antimony, =452-453= Quicksilver distillation, =426-432= Refining copper, =531-533= Refining silver, =483=; =489= Refining tin, =418= Roasting, =276-277= Smelting liquation slags, =507= Tin smelting, =411-413=; =419=

Furnace Accretions, 113; 221; 492 Removal of, =376=

Furnace Hoods, =494=

Fuerst. Mines of, =24=; 24

Gaarherd (see Refining-hearth).

Gaarmachen (see Copper Refining).

Gad, 150

Galena, 51; 109; 110; 221 Bismuth distinguished from, 3 Smelting of, =400-401=

Gangue Minerals, 48

Garlic. Magnet weakened by, =39=

Garnets, =334=

Gases (see also Fumes) From fire-setting, =120=

Gedigen eisen, silber, etc. (see Native Iron, Silver, etc.).

Gel atrament (see Misy).

Gems, =115=; 1

Geology. Agricola's views, 595

Germans. English mining influenced by, 283 Mining men imported into England, 282 Ore-dressing methods, 281-282

Geschwornen (in Saxon mines), 77

Geyer, =XXXI=; =42=; VI. Shafts, 102 Tin-strakes, =304=

Gilding, 460 Removal from objects, =460=; =464=

Gips (see Gypsum).

Gittelde. Smelting of lead ore, =391=

Glantz (see Galena).

Glasertz (see Silver Glance).

Glaskoepfe (see Ironstone).

Glass, =584-592= Blowing, =592= Furnaces, =586-590= From sand, 380

Glass-galls, 235; 221 As a flux, =235=; =238=; =243=; =246= Use in parting gold from copper, =464= Use in smelting gold concentrates, =397=; =398=

Glette (see Litharge).

Glimmer (see Mica).

Gnomes. In mines, =217=; 112; 214; 217

Goblins (see Gnomes).

God's Gift Mine (see Gottsgaab Mine).

Gold (see also Gold Ores, Parting, Smelting, Stamp-Mill, etc.). Alluvial mining, =321-336=; 330 Alluvial streams, =75= Amalgamation, 297 Gold-dust, =396= Historical notes, 399; 354 Indications of, =108=; =116= Lust for, not the fault of the metal, =16= Minerals, 108 Minerals associated with, =108-109= Smelting of ores, =381-382=; =386=; =388=; =390=; =396= Wickedness caused by, =9-10=

Gold Concentrates, =396-399=; 398

Golden Fleece, =330=; 330

Gold Ores, =107-108= Amalgamation, =295-299=; 297 Assay by amalgamation, =243-244= Assay by fire, =242-243= Flux used in assaying, =235= Flux used in smelting, =398= Smelting in blast furnace, =398-400= Smelting cupriferous ores, =404-407= Smelting in lead bath, =399= Smelting pyritiferous ore, =398-401= Stamp-milling, =321=

Goldstein (see Touchstone).

Goslar, =5=; =37=; 37 Lead smelting, =408= Native zinc vitriol, 572 Roasting ores, =274=; 274 Spalling hard ore, =271=

Goslarite, 113; 572

Gottsgaab Mine, VI; VII; =74=; 74

Gounce, 267

Grand Canal of China, 129

Granulation Methods for Bullion, =444=

Granulation of Copper, =250=

Greeks. Antimony, 428 Brass making, 410 Copper smelting, 403 Iron and steel making, 421 Metallurgy from Egypt, 402 Mining law, 83 Ore dressing, 281 Quicksilver, 432 Silver-lead smelting, 391 Smelting appliances, 355

Grey Antimony (see also Stibium), 110; 221; 428

Griffins, 331

Groom of the Chamber. Right to a meer, =81=

Groove (see also Shafts), 101

Ground Sluices, =336-337=

Ground Waters, 46-48

Gruenspan (see Verdigris).

Gulden, 92; 419

Gunpowder. First use for blasting in mines, 119 Invention of, 562

Gypsum, 114

Hade, 101

Haematites (see Ironstone).

Halinitrum (see Saltpetre).

Halle, Salt Industry, =552=

Hammers, =151= With water power, =423=

Hangingwall, =68=; =117=

Harz Miners. Agricola consulted, VII. Antimony sulphide, 428 First mining charter, 84 First stamp-mill, 282 Pumps, =194=

Hauling Appliances (see also Whims and Windlasses), =160-168=; 149

Heap Roasting, =274-276=

Hearth-lead (see also Molybdaena), =475=; 476; 110; 221 As a flux, =232= Use in smelting, =379=; =398=; =400=

Hearths. For bismuth smelting, =433-437= For melting lead, =390=; =498=

Heavenly Host Mine (see Himmelisch Hoez Mine).

Heavy Spar, 115

Hebrews. Knowledge of antimony, 428 Silver-lead smelting, 391 Term for tin, 412

Hematite, 111

Hemicycle (Hemicyclium), =137-138=

Heraclion (see Lodestone).

Herdplei (see Hearth-Lead).

Hiero, King, =247=; 247

High Peak (Derbyshire). Mining law, 84 Nomenclature in mines, 77 Saxon customs, connection with, 77; 85

Himmelisch Hoez mine, =74=; =92=; 75

Hoe, =152=

Holidays of Miners, =99=

Horn Silver, 109

Horns of Deer, =230=

Hornstone, =116=; 114

Hungary. Cupellation, =483=

Huettenrauch (see Pompholyx).

Iglau, Charter of, 84

Incense in Cupellation Furnaces, =472=

Indications of Ore, =106=; =107=; =116=

Ingestores (see Shovellers).

India. Steel, 423 Zinc, 409

Intervenium, =51=; =50=

Investment in Mines, =26-29=

Iron, 420; 354; 111 Cast, 420 Censure of, =11= Indications of, =116= Malleable, 420 Smelting, =420-426= Sulphur harmful to, =273=

Iron Age, 420

Iron Filings (see also Iron-Scales), 221 Use in assaying, =234=; =238=; =246=

Iron Ore. Assaying of, =247= Smelting of, =420-426=

Iron-rust, =116=; =474=; 1; 111

Iron-scales, 221 Flux, =234= Use in smelting gold, =398= Use in smelting silver, =400= Use in making nitric acid, =440= Use in parting gold from copper, =464=

Iron-slag, 221 As a flux, =234=; =235=

Ironstone, =390=; 111

Italians. Alluvial mining in Germany, =334=

Italy. Mining formerly forbidden, =8=

Jade, 114

Japan. Steel, 423

Jasper, 111; 2

Jaspis, 114

Jet, 34

Jigging Sieve, =310=; 267; 283

Joachimsthal, VI. First stamp-mill, 281 Mining shares and profits, =91=; =92=

Juedenstein (see Lapis Judaicus).

Juices, 1; 47 Agricola's theory, 46; 52 From springs and streams, =33= Stone juice, 46; 49 Tastes of, =34=

Juices, Solidified. Agricola's view of, 1; 49 Extraction of metals from, =350= Preparation of, =545=

Julian Alps. Stamp-milling in, =319=

Junctions (see Veins, Intersections of).

Jurati (see Jurors).

Jurors, =22=; =92=; =96=; 78 In English mining custom, 85 Relations to Bergmeister, =95=; 77

Justinian Code. Mines, 84

Kalchstein (see Limestone).

Kammschale, 127

Kaolinite (see Porcelain Clay).

Katzensilber (see Mica).

King. Deputy, =94= Right to a meer, =81=

Kinstock (see Liquation Cakes, Exhausted).

Kis (see Pyrites).

Knockers (see Gnomes).

Kobelt (see Cobalt).

Koelergang Vein, =42=

Koenigsberg. Fire-setting, 119

Kupferglas ertz (see Copper Glance).

Kupferschiefer (see Copper Schists).

Kuttenberg. Depths of shafts, 102

Labour Condition in Mining Title, =92=; 83-85

Lacedaemonians (see Spartans).

Lachter (see Fathom).

Ladderways in Shafts, =124=; =212=

Ladle for Bullion, =382=

Lapis aerarius (see Copper Ore).

Lapis alabandicus, 380

Lapis Judaicus, =115=; 115

Lapis specularis (see Gypsum).

Laths (Lagging), 101

La Tolfa. Alum manufacture, 565 Discovery of, 570

Laurion (Laurium), Mt. (see Mt. Laurion, Mines of).

Lautental, Liquation at, 491

Law (see Mining Law).

Law-suits over Shares in Mines, =94=

Lead, 354; 390; 110 Censure of, =11= Cupellation, =464-483= Melting prior to liquation, =500= In liquation cakes, =505-506=; 505; 506 Refining silver, =483-490= Smelting of ores, =388-392=; =400= Use in assaying, =232=; =239=; =242=; =244=; =249=; =251= Washing in sluices, =347=

Lead-ash, =237=; 237; 221 As a flux, =234= Use in parting gold from copper, =463=

Lead Bath, =381=

Lead-glass, 236

Lead Granules, =239=; =463=; 221

Leading (in liquation), =304=; =507=; =513=; 491; 492; 504 Components of the charge, =505-509=

Lead Ochre, 232; 110; 221

Lead Ore. Assay methods, =245-246= Roasting, =275= Smelting in blast furnace, =390=; =408=

Lease, in Australian Title, 77

Leaves, Preparation of Bullion into, =444=

Leberthal, 24

Lees of aqua which separates Gold from Silver, 234; 443; 221 As a flux, =234=; =238=

Lees of Vinegar (see also Argol), 221 As a flux, =234=; =236=; =243=; 234

Lees of Wine (see Argol).

Lemnos, Island of, =31=

Lemnian Earth, 31

Leprosy of House Walls (see Saltpetre).

Level (see also Drift), 101

Level, Plummet (see Plummet Level).

Limestone, 114; 221 As a flux, =236=; =390=

Limonite, 111

Limp, 267

Linares. Hannibal's mines near, 42

Lipari Islands. Alum from, 566

Liquated Silver-lead (see Stannum and Silver-lead).

Liquation, =519-521=; 491; 519 Ash-coloured copper from, =529= Buildings for, 491 Furnace, =515-518=; 492 Historical note on, 494 Losses, 491; 539 Nomenclature, 492

Liquation Cakes, =505-509=; 492; 505; 506 Enrichment of the lead, =512=; 512 Extraction of silver from, 512 From bye-products of liquation, =539-540= From copper bottoms, =512=; 512 Proportion of lead in rich silver copper, =509=

Liquation Cakes, Exhausted, =521-526=; =406=; 492; 520

Liquation Slags, 509; 492; 541 Furnaces for, =507= Treatment of, =541=

Liquation Thorns, =522=; =539=; 492; 539; 540 From cupellation, =543=; 543 From "drying" copper residues, =529=

Litharge (see also Cupellation), =475=; =232-238=; 466; 476; 110; 222 Use in reducing silver nitrate, =447= Use in smelting, =379=; =398=; =400=

Lithargyrum (see Litharge).

Lodestone, =115=; 111; 115; 2 Compass, 57

Los Pozos de Anibal, 42

Lotores (see Washers).

Lusitania. Gold alluvial, =347= Sluices for gold washing, =325= Tin smelting, =419=

Lute, 1 Preparation of for furnace linings, =375-376=

Lydia. Mining law, 83 The King's mines, 27

Lye, =558=; 221; 233 Use in making fluxes, =236= Use in parting, =463=

Magister Metallicorum (see Bergmeister).

Magister Monetariorum (see Master of the Mint).

Magnes (see also Lodestone and Manganese), =585=; 111; 115; 585

Magnet, =247= Garlic, =39=

Magnetis (see Mica).

Magnetite, 111

Malachite, 109; 221

Maladies of Miners, =214-217=

Maltha, 581

Manager (see Mine Manager).

Manganese, 586; 354

Mannsfeld Copper Slates, =126-127=; =279=; 127; 273

Map-making, 129

Marble, =115=; 2; 114

Marcasite, 111; 112; 409

Marga (see Marl).

Marienberg, =XXXI=; VI.

Marl, 114

Marmelstein (see Marble).

Marmor (see Marble).

Marmor alabastrites (see Alabaster).

Marmor glarea, 114

Massicot (see also Lead Ochre), 110; 221; 232

Master of the Horse, =81=

Master of the Mint, =95=; 78

Matte (see Cakes of Melted Pyrites).

Matte Smelting, =404-407=

Measure (unit of mining area), =78=; 78

Measures, 616-617; 78; 550

Medicine. Knowledge necessary for miners, =3=

Medulla saxorum (see Porcelain Clay).

Meer, =77-89= Boundary stones, =87= On vena cumulata, =87= On vena dilatata, =86=

Meissen. Dumps from mines, =312=

Melanteria, =117=; 112; 573 Indication of copper, =116=

Melanterite, 111

Melos, Island of, 566

Menning (see Red-lead).

Mergel (see Marl).

Metals, 2; 44; 51 Advantages and uses, =19=; =20= Necessity to man, =XXV=; =12-13= Not responsible for evil passions, =15=

Metreta, 153

Mexico. Patio process, 297

Mica, 114

Middle Ages, Mining Law of, 84

Mills for Grinding Ore, =294-299=; 280

Mimes (see also Gnomes), 217

Mine Captain, =26=; 77

Mine Manager, =97=; =98=; 77; 78

Mineral Kingdom, Agricola's Divisions of, 1

Minerals, 594; 108; 48; 51 Compound, 2; 51 Mixed, 2; 51

Miners, =1-4=; =25=; 78 Duties and punishments, =100=; =22= Law (see Mining Law). Litigation among, =21= Slaves as, =23=

Mines. Abandonment of, =217= Conditions desirable, =30-33= Investments in, =26-29= Management of, =25=; =26= Names of, =42=

Mines Royal, Company of, 283

Mining (see also Sett, Lease, Claim, Meer, etc.). Criticisms of, =4-12= Harmless and honourable, =14=; =20=; =23= Methods of breaking ore, =117-118= Stoping, =125=

Mining Clerk, =93=; =95=; =96=; 78

Mining Companies (see Companies, Mining).

Mining Foreman, =98-99=; 78 Frauds by, =21-22=

Mining Law, 82-86 Boundary stones, =87= Drainage requirements, =92-93= England, 84-86 Europe, 84 Forfeiture of title, =92-93= France, 84 Greek and Roman, 83 Middle Ages, 84-85 Right of Overlord, Landowner, State and Miner, 82 Tunnels, =88-89=

Mining Prefect, =26=; =94=; 78

Mining Rights (see Mining Law and Meer).

Mining Terms, Old English, 77; 101

Mining Tools, =149-153= Buckets for ore, =153-154= Buckets for water, =157= Trucks, =156= Wheelbarrows, =155=

Minium, 111 Quicksilver from, 433 Red-lead, 232

Minium secundarium (see Red-lead).

Mispickel (Mistpuckel), 111

Misy (the mineral), 573; 111; 403 An indication of copper, =116= Use in parting gold and silver, 459

Mitlere und obere offenbrueche (see Furnace Accretions).

Modius, 617; 405

Moglitz. Tin working, =318=

Moil, 150

Molybdaena, 110; 221; 476; 400; 408 Term for lead carbonates, 400; 408

Molybdenite, 477

Monetarius (see Coiners).

Money, Assaying of, =251-252=

Morano Glass Factories, =592=

Moravia. Cupellation, =483= Stamp-milling, =321= Washing gold ore, =324=

Mordants, 569

Mortar-box, =279-280=; =312=; =319=; 267

Mountains. Formation of, =595=

Mt. Bermius. Gold Mines of, =26=; 27

Mt. Laurion, Mines of, =27=; 27-29; 391 Crushing and concentration of ores, 281 Cupellation, 465 Mining law, 83 Smelting appliances, 355 Xenophon on, =6=

Mt. Sinai. Ancient copper smelting, 355; 402

Muffle Furnaces, =224-228=; =239=

Muffles, =227=; =239=; 222 Refining silver, =489-490=

Muehlberg, Battle of, X.

Murrhina (see Chalcedony).

Muskets, =11=

Mycenae. Copper, 402 Silver-lead smelting, 391

Names of Mines, =42=

Naphtha, 581

Native Copper, 109

Native Iron, 111

Native Minerals, =107=

Native Silver, =269=; 109

Natron (see Nitrum).

Neolithic Furnaces, 355

Neusohl, Method of Screening Ore, =290=

Newbottle Abbey, 35

Nitocris, Bridge of, 391

Nitric Acid (see also Aqua valens), =439-443=; 460; 439; 354 Assay parting gold and silver, =248= Testing silver regulus with, =449= Use in cleaning gold dust, =396=

Nitrum (see also Soda), 558; 110

Nomenclature, I; 267 Mining law, 77; 78 Mining officials, 77; 78

Norici, 388 Conveyance of ore, =169=

Normans. Mining Law in England, 85

Notary, =94=; 78

Nubia. Early gold-mining, 399

Nuremberg, Scale of Weights, =263=

Obolus, 25

Ochra nativa, 111

Ochre Yellow, 111

Offenbrueche (see Furnace Accretions).

Olynthus. Betrayal to Philip of Macedon, =9=

Operculum, =441=; 222

Orbis, =141=; 137

Ore (see various metals, Assaying, Mining, etc.).

Ore Channels (see Canales).

Ore Deposits, Theory of, XIII; 43-53

Ore Dressing, =267-351= Burning, =273= Hand spalling, =271-272= Sorting, =268-271=

Orguia, =78=; 78; 617

Orichalcum (see Aurichalcum).

Orpiment, 111; 1; 222 Colour of fumes, =235= Harmful to metals, =273= Indication of gold, etc., =116= Roasted from ore, =273= Use in assaying, =237=

Outcrops, 68; 43

Ox-blood in Salt Making, =552=

Pactolus, Gold Sands of, 27

Park's Process, 465

Parting Gold from Copper, =462-464=

Parting Gold from Silver, =443-460=; 458-463 Antimony sulphide, =451-452=; 451-452; 461 Cementation, =453-457=; =453-454=; =458= Chlorine gas, 458; 462 Electrolysis, 458; 462 Nitric acid, =443-447=; 443; 447; 460 Nitric acid (in assaying), =247-249= Sulphur and copper, =448-451=; 448; 461 Sulphuric acid, 458; 462

Partitions, 493

Passau, Peace of, IX.

Passus, 616; 78

Patio Process, 297-298

Pattinson's Process, 465

Peak, The (see High Peak).

Pentremites, 115

Pergamum. Brazen ox of, =11= Mines near, =26=; 27

Peripatetics, XII. Theory of ore deposits, =47=; 44 View of wealth, =18=

Persians. Ancient mining law, 83

Pes, 616; 78

Pestles, =231=; =483=

Petroleum, 581-582

Phalaris, Brazen Bull of, =11=

Philosophy. Knowledge necessary for miners, =3=

Phoenicians. Copper and bronze, 402 In Thasos, 24 Tin, 411-412

Picks, =152-153=

Pickschiefer (see Ash-coloured Copper).

Placer Mining, =321-348=

Pleigeel (see Lead Ochre).

Pleiweis (see White-lead).

Pleygang Vein, =42=

Plumbago, 110

Plumbum candidum, 110; 3; 473

Plumbum cinereum, 111; 3

Plumbum nigrum lutei coloris, 110; 3

Plummet Level. Standing, =143=; 137 Suspended, =145=; =146=; 137

Pockets in Alluvial Sluices, =322-330=

Poisonous Fumes (see Fumes).

Poland. Cupellation, =483= Lead ore washing, =347= Lead smelting, =392=

Poletae, Tablets of the, 83

Poling Copper, =531-538=; 535-536

Pompeiopolis. Arsenic mine at, 111

Pompholyx, 394; 113-114; 403 From copper refinings, =538= From cupellation, =476= From dust-chambers, =394= From roasting ore, =278= Poisonous, =214=; 215 Used for brass making, 410

Porcelain Clay, 115

Potash, =558-559=; 558; 233; 220 In Sal artificiosus, =463=

Pottery, Egyptian, 391

Potosi, 298

Pozos de Anibal, Los, 42

Pous, 617; 78

Praefectus cuniculi, 78

Praefectus fodinae (see Mine Manager).

Praefectus metallorum (see Mining Prefect).

Praeses cuniculi, 78

Praeses fodinae (see Mining Foreman).

Precious and Base Metals, 439

Primgap, 80

Procurator metallorum, 83

Prospecting, =35=

Proustite, 108

Pumps, =171-200=; 149 Chain, =171-175= Rag and chain, =188-200= Suction, =175-188=

Purgator argenti (see Silver Refiner).

Purser, 77

Puteoli, =501=

Pyrargyrite, 108

Pyriten argentum, 408

Pyrites (see also Cakes of Melted Pyrites), 51; 111; 112; 1 As a flux, =234= Assay for gold, =243= In tin concentrates, =348= Latin and German terms, 222 Roasting, =273-274= Roasting cakes of, =349-351= Smelting for gold and silver, =399=; =401= Used in making vitriol, 578

Pyrites aerosus (see Copper Pyrites).

Pyrites aurei coloris (see Copper Pyrites).

Quartz (see also Stones which easily melt), 114 As a flux, 380 An indication of ore, =116= Material of glass, 380 Silver ore, =113= Smelting of, =401=

Quarzum (see Quartz).

Quertze, 380

Quicksilver, 432; 2; 354; 110 Amalgamation of gilt objects, =461= Amalgamation of gold dust, =396= Amalgamation of gold ores, =297=; 297 Assaying methods, =247= Ore, 426-432 Use in assaying gold ore, =243=

Rag and Chain Pumps, =188-200=

Rake Veins, 101

Rammelsberg. Collapse of mines, =216= Discovery, 37 Early vitriol making, 572

Rauchstein, 127

Realgar, 1; 111; 222 Colour of fumes, =235= Harmful to metals, =273= Indication of ore, =116= Roasted from ore, =273=

Rederstein (see Trochitis).

Red-lead, 232; 110; 222 Use in parting gold from copper, =463= Use in parting gold from silver, =459=

Refined Salt, =454=; =463=; 233

Refinery for Silver and Copper, =491-498=

Refining Gold from Copper, =462-464=

Refining Gold from Silver, =443-458=

Refining-hearth, 492

Refining Silver, =483-490=; 465; 484

Refining Silver from Lead, =464=

Reformation, The, V; VIII.

Re-opening of Old Mines, =217=

Revival of Learning. Agricola's position in, XIII.

Reward Lease, in Australian Law, 77

Rhaetia, 388

Rhaetian Alps. Stamp milling in, =319=

Ring-fire, =448=

Rio Tinto Mines. Roman methods of smelting, 405 Roman water-wheels, 149

Risks of Mining, =28-29=

Rither (a horse), 101

Roasted Copper, =233=; 233; 222

Roasting, =273-279=; 267 Heap roasting, =274-275= In furnaces, =276= Mattes, =349-351= Prior to assaying, =231=

Rocks, =119=; 2

Rock-salt, =548=; 222 Use in cementation, =454=

Roman Alum, 565

Romans. Amalgamation, 297 Antimony, 428 Brass making, 410 Companies, 90 Copper smelting, 404-405 Mining law, 83 Minium Company, 232 Quicksilver, 433 Roasting, 267 Silver-lead smelting, 392 Washing of ore, 281

Rosette Copper, =538=; 535

Rosgeel (see Realgar).

Ruby Copper, 109; 402

Ruby Silver, 51; 108 Assaying of, =244= Cupellation, =473=

Rudis Ores, 108

Rust (see Iron-rust).

Sabines, =9=

Saigerdoerner (see Liquation Thorns).

Saigerwerk (see Stannum).

Salamander har (see Asbestos).

Salamis, Battle of, 27

Sal-ammoniac, =560=; 560; 222 In cements for parting gold and silver, =454-457= In making aqua valens, =441= Uses in cupellation, =474= Uses in making aqua regia, 460 Uses in parting gold from copper, =463=

Sal artificiosus, =236=; =463=; 236 In assaying, =242= As a flux, =234=

Salt, =545=; =556=; 546; 233; 222 As a flux, =234-238= Pans, =545=; =546= Solidified juice, 1 Use in cementation, =454=; 454 Use in parting gold from copper, =463=; =464= Use in smelting ores, =396=; =400= Wells, =546-547=

Salt made from Ashes of Musk Ivy, 560; 233

Sal torrefactus, =242=; 222; 233

Sal tostus, =233=; 233; 222

Saltpetre, =561-564=; 561; 562; 222 As a flux, =233=; =236-238=; =245=; =247= In smelting gold concentrates, =398= Uses in cementation, =454=; 454 Uses in making nitric acid, =439=; =440=; =447=; =454= Uses in melting silver nitrate, =447=

Sampling Copper Bullion, =249=

Sand, =117=

Sandaraca (see Realgar).

Sandiver (see Glass-galls).

Sarda (see Carnelian).

Saxony. High Peak customs from, 77; 85 Political state in Agricola's time, VIII; IX. Reformation, IX.

Saxum calcis (see Limestone).

Scales of Fineness, 253; 617

Scapte-Hyle, Mines of, 23

Schemnitz. Age of mines, =5= Gunpowder for blasting, 119 Pumps, =194=

Schist, 222

Schistos (see Ironstone).

Schlackenwald. Ore washing, =304=

Schmalkalden League, IX.

Schmalkalden War, IX; X.

Schneeberg, =XXXI=; VI. Cobalt, =435= Depth of shafts, 102 Ore stamping, 281 Shares, =91= St. George mine, =91=; 74; 75

Schwartz-atrament (see Melanteria and Sory).

Scorification Assay, =239=

Scorifier, =228=; =230=; 222 Assays in, =238=; =239=

Screening Ore (see Sifting Ore).

Screens (see also Screening), 267 In stamp-mill, =315=

Scriba fodinarum (see Mining Clerk).

Scriba magistri metallicorum (see Bergmeister's Clerk).

Scriba partium (see Share Clerk).

Scum of Lead from Cupellation, =475=

Scythians. Wealth condemned, =9=; =15=

Seams in the Rocks, =72=; 43; 47 Indications of ore, =67=; =107=

Sea-Water, Salt from, =545-546=

Sesterce, 448

Sett, 77

Settling Pits, =316=; 267

Shaft-houses, =102=

Shafts, =102-107=; =122-124= Surveys of, =129-135= Venae cumulatae, =128=

Shakes, 101

Share Clerk, =97=; =93=; 78

Share in Mines (see Companies, Mining).

Shears for Cutting Native Silver, =269=

Shift, =99=; 92

Shoes (stamp), =285-286=; 267

Shovellers, =153=; =169=; 78

Sideritis (see Lodestone).

Siegelstein (see Lodestone).

Sieves. For charcoal, =375= For crushed ore, =287-293=; =341=

Sifting Ore, =287-293=

Signator publicus (see Notary).

Silberweis (see Mica).

Silex, 114; 118

Silver (see also Assaying, Liquation, Parting, Refining, etc.), 390; 354; 108 Amalgamation, 297; 300 Assaying, =248-251= Cupellation, =464-483=; =241= "Drying" copper residues from liquation, 529 Enrichment in copper bottoms, =510=; 510 Exhausted liquation cakes, 524 Indicated by bismuth, etc., =116= Liquation, =505-507=; 506; 509; 512 Parting from gold (see Parting Gold and Silver). Parting from iron, =544=; 544 Precipitation from solution in copper bowl, =444= Refining, =483-490=; 465; 484 Smelting of ores, =381-382=; =386=; =388=; =390=; =400=; =402= Use in clarification of nitric acid, =443=; 443

Silver, Ruby (see Ruby Silver).

Silver Glance, 108 Assaying, =244= Cupellation, =473= Dressing, =269=

Silver-Lead Alloy (see Stannum, etc.).

Silver Ores, =108=; 108 Assaying, =242-244= Assaying cupriferous ores, =245= Fluxes required in assaying, =235= Smelting cupriferous ores, =404-407=

Silver-Plating, 460

Silver Refiner, =95=; 78

Silver Refining (see Refining).

Silver Veins, =117=

Singing by Miners, =118=

Sintering Concentrates, =401=

Slags (see also Liquation Slags), 222 From blast furnace, =379=; =381= From liquation, 491; 492; 523

Slaves as Miners, =23=; 83 In Greek mines, =25=; 25; 28

Slough (tunnel), 101

Sluices, =319=; =322-348=

Smallite, 113

Smalt, 112

Smega, 404

Smelters, 78

Smelting (see also various metals), =379-390=; 353-355 Assaying compared, =220= Building for, =355-361= Objects of, =353=

Smirgel (see Emery).

Smiris (see Emery).

Smyrna. Mines near, 27

Snake-Bites, 31

Soda (see also Nitrum), =558=; =559=; 233; 222 As a flux, =233=; =234= Historical notes, 558; 354 Solidified juice, 1

Sole, 101

Solidified Juices (see Juices, Solidified).

Solifuga, =216=; 216

Sorters, 78

Sorting Ore, =268-271=

Sory, 112; 403; 573

Sows, =376=; =386=; 376

Spain (see also Lusitania). Ancient silver-lead mines, 149; 392 Ancient silver mines of Carthage, =27= Ancient tin mines, 411-412

Spalling Ore, =271-272=

Spangen (see Trochitis).

Spanschgruen (see Verdigris).

Spartans. Gold and silver forbidden, =9=; =15= Interference with Athenian mines, 27

Spat (see Heavy Spar).

Spelter, 409

Sphalerite, 113

Spiauter, 409

Spiesglas (see Stibium).

Spines of Fishes for Cupels, =230=

Spodos, =538=; 394; 113; 114

Spuma argenti (see Litharge).

Staffordshire. First pumping engine, 149

Stalagmites, 114

Stall Roasting, =350-351=

Stamp, 267 For breaking copper cakes, =501-503= For crushing crucible lining, =373-375=

Stamping Refined Silver, =489=

Stamp-mill, =279-287=; 281-282; 267 Wet ore, =312-314=; =319-321=

Standing Plummet Level (see Plummet Level).

Stannaries, 85

Stannum, 473; 2; 384; 492

Steel, =423-426=; 422-423; 354

Steiger, 77

Steinmarck (see Porcelain Clay).

Stemple (stull), 101

Stephanite, 109

Sternen Mine, =92=; 75

Steward (of High Peak mines), 77

St. George Mine (Schneeberg), =91=; 74; 75

Stibium (see also Antimony and Antimony Sulphide), 110; 428; 2; 221 Flux to be added to, =235= In assaying, =237-239= In cementation, =458-460= Indication of silver, =116= In making nitric acid, =440= In parting gold and silver, =451-452=; =459= In parting gold from copper, =464= In treatment of gold concentrates, =396=; =397=

Stibnite, 428; 451

St. Lorentz Mine, =74=; =92=

Stockwerke (see Vena cumulata).

Stoics. Views on wealth, =18=

Stomoma, =423=

Stone Juice, 46; 49

Stones. Agricola's view of, 2; 46; 49 Various orders of fusibility, =380=

"Stones which Easily Melt" (see also Quartz), 380; 222 As a flux, =233=; =236=; 233 In making nitric acid, =440= In smelting, =379=; =380=; =390= Smelting of, =401=

Stool (of a drift), 101

Stope, =126=

Stoping, =125= Venae cumulatae, =128= Venae dilatatae, =126=; =127=

Strake, =303-310=; 267; 282 Canvas, =307-310=; =314=; =316=; 267 Egyptians, 280 Greeks, 281 Short, =306-307=; 267 Washing tin concentrates, =341-343=

Strata, =126=

Streaming, =316-318=

Stringers, =70=; 43; 47; 70 Indication of ore, =106= Mining method, =128=

Styria, =388=

Subterranean Heat, 46; 595

Suction Pumps, =175-188=

Sulphides, 267; 355

Sulphur, =578-581=; 579; 222 Colour of fumes, =235= Harmful to metals, =273= In assaying, =235-238= In parting gold from copper, =463=; 462 In parting gold from silver, =448-451=; 448; 461 In smelting gold dust, =396= Roasted from ores, =273=; =276= Solidified juice, 1

Sulphur "not exposed to the fire," =458=; =463=; 579

Surveyor's Field, =137=; =144=; 142

Surveying, =128-148=; 129 Necessary for miners, =4= Rod, =137-138=

Suspended Plummet Level (see Plummet Level).

Swiss Compass, =145=; 137

Swiss Surveyors, =145=

Symposium, =91=

Tap-hole, =378=; =386=

Tappets, =282=; =319=; 267

Tapping-bar, =381=

Tarshish, Tin Trade, 412

Tartar (Cream of), 220; 234

Tectum (Hangingwall), 101

Terra sigillata (see Lemnian Earth).

"Tests", refining silver in, =483-490=; 465; 484

Thaler, 92

Thasos, Mines of, =23=; =95=; 23

Theamedes, 115

Theodosian Code. Mines, 84

Thorns (see Liquation Thorns).

Thuringia. Roasting pyrites, =276= Sluices of gold washing, =327=

Tigna (Wall plate), 101

Timbering. Of ladderways and shafts, =122=; =123=; =124= Of stopes, =126= Of tunnels and drifts, =124-125=

Tin, 411-413; 354; 110 Alluvial mining, =336-340= Assaying ore, =246= Assaying for silver, =251= Colour of fumes, =235= Concentrates, =340-342=; =348-349= Cornish treatment, 282 Refining, =418-419= Smelting, =411-420= Stamp-milling, =312-317= Streaming, =316-318= Washing, =298=; =302=; =304=

Tincar or Tincal (see Borax).

Tithe Gatherer, =81=; =95=; =98=; 78

Tithe on Metals, =81=; 82

Toden Kopff, 235

Tofstein (see Tophus).

Tolfa, La (see La Tolfa).

Tools, =149-153=

Topfstein (see Tophus).

Tophus, 233; 114; 222 As a flux, =233=; =237=; =390=

Tortures. With metals, =11= Without metals, =17=

Touch-needles, =253-260=; 253

Touchstone, =252-253=; 252; 354; 458; 222 Mineral, 114 Uses, =243=; =248=; =447=

Trade-routes. Salt-deposits influence on, 546

Transport of Ore, =168-169=

Trent, Bishop of. Charter (1185), 84

Triangles in Surveying, =129-137=

Tripoli, 115

Trochitis, =115=; 115

Trolley, =480=; =500=; =514=

Troy. Lead found in, 391

Troy Weights, 616; 617; 242

Trucks, =156=

Tunnels, =102=; 101 Law, =88-93= Surveys of, =130-141= Timbering, =124=

Turin Papyrus, 129; 399

Turn (winze), 101

Tuteneque, 409

Tuttanego, 409

Tutty, 394

Twitches of the Vein, 101

Twyer, 376

Tye, 267

Type. Stibium used for, 2; 429

Tyrants. Inimical to miners, =32=

Tyrolese. Smelting, =388=; =404=

Ulcers, =214=; 31

Uncia (length), =78=; 616; 78

Uncia (weight), 616; 242

Undercurrents (see Sluices).

United States. Apex law, 82

Vectiarii (see Windlass Men).

Veins, =43=; =64-69=; =106-107=; 47 Barren, =72=; =107= Direction of, =54-58= Drusy, =72=; =73=; =107= Hardness variable, =117= Indications, =35-38= Intersections of, =65=; =66=; =67=; =106=; =107=

Vena. Use of term, 43; 47

Vena cumulata, =46=; =49=; =70=; 43; 47 Mining method, =128= Mining rights, =87=

Vena dilatata, =41=; =45=; =53=; =60-61=; 43; 47 Junctions with vena profunda, =67=; =68= Mining method, =126-127= Mining rights, =83-86= Washing lead ore from, =347=

Vena profunda, =44=; =51=; =60=; =62=; =63=; =68=; =69=; 43; 47 Cross veins, =65= Functions, =65=; =66=; =67=; =68= Mining rights, =79-83=

Venetian Glass, 222 Factories, =592= In assaying, =238=; =245=; =246= In cupellation, =474=

Venice. Glass-factories, =592= Parting with nitric acid, 461 Scale of weights, =263=

Ventilation, =200-212=; =121= With bellows, =207-210= With fans, =203-207= With linen cloths, =210= With windsails, =200-203=

Verdigris, 440; 1; 110; 222 In cementation, =454=; =457= Indication of ore, =116= In making nitric acid, =440= In parting gold from copper, =464=

Vermilion. Adulteration with red-lead, 232 Poisonous, =215=

Villacense Lead, =239=; 239

Vinegar. Use in breaking rocks, =119=; 118 Use in cleansing quicksilver, =426= Use in roasting matte, =349= Use in softening ore, =231=

Virgula divina (see Divining Rod).

Vitriol, =571=; 572; 403; 222; 1 In assaying, =237-238= In cementation, =454=; 454 Indication of copper, =116= In making nitric acid, =439-440= In roasted ores, =350= In sal artificiosus, =463= Native, 111 Native blue, 109 Native white, 113 Red, 274 White, 454

Volcanic Eruptions, 595

Washers, 78

Washing Ore (see also Concentration, Screening Ore, etc.), =300-310=

Water-Bags, =157-159=; =198=

Water-Buckets, =157-158=

Water-Wheels, =187=; =283=; =286=; =319=

Water-Tank, under Blast Furnaces, =356-357=

Wealth, =7-20=

Wedges, =150=

Weights, =260-264=; 616-617; 242; 253

Weisser Kis, 111

Werckschuh, 617; 78

Westphalia. Smelting lead ore, =391= Spalling ore, =272=

Wheelbarrows, =154=

Whims, =164-167=

White-Lead, 440; 354; 110; 232

White Schist, =234=; =390=; 234; 222

Winding Appliances (see Hauling Appliances).

Windlasses, =160=; =171=; 149

Windlass Men, =160=; 78

Winds. Greek and Roman names, =58= Sailors' names, =59=; =60=

Winds (winze), 101

Windsails, =200-203=

Winzes, 102

Wittenberg, Capitulation of, IX.

Wizards. Divining rods, =40=

Workmen, =98=; =100=

Woughs, 101

Zaffre, 112

Zeitz, XI.

Zinc (see also Cadmia and Cobalt). Historical notes, 408-410; 354 Minerals, 112-113

Zinck (see Zinc).

Zinc Oxides, 113; 354

Zinc Sulphate (see Vitriol).

Zincum (see Zinc).

Zoll, 617; 78

Zwickau, VI.

Zwitter, 110

INDEX TO PERSONS AND AUTHORITIES.

NOTE.--The numbers in heavy type refer to the Text; those in plain type to the Footnotes, Appendices, etc.

Acosta, Joseph De, 298

Aeschylus. Amber, 35

Aesculapius. Love of gold, =9=

Africanus (alchemist), =XXVII=; XXVIII

Agatharchides. Cupellation, 465 Egyptian gold mining, 279; 391; 399 Fire-setting, 118

Agathocles. Money, =21=

Agathodaemon (alchemist), =XXVII=; XXVIII

Agricola, Daniel, 606

Agricola, Georg (a preacher at Freiberg), 606

Agricola, Georgius. Assaying, 220 Biography, V-XVI Founder of Science, XIV Geologist, XII; 46; 53 Interest in Gottsgaab mine, VII; 74 Mineralogist, XII; 108; 594 Paracelsus compared with, XIV Real name, V Works, Appendix A See also: Bermannus. De Animantibus. De Natura eorum, etc. De Natura Fossilium. De Ortu et Causis. De Peste. De Precio Metallorum. De Re Metallica. De Veteribus Metallis. Etc.

Agricola, Rudolph, 606

Albert the Brave, Duke of Meissen, VIII

Albertus Magnus (Albert von Bollstadt), XXX; 609 Alluvial gold, =76= Cementation, 460 Metallic arsenic, 111 Metals, 44 Saltpetre, 562 Zinc, 409

Albinus, Petrus, V; 599 Cuntz von Glueck, 24

Alpinus, Prosper, 559

Alyattes, King of Lydia. Mines owned by, =26=; 27

American Institute of Mining Engineers, 38; 53

Anacharsis. Invention of bellows, 362

Anacreon of Teos. Money despised by, =9=; =15=

Anaxagoras. Money despised by, =15=

Anna, Daughter of Agricola, VII

Anna, Wife of Agricola, VII

Antiphanes. On wealth, =19=

Apollodorus, 26

Apulejus (alchemist), =XXVII=; XXIX

Archimedes. King Hiero's crown, =247= Machines, 149

Ardaillon, Edouard. Mt. Laurion, 28; 281; 391

Aristippus. Gold, =9=; =14=

Aristodemus. Money, =8=

Aristotle, XII; 607 Amber, 35 Athenian mines, 27; 83 Burning springs, 583 Coal, 34 Cupellation, 465 Distillation, 441 Lodestone, 115 Nitrum, 558 Ores of brass, 410 Quicksilver, 432 Silver from forest fires, 36 Theory of ore deposits, 44 Wealth of, =15=

Arnold de Villa Nova. (see Villa Nova, Arnold de).

Athenaeus. Silver from forest fires, 36

Augurellus, Johannes Aurelius (alchemist), =XXVII=; XXX

Augustinus Pantheus (alchemist), =XXVII=

Augustus, Elector of Saxony, =IX= Dedication of De Re Metallica, =XXV= Letter to Agricola, =XV=

Avicenna, XXX; 608

Bacon, Roger, XXX; 609 Saltpetre, 460; 562

Badoarius, Franciscus, =XXVII=

Balboa, V. N. de, V

Ballon, Peter, 559

Barba, Alonso, 300; 1

Barbarus, Hermolaus, =XXVII=

Barrett, W. F., 38

Becher, J. J., 53

Bechius, Philip, XV

Beckmann, Johann. Alumen, 565 Amalgamation, 297 Nitrum, 559 Parting with nitric acid, 461 Stamp-mills, 281 Stannum, 473 Tin, 412

Bergbuechlein (see Nuetzlich Bergbuechlin).

Bergwerks lexicon, 37; 80; 81

Berman, Lorenz, VI; 597

Bermannus, 596; 599; VI Arsenical minerals, 111 Bismuth, 3; 433 Cadmia, 113 Cobalt, 112 Fluorspar, 381 Molybdaena, 477 Schist, 234 Shafts, 102 Zinc, 409

Berthelot, M. P. E., 429; 609

Berthier, 492

Bias of Priene. Wealth, =8=; =14=

Biringuccio, Vannuccio, 614 Agricola indebted to, =XXVII= Amalgamation of silver ores, 297 Assaying, 220 Assay ton, 242 Brass making, 410 Clarifying nitric acid, 443 Copper refining, 536 Copper smelting, 405 Cupellation, 466 Liquation, 494 Manganese, 586 Parting precious metals, 451; 461; 462 Roasting, 267 Steel making, 420 Zaffre, 112

Boeckh, August, 28

Boerhaave, Hermann, XXIX

Borlase, W. C. Bronze celts, 411

Borlase, William. Cornish miners in Germany, 283

Born, Ignaz Edler von, 300

Boussingault, J. B., 454

Boyle, Robert. Divining rod, 38

Brough, Bennett, 129

Bruce, J. C., 392

Brunswick, Duke Henry of (see Henry, Duke of Brunswick).

Budaeus, William (Guillaume Bude), 461; 606

Cadmus, 27

Calbus (see also Nuetzlich Bergbuechlin), 610; =XXVI=; XXVII Alluvial gold, =75=

Caligula. Gold from auripigmentum, 111

Callides (alchemist), =XXVII=; XXVIII

Callimachus. On wealth, =19=

Camerarius, =VIII=

Canides (alchemist), =XXVII=; XXVIII

Carew, Richard. Cornish mining law, 85 Cornish ore-dressing, 282

Carlyle, W. A. Ancient Rio Tinto smelting, 405

Carne, Joseph. Cornish cardinal points, 57

Casibrotius, Leonardus, VI

Castigationes in Hippocratem et Galenum, 605

Castro, John de, 570

Chabas, F. J., 129

Chaloner, Thomas, 570

Chanes (alchemist), =XXVII=; XXVIII

Charles V. of Spain, =IX= Agricola sent on mission to, =X=

Chevreul, M. E., 38

Chronik der Stadt Freiberg, 606

Cicero. Divining rod, 38 Wealth of, =15=

Cincinnatus L. Quintius, =23=

Circe. Magic rod, =40=

Cleopatra. As an alchemist, =XXVII=; XXIX

Collins, A. L. 119

Columbus, Christopher, V

Columella, Moderatus, =XXV=; =XXVI=

Comerius, =XXVII=; XXIX

Commentariorum ... Libri VI., 604

Conrad (Graf Cuntz von Glueck), =23=; 24

Corduba, Don Juan De, 300

Cortes, Hernando, =V=

Cramer, John, 236

Crassus, Marcus. Love of gold, =9=

Crates, the Theban. Money despised by, =15=

Croesus, King of Lydia. Mines owned by, =26=; 27

Ctesias. Divining rod, 38

Ctesibius. Machines, 149

Curio, Claudius. Love of gold, =9=

Curius, Marcus. Gold of Samnites, =9=; =15=

Dana, J. D., 108 Alum, 566 Copiapite, 574 Emery, 115 Lemnian earth, 31 Minerals of Agricola, 594 Zinc vitriol, 572

Danae. Jove and, =10=

D'Arcet, J. Parting with sulphuric acid, 462

Day, St. John V. Ancient steel making, 423

De Animantibus Subterraneis, 597; =VII= Editions, 600 Gnomes, =217=; 217

De Bello adversus Turcam, 605

De Inventione Dialectica, 606

De Jure et Legibus Metallicis, =100=; 604

De Medicatis Fontibus, 605

De Mensuris et Ponderibus, 597 Editions, 599 Weights and measures, =263=; 78

De Metallis et Machinis, 604

Democritus (alchemist), =XXVII=; XXVIII

Demosthenes. Mt. Laurion mines, 27; 83

De Natura eorum quae Effluunt ex Terra, 598; =32= Dedication, VII Editions, 600

De Natura Fossilium, 594; 600; III; XII Alum, 565 Amber, 35 Antimony, 429 Argol, 234 Arsenical minerals, 111 Asbestos, 440 Bismuth, 110 Bitumen, 581 Borax, 560 Brass making, 410 Cadmia, 113 Caldarium copper, 511 Camphor, 238 Chrysocolla, 584 Coal, 35 Cobalt, 112 Copper flowers, 539; 233 Copper scales, 233 Crinoid stems, 115 Emery, 115 Fluorspar, 380 Goslar ores, 273 Goslar smelting, 408 Iron ores, 111 Iron smelting, 420 Jet, 34 Lapis judaicus, 115 Lead minerals, 110 Mannsfeld ores, 273 Melanteria, 573 Mineral Kingdom, 1 Misy, 573 Molybdaena, 476 Native metals, 108 Petroleum, 581 Pompholyx, 114; 278 Pyrites, 112 Quicksilver, 110 Rudis minerals, 108 Sal-ammoniac, 560 Silver glance, 109 Sory, 573 Spodos, 114 Stannum, 473 Stones which easily melt, 380 Sulphur, 578 Tophus, 233 Touchstone, 253 White schist, 234 Zinc, 409

De Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum, 594; 600; III; VII; XII; XIII Earths, 48 Gangue minerals, 48 Gold in alluvial, =76= Ground waters, 48 Juices, 52 Metals, 51 Solidified juices, 49 Stones, 49 Touchstone, 253 Veins, 47

De Ortu Metallorum Defensio ad J. Scheckium, 604

De Peste, 605; VIII

De Precio Metallorum et Monetis, 597; 600 Mention by Agricola, =252=; =263=

De Putredine solidas partes, etc., 605

De Re Metallica, I; XIII; XIV-XVI Editions, 600; XIV Title page, =XIX=

De Soto, Fernandes, V

De Terrae Motu, 604

De Varia temperie sive Constitutione Aeris, 604

De Veteribus et Novis Metallis, 597; 600; VII; =XXVI=; 5 Agricola's training, VI Conrad, 24 Discovery of mines, =36=; 5; 37 Gottsgaab mine, 74

Devoz (de Voz), Cornelius, 570; 283

Diodorus Siculus, 607 Alum, 566 Bitumen, 582 Cupellation, 465 Drainage of Spanish mines, 149 Egyptian gold mining, 279 Fire-setting, 118 Lead, 391 Silver from forest fires, =36= Tin, 412

Diogenes Laertius, 7; 9; 10

Dioscorides, 607; 608 Alum, 566 Antimony, 428 Argol, 234 Arsenic minerals, 111 Asbestos, 440 Bitumen, 584 Brass making, 410 Burned lead, 237 Cadmia, 112 Chalcitis, 573 Copper flowers, 233; 538 Copper smelting, 403 Cupellation, 465 Distillation apparatus, 355 Dust-chambers, 355; 394 Emery, 115 Lead, 392 Lead minerals, 477 Lemnian earth, 31 Litharge, 465 Lodestone, 115 Melanteria, 573 Misy, 573 Naphtha, 584 Pompholyx, 394; 410 Quicksilver, 297; 432 Red-lead, 232 Sal-ammoniac, 560 Sory, 573 Spodos, 394 Verdigris, 440 Vitriol, 572 White-lead, 440

Diphilos, 27; 83

Diphilus (poet). Gold, =10=

Dominatores Saxonici, 606

Draud, G., 599

Dudae. Alum trade, 569

Elizabeth, Queen of England. Charters to alum makers, 283; 570 Dedication of Italian De Re Metallica to, XV Importation of German miners, 283; 570

Eloy, N. F. J., 599

Entzelt (Enzelius, Encelio), 615

Erasmus, VI; VIII; XIV

Ercker, Lazarus. Amalgamation, 300 Liquation, 491; 505 Nitric acid preparation, 443 Parting gold and silver, 444; 451

Eriphyle. Love of gold, =9=

Ernest, Elector of Saxony, VIII

Euripides. Amber mentioned by, 35 Plutus, =8=; =7=

Ezekiel, Prophet. Antimony, 428 Cupellation, 465 Tin, 412

Fabricius, George. Agricola's death, X Friendship with Agricola, VIII Laudatory poem on Agricola, =XXI= Letters, IX; X; XIV; XV Posthumous editor of Agricola, 603; 606

Fairclough, H. R., III

Farinator, Mathias, XXVI

Ferdinand, King of Austria. Agricola sent on mission to, X Badoarius sent on mission to, =XXVII=

Ferguson, John. Editions of De Re Metallica, XVI; 599

Feyrabendt, Sigmundi, XV

Figuier, L., 38

Flach, Jacques. Aljustrel tablet, 83

Florio, Michelangelo, XV

Foerster, Johannes, VI

Francis, Col. Grant, 267; 283

Francis I., King of France, IX

Frederick, Elector of Saxony, VIII; IX

Froben, Publisher of De Re Metallica, XIV; XV

Frontinus, Sextus Julius, 87

Galen. Agricola's revision of, 605; VI Lemnian earth, 31 Mention by Agricola, 2

Galerazeya sive Revelator Secretorum, etc., 606

Gama, Vasco da, V

Ganse (Gaunse), Joachim, 267; 283

Gatterer, C. W., 599

Geber, =XXVII=; XXX; 609 Alum, =569= Assaying, 219 Cementation, 459 Cupels, 466 Nitric acid, 460 Origin of metals, 44 Precipitation of silver nitrate, 443

Genesis, Book of, XII; 43

George, Duke of Saxony, IX; =310=; 310

Gesner, Conrad, 52

Gibbon, Edward, 119

Glauber, J. R., 410

Glueck, Cuntz von (see Conrad).

Gmelin, J. F., 84

Goecher, C. G., 599

Godolphin, Sir Francis, 282

Gowland, William. Ancient bronze, 410; 411; 421 Early smelting, 402

Graecus, Marcus. Saltpetre, 562

Grommestetter, Paul, 281

Grymaldo, Leodigaris, XVI

Gyges, King of Lydia. Mines owned by, =26=; 27

Hannibal. Alps broken by vinegar, 119 Spanish mines, =42=; 42

Hardy, William, 85

Heath, Thomas. On Hero, 129

Heliodorus (alchemist), =XXVII=; XXIX

Henckel, J. F., 53; 112; 410

Hendrie, R., 609

Hennebert, E., 119

Henry, Duke of Brunswick, VII

Henry, Duke of Meissen, IX

Hermes (alchemist), =XXVI=; XXVIII

Hermes (Mercury). Magic rod, 40

Hero. Underground surveying, 129

Herodotus. Alum, 566 Bitumen, 582 Lead, 391 Mines of Thrace, 23 Nitrum, 558

Hertel, Valentine, XIV

Hiero, King of Syracuse. Crown, 247

Hill, John, 607 Auripigmentum, 111

Himilce, wife of Hannibal, 42

Hippocrates. Cupellation, 391; 465 Lodestone, 115

Hiram, King of Tyre. Mines, 214

Hofmann, Dr. R. Biography of Agricola, V; XI; 599; 603

Homer. Amber, 35 Divining rod, =40=; 40 Lead, 391 Smelting, 402 Steel, 421 Sulphur, 579 Tin, 412

Hommel, W. Early zinc smelting, 409

Horace. Metals, =11= Wealth, =15=; =17=

Hordeborch, Johannes, VII

Houghstetter, Daniel, 283

Houghton, Thomas, 85

Humphrey, William. Jigging sieve, 283

Hunt, Robert. Roman lead smelting, 392

Inama-Sternegg, K. T. von, 84

Interpretatio Rerum Metallicarum (see Rerum Metall. Interpretatio).

Irene, Daughter of Agricola, VII

Jacobi, G. H. Biography of Agricola, V; 599 Calbus, XXVII; 610

Jagnaux, Raoul. Ancient zinc, 409

Jason. Golden fleece, 330

Jeremiah. Bellows, 362 Cupellation, 465 Lead smelting, 391 Nitrum, 558

Jezebel. Use of antimony, 428

Job. Refining silver, 465

Johannes (alchemist), =XXVII=; XXVIII

John, Elector of Saxony, IX

John, King of England. Mining claims, 85

John Frederick, Elector of Saxony, IX

Josephus. Dead Sea bitumen, 33

Jove. Danae legend, =10=

Justin, =36=

Juvenal. Money, =10=

Karsten, K. J. B. Liquation, 491; 492; 505; 509; 523; 535

Kerl, Bruno. Liquation, 505

Koenig, Emanuel, XV

Koenig, Ludwig, XV

Kopp, Dr. Hermann, 609; 441

Lampadius, G. A., 462

Lasthenes. Love of gold, =9=

Latin Grammar (Agricola), 605

Leonardi, Camilli, 615

Leupold, Jacob, XV; 599

Leviticus. Leprosy of walls, 562

Lewis, G. R, 84

Lewis, 454

Libavis, Andrew, 410

Lieblein, J. D. C., 129

Linnaeus, Charles, 559

Livy. Hannibal's march over the Alps, 119

Lohneys, G. E. Liquation, 491; 505 Parting with antimony, 451 Zinc, 409; 410

Lucretia, daughter of Agricola, VII

Lucretius. Forest fires melting veins, =36=

Lully, Raymond, =XXVII=; XXX

Luscinus, Fabricius. Gold, =9=; =15=

Luther, Martin, V; VI; VIII; IX

Lycurgus (Athenian orator). Prosecution of Diphilos, 27; 83

Lycurgus (Spartan legislator). Wealth prohibited by, =9=; =15=

Magellan, F. de, V

Maltitz, Sigismund, 312

Manlove, Edward, 70; 85

Marbodaeus, 615

Marcellinus, Ammianus. On Thucydides, 23

Marcellus, Nonius, XXXI

Maria the Jewess, =XXVII=; XXVIII

Mathesius, Johann. Cobalt, 214 Conrad mentioned by, 24 De Re Metallica, XIV King Hiram's mines, 214

Matthew Paris. Cornish miners in Germany, 283

Maurice, Elector of Saxony, =XXV=; VIII; IX; X

Mawe, J., 70

Maximilian, Emperor, =23=; 24

Meissen, Dukes of (see under personal names: Albert, Henry, etc.).

Melanchthon. Relations with Agricola, VIII; X

Menander. Riches, =8=

Mercklinus, G. A., 599

Mercury (see Hermes).

Merlin (magician), =XXVII=; XXX

Meurer, Wolfgang. Letters, IX; X

Meyer, Ernst von, 248; 569

Meyner, Matthias, VII

Midas, King of Lydia. Mines owned by, =26=; 27

Miller, F. B., 462

Minerva. Magic rod, =40=

Morris, W. O'C., 119

Mosellanus, Petrus, VI

Moses. Bitumen, 582 Lead, 391 Refining gold, 399 Rod of Horeb, 38; =40=

Mueller, Max. Ancient iron, 421

Naevius. Money, =20=

Nash, W. G. Rio Tinto mine, 149

Naumachius. Gold and silver, =8=

Neckam, Alexander. Compass, 57

Newcomen, Thomas, 149

Nicander. On coal, 34

Nicias. Sosias and slaves of, =25=; 25

Nuetzlich Bergbuechlin, 610; =XXVI=; XXVII Alluvial gold, 75 Bismuth, 110; 433 Compass, 57; 129 Ore-deposits, 44 Ore-shoots, 43 Veins, 43; 46; 73

Olympiodorus (alchemist), =XXVII=; XXX

Oppel, van (see Van Oppel).

Orus Chrysorichites (alchemist), =XXVII=; XXVIII

Osthanes (alchemist), =XXVII=; XXIX

Otho the Great, 6

Otho, Prince, 6

Ovid. Mining censured by, =7=

Pandulfus Anglus, =XXVI=

Pantaenetus. Demosthenes' oration against, 27; 83

Pantheus, Augustinus (alchemist), =XXVII=

Paracelsus, XIV; XXX Divining rod, 38 Zinc, 112; 409

Paris, Matthew (see Matthew Paris).

Pebichius (alchemist), =XXVII=; XXVIII

Pelagius (alchemist), =XXVII=

Pennent, Thomas, 570

Percy, John. Cementation, 454; 459 Cupellation, 465 Liquation, 491 Parting with antimony, 451; 452

Peregrinus, Petrus. Compass, 57

Petasius (alchemist), =XXVII=; XXVIII

Petrie, W. M. F. Egyptian iron, 421 Mt. Sinai copper, 402

Pettus, Sir John, XVI; 283

Phaenippus. Demosthenes' oration against, 27; 83

Phaeton's sisters, 35

Pherecrates, =XXVI=

Philemon. Riches, 7

Philip of Macedonia, 27

Philip, Peter, 282

Phillips, J. A., 410

Philo. Lost work on mining, =XXVI=

Phocion. Bribe of Alexander, =9=; =15=

Phocylides. Gold, =7=

Photius, 279 Fire-setting, 118

Pindar. Wealth, =19=; 252

Pius II, Pope. Alum maker, 570

Pizarro, F., =V=

Plateanus, Petrus, XIV

Plautus. Gold, =10=

Pliny (Caius Plinius Secundus), =XXVI=; 608 Alluvial mining, 331; 333 Alum, 566 Amalgamation, 297 Amber, 35 Antimony, 428 Argol, 234 Arrhenicum, 111 Asbestos, 440 Bitumen, =33=; 583 Brass, 410 British miners, 83 Cadmia, 112 Cementation, 459 Chrysocolla, 560 Copper flowers and scales, 233; 538 Copper smelting, 404 Cupellation, 466 Drainage of Spanish mines, 149 Electrum, 458 Fire-setting, 118 Galena, 476 Glass, 585; 586 Hannibal's silver mine, =42=; 42 Hoisting ore, =157=; 157 Iron, 11 Jew-stone, 115 Lead, 392 Lemnian earth, 31 Litharge, =475=; 466; 501 Lodestone, 115 Manganese (?), 586 Metallurgical appliances, 355 Misy, 573 Molybdaena, 466; 476 Naphtha, 583 Nitrum, 560 Ore-dressing, 281 Outcrops, 65 Pompholyx, 396 Protection from poison, 215 Quicksilver, 433 Red-lead, 232 Roasting, 267 Sal-ammoniac, 560 Salt from wood, 558 Silver-lead smelting, 392 Sory, 573 Spodos, 396 Stannum, 473 Tin, Spanish, 412 Tophus, 233 Touchstone, =256=; 253 Turfs in sluices, =331=; 332 Vena, 43 Ventilation with wet cloths, =210=; 210 Verdigris, 440 Vitriol, 572 White-lead, 440

Plutarch, 25

Pluto, =216=

Polybius. Ore washing, 281 Silver-lead smelting, 392; 465

Polymnestor, King of Thrace. Love of gold, =9=; =16=

Poertner, Hans, 281

Posepny, Franz, 53

Posidonius. Asphalt and naphtha, 584 Drainage of Spanish mines, 149 Silver from forest fires, 36

Priam, King of Troy. Gold mines of, =26=; 27

Probierbuechlein, 612; =XXVI= Amalgamation, 297 Antimony, 420 Assaying, 220 Assay ton, 242 Bismuth, 433 Cementation, 454 Nitric acid, 439 Parting, 461; 462; 463 Precipitation of silver nitrate, 443 Residues from distillation of nitric acid, 235; 443 Roasting, 267 Stock fluxes, 235; 236 Touchstone, 253

Propertius. Gold, =10=

Pryce, William. Adam's fall, 353 Divining rod, 38 Juices, 1 Ore-deposits, 53 Stamp-mill, 282 Stringers, 70

Psalms. Silver refining, 465

Pulsifer, Wm. H., 391

Pygmalion. Love of gold, =9=; =16=

Rachaidibus (alchemist), =XXVII=

Rameses I. Map of mines, 129

Rameses III. Leaden objects dating from, 391

Raspe, R. E., 300

Rawlinson, George, 583

Ray, P. Chandra. Indian zinc, 409

Raymond, Rossiter W., 38

Rechter Gebrauch der Alchimey, 606

Rerum Metallicarum Interpretatio, 597; VII; 600

Reuss, F. A., 599

Richter, A. D., V; 599

Rodianus (alchemist), =XXVII=; XXVIII

Roessler, B., 53

Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, 84

Ruehlein von Kalbe (see Calbus).

Salmoneus. Lightning, =11=

Sandwich, Earl of, trans. Barba's book, 300

Sappho. Wealth, =19=

Savery, Thomas, 149

Saxony, Dukes and Electors of. (See under personal names: Albert, Ernest, etc.).

Schliemann, H., 391

Schlueter, C. A. Artificial zinc vitriol, 572 Copper refining, 535 Cupellation, 464 Liquation, 491; 505 Parting with sulphur, 462

Schmid, F. A., V; XV; 599

Schnabel and Lewis, 465

Scott, Sir Walter. "Antiquary," 300

Seneca. Wealth of, =15=

Seneferu. Copper mines, 402

Seti I. Map of mine, 129

Shaw, Peter, XXVIII

Shoo King. Copper and lead, 391; 402 Iron, 421

Shutz, Christopher, 283

Sigfrido, Joanne. Ed. Agricola's works, XV

Socrates. Riches, =7=; =9=; =14=; =18=

Solinus, C. Julius. Solifuga, =216=; 216

Solomon, King. Cobalt in mines, 214

Solon. Scarcity of silver under, 27

Sosias, the Thracian. Slaves employed by, =25=

Stahl, G. E., 53

Staunton, Sir George, 409

Stephanus (alchemist), =XXVII=; XXX

Stephenson, George, 149

Strabo, 607 Arsenical minerals, 111 Asbestos, 440 Asphalt, 584; 33 Bellows, 362 Cementation, 458 Cupellation, 465 Drainage of Spanish mines, 149 Forest fires melting veins, 36 High stacks, 355 Lydian mines, 26; 27 Mt. Laurion, 27 Silver-lead smelting, 391 Spanish ore-washing, 281 Zinc (?), 409

Strato. Lost work on mines, =XXVI=; =XXVII=; XII

Struve, B. G., 599

Synesius (alchemist), =XXVII=; XXIX

Tantalus, 27

Taphnutia (alchemist), =XXVII=; XXVIII

Tapping, Thomas, 85

Thales of Miletus. Amber, 35

Themistocles. Athenian mine royalties, 27

Theodor, son of Agricola, VII

Theognis. Cupellation, 465 On greed, =18= Plutus, =8= Refining gold, 399

Theological Tracts (Agricola), 605

Theophilus (alchemist), =XXVII=; XXVIII

Theophilus the Monk, 609 Brass making, 410 Calamine, 112 Cementation, 459 Copper refining, 536 Copper smelting, 405 Cupels, 466 Divining rod, 38 Liquation, 494 Metallurgical appliances, 355 Parting with sulphur, 461 Roasting, 267

Theophrastus, XII; 607 Amber, 35 Arsenical minerals, 111 Asbestos, 440 Assaying, 219 Coal, 34 Copper minerals, 110 Copper ore, 403 Emery, 115 Lodestone, 115 Lost works, =XXVI=; 403 Origin of minerals, 44 Parting precious metals, 458 Quicksilver, 297; 432 Touchstone, 252 Verdigris, 440 Vermilion, 232 White-lead, 391; 440

Thompson, Lewis, 462

Thoth. Hermes Trismegistos, XXIX

Thotmes III. Lead, 391; 582

Thucydides. Mining prefect, =23=; 23; 95

Tibullus. Wealth condemned by, =16=

Timocles. Riches, =8=

Timocreon of Rhodes. Plutus, =7=

Tournefort, Joseph P. De, 566

Tubal Cain. Instructor in metallurgy, 353

Tursius, =24=

Twain, Mark. Merlin, XXX

Typographia Mysnae et Toringiae, 605

Ulloa, Don Antonio De, 298

Ulysses. Magic rod, =40=

Valentine, Basil, XXX; 609 Antimony, 429 Divining rod, 38 Parting with antimony, 461 Zinc, 409

Valerius, son of Agricola, VII

Van der Linden, J. A., 599

Van Oppel, XIII; 52

Varro, Marcus, =XXVI=

Vasco da Gama (see Gama, Vasco da).

Veiga, Estacia de, 83

Velasco, Dom Pedro De, 298

Veradianus (alchemist), =XXVII=; XXVIII

Villa Nova, Arnold De (alchemist), =XXVII=; XXX

Virgil. Avarice condemned by, =16=

Vitruvius, 608 Amalgamation, 297 Hiero's Crown, 248 Pumps, 174; 149 Red-lead, 232 Surveying, 129 Verdigris, 440 White-lead, 440

Vladislaus III., King of Poland, =24=

Von Oppel (see Van Oppel).

Voz, Cornelius de (see Devoz, Cornelius).

Wallerius, J. G., 234; 273

Watt, James, 149

Watt, Robert, XXVII

Wefring, Basilius, XIV

Weindle, Caspar, 119

Weinart, B. G., 599

Weller, J. G., V

Werner, A. G., XIII; 53

Wilkinson, J. Gardner. Bitumen, 582 Egyptian bellows, 362 Egyptian gold-washing, 279

Williams, John, 53

Winkler, K. A., 464

Wrotham, William de, 85; 413; 473

Xenophon. Athenian mines, =28=; =83=; 27; 29 Fruitfulness of mines, =6= Mining companies, 90 Mine slaves, 25; 28 Quoted by Agricola, =26=; =28=

Zimmerman, C. F., 53

Zosimus (alchemist), =XXVII=; XXIX

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.

Alum Making, =571=

Amalgamation Mill, =299=

Ampulla, =442=; =446=

Argonauts, =330=

Assay Balances (see Balances).

Assay Crucible, =229=

Assay Furnaces. Crucible, =227= Muffle, =223=; =224=

Balances, =265=

Baling Water, =199=

Bars, for Furnace Work, =377=; =389=

Batea, =157=

Bellows. For blast furnaces, =359=; =365=; =368=; =370=; =372= For mine ventilation, =208=; =209=; =211= For tin furnace, =419=

Bismuth Smelting, =434=; =435=; =436=; =437=

Bitumen Making, =582=

Bitumen Spring, =583=

Bowls for Alluvial Washing (see also Batea), =336=

Buckets. For hoisting ore, =154= For hoisting water, =158=

Buddle, =301=; =302=; =314=; =315=

Building Plan for Refinery, =493=

Building Plan for Smelter, =361=

Chain Pumps, =173=; =174=; =175=

Chrysocolla Making, =585=

Circular Fire (see Ring-Fire).

Clay Washing, =374=; =375=

Compass, =57=; =59=; =142=; =147=

Copper Mould for Assaying, =250=

Copper Refining, =534=; =537=

Copper Refining Furnace, =532=

Crane. For cupellation furnace, =479= For liquation cakes, =514=

Crowbars, =152=

Cupel, =229= Mould, =231=

Cupellation Furnace, =468=; =470=; =474= At Freiberg, =481= In Poland, =482=

Cutting Metal, =269=

Descent into Mines, =213=

Dipping-pots, =385=; =387=; =389=; =393=; =415=; =417=

Distillation (see Nitric Acid and Quicksilver).

Divining Rod, =40=

Dogs Packing Ore, =168=

Drifts, =105=

Drying Furnace for Liquation, =525=; =527=; =528=

Dust Chambers, =395=; =417=

Fans, Ventilation, =204=; =205=; =206=; =207=

Fire-Buckets, =377=

Fire Pump, =377=

Fire-Setting, =120=

Forehearth, =357=; =358=; =383=; =385=; =387=; =389=; =417=

Frames (or Sluices) for Washing Ore or Alluvial, =322-324=; =326-329=; =331-333=

Furnaces. Assaying (see Assay Furnaces). Blast, =357=; =358=; =373=; =377=; =383=; =385=; =387=; =389=; =395=; =419=; =424=; =508= Copper refining, =537= Cupellation, =468=; =470=; =474=; =481=; =482= Distilling sulphur, =277= Enriching copper bottoms, =510= Glass-making, =587=; =588=; =589=; =591= Iron smelting, =422=; =424= Lead smelting (see also Furnaces, blast), =393= Liquation, =517=; =519=; =525=; =527=; =528= Nitric acid making, =442= Nitric acid parting, =446= Parting precious metals with antimony, =453= Ditto cementation, =455= Quicksilver distillation, =427-432= Refining silver, =485=; =486=; =489= Roasting, =276= Steel making, =425= Tin burning, =349= Tin smelting, =415=

Gad, =150=

Glass Making, =591= Furnaces, =587=; =588=; =589=

Ground Sluicing, =337=; =340=; =343=; =346=; =347=

Hammers, =151= With water-power, =422=; =425=

Heap Roasting, =275=; =278=

Hearths. For bismuth smelting, =436=; =437= For heating copper cakes, =504= For melting lead, =393= For melting lead cakes, =499= For refining tin, =418= For roasting, =277=

Hemicycle, =138=

Hoe, =152=

Intervenium, =50=

Iron Fork for Metal, =387=

Iron Hook for Assaying, =240=

Iron Smelting, =422=; =424=

Iron Tools, =150=

Jigging Sieve, =311=

Ladders, =213=

Ladle for Metal, =383=

Lead Mould for Assaying, =240=

Liquation Cakes. Dried, =530=

Liquation Cakes, Exhausted, =522=

Liquation Furnaces, =517=; =519=; =525=; =527=; =528=

Lye Making, =557=

Matte Roasting, =350=; =351=

Meers, Shape of, =79=; =80=; =86=; =87=; =89=

Mills for Grinding Ore, =294=; =296=

Muffle Furnaces, =223=; =489=

Muffles, =228=

Nitric Acid Making, =442=

Nitrum Pits, =559=

Operculum, =446=

Orbis, =142A=

Parting Precious Metals. With antimony, =453= By cementation, =455= With nitric acid, =446= With sulphur, =449=

Picks, =152=

Plummet level. Standing, =143= Suspended, =146=

Pumps. Chain, =173=; =174=; =175= Duplex suction, =180=; =185=; =189= Rag and chain, =191=; =193=; =194=; =195= Suction, =177=; =178=; =179=; =182=; =183=; =187=

Quicksilver Distillation, =427=; =429=; =430=; =431=; =432=

Rag and Chain Pumps, =191=; =193=; =194=; =195=; =197=

Rammers for Fire-Clay, =377=; =383=

Ring-Fire, for Parting with Sulphur, =449=

Roasting (see also Heap and Stall Roasting), =278=; =350=; =351=; =274=; =275=; =276=

Rosette Copper Making, =537=

Salt. Boiling, =549=; =554=; =555= Caldron, =551=; =553= Evaporated on faggots, =556= Pans, =547= Wells, =549=

Saltpetre Making, =563=

Saxon Lead Furnace, =393=

Scorifier, =229=

Seams in the Rocks, =54=; =55=; =56=; =60=; =72=

Shafts. Inclined, =104= Timbering, =123= Vertical, =103=; =105=

Shears for Cutting Metal, =269=

Shield for Muffle Furnace, =241=

Sifting Ore, =287=; =288=; =289=; =291=; =292=; =293=; =311=; =342=

Silver. Cakes, Cleansing of, =476=; =488= Refining, =484=; =485=; =486=; =489=

Sleigh for Ore, =168=

Sluicing Tin, =337=; =338=; =340=; =343=

Smelter, Plan of Building, =361=

Soda Making, =561=

Sorting Ore, =268=; =270=

Spalling Ore, =270=; =271=; =272=

Stall Roasting. Matte, =350=; =351= Ore, =274=; =276=

Stamp-mill, =284=; =286=; =287=; =299=; =313=; =320=; =321=; =373= For breaking copper cakes, =501=

Stamps, =285=

Steel Furnace, =425=

Strake, =302=; =303=; =305=; =306=; =307=; =341=; =342=; =345= Canvas, =308=; =309=; =317=; =321=; =329=

Streaming for Tin, =318=

Stringers. Associated, =71= Fibra dilatata, =71= Fibra incumbens, =71= Oblique, =71= Transverse, =71=

Surveying. Rods, =138A= Shafts and Tunnels, =131= Triangles, =133=; =134=; =135=; =136=; =137=; =139=; =140=

Suction Pumps (see Pumps).

Sulphur Making, =579=; =581=

Tap-holes in Furnaces, =389=

Tapping-bar, =383=; =385=

"Tests" for Refining Silver, =484=; =485=

Timbering. Shafts, =123= Tunnels, =125=

Tin. Bars, =415= Burning, =349= Refining, =418= Smelting, =415=; =419=

Touch-needles, =255=

Trays for Washing Alluvial, =334=

Tread Whim, =163=

Trough, =159= For washing alluvial, =335=; =348=

Trucks, =156=

Tunnels, =103=; =104=; =105=; =120= Timbering, =125=

Veins. Barren, =73= Beginning of, =69= Cavernous, =73= Curved, =61= End of, =69= Head of, =69= Horizontal, =61= Intersections of, =64=; =65=; =66=; =67=; =68= Solid, =73= Strike of, =62=; =63=

Vena cumulata, =49=; =70=

Vena dilatata, =45=; =50=; =54=; =60=; =61=; =68=; =69=

Vena profunda, =45=; =50=; =53=; =61=; =62=; =63=; =64=; =68=

Ventilating with Damp Cloth (see also Bellows, Fans, and Windsails), =212=

Vitriol Making, =567=; =574=; =575=; =576=; =577=

Wagons, for Hauling Ore, =170=

Washing Ore (see Sifting Ore).

Water Tanks, under Furnaces, =358=

Wedges, =150=

Weights, for Assay Balances, =262=

Westphalian Lead Smelting, =393=

Wheelbarrows, =155=

Whims. Horse, =165=; =167= Tread, =163=

Windlasses, =161=; =162=; =171=

Winds, Direction of, =59=

Windsails for Ventilation, =201=; =202=; =203=

Transcriber's Notes.

This document includes quotes from very early authors. As such, it's no surprise that there are many spelling and punctuation irregularities. Also the authors were American, but writing for a British journal. In addition, whether "ae" and "oe" appear as ligatures or separate characters seems to be fairly random. Unless there was a clearly preferred spelling choice, variants were kept as is. All changes are explicitly documented below. Noted spelling variants that were preserved include: "aluminum" and "aluminium;" "ampullas" and "ampullae;" "beechwood" and "beech-wood;" "Bluetstein" and "Bluet stein;" "brick dust" and "brickdust;" "calcspar," "calc spar" and "calc-spar;" derivatives of "crossbar" and "cross-bar," and similarly for "crosscut," "crosspiece," etc.; (Hans von) "Dechen" and "Decken;" "desulphurizing" and "de-sulphurizing;" "dissension" and "dissention" (and their plurals); "distill" and "distil" (and derivatives); "encrusted" and "incrusted;" "enquire" and "inquire" (and derivatives); "ensure" and "insure;" (Lazarus) "Ercker" and "Erckern;" "flavor" and "flavour;" "fluor-spar" and "fluorspar;" "Flusse" and "Fluesse;" (Rotenburg an der) "Fulda" and "Fulde;" "Gatter" and "Gatterer" may be the same person; "gold workers," "goldworkers" and "gold-workers;" "gray" and "grey" (and derivatives); "grove" and "groove" (English mining term for a shaft); "halitum" and "halitus;" "Henckel" and "Henkel;" "holm oak" and "holmoak;" "homogenous" and "homogeneous;" Daniel "Houghsetter," "Houghstetter" and "Hochstetter;" "Joannes" and "Johannes" (the alchemist); "Johanes" and "Johannes" (Aurelius Augurellus), a.k.a. "John Aurelio Augurello;" "Juedenstein" and "Jueden stein;" "Kinstock" and "Kinstocke;" "Lautental" and "Lautenthal;" "lawsuit" and "law-suit;" "Leipsic" and "Leipzig;" "Krat" and "Kratt;" "Mosaic" and "Mosaick;" "mineralogic" and "mineralogical;" "Nuetzlich Bergbuechlin," "Nuetzliche Bergbuechlin," "Nuetzlich Bergbuechlein," and "Nuetzliche Bergbuechlein;" "organisation" and "organization;" (Thomas) "Pennant" and "Pennent;" "Probier Buechlein," "Probierbuechlin," "Probierbuechlein," "Probirbuechlein," and "Probirbuechleyn" (which may be different books in some cases); derivatives of "pulverise" and "pulverize;" "reagent" and "re-agent" (and their plurals); derivatives of "recognise" and "recognize;" "republished" and "re-published;" "salamander har" and "salamanderhar;" "seashore" and "sea-shore;" "semicircle" and "semi-circle" (and derivatives); "shovelful" and "shovel-ful;" "spiesglas," "spiesglass," and "spiesglasz;" "Turkey oak" and "turkey-oak;" "Vannucci," "Vannuccio" and "Vanuccio" (Biringuccio); "Vectarii" and "Vectiarii;" derivatives of "volatilise" and "volatilize."

There appears to be no rule whether punctuation following a quote should be inside or outside the quotation marks. The text was simply left as is.

There appears to be no rule whether Roman numerals have periods after them or not; even references to the same document may differ. The text was simply left as is.

For the text version of the document, replaced the oe-ligature with the separate characters "oe." Also removed the macron from the "e" in "pectos."

Some footnote numbers are skipped. To avoid confusion with references to the footnotes, none of the footnotes were re-numbered. In particular, Book I does not have footnote 24; Book VI does not have footnote 9; Book VIII does not have footnote 9, 10 or 18; Book IX does not have footnote 24; Book XI does not have footnote 3.

Inserted missing anchor for footnote 1 on page v.

Changed "Albertham" to "Abertham" on page vii: "the God's Gift mine at Abertham."

Changed "honored" to "honoured" on page xi: "most honoured citizens."

Treated the explanatory text on page xxiv as a footnote (number 1) and created its anchor on page xxi.

Changed "license" to "licence" in the note on page xxiv: "only poets have licence."

Changed "Bibliotheque" to "Bibliotheque" in the footnote on page xxix: "the Bibliotheque Nationale."

Changed "Theosebeia" to "Theosebia" and inserted closing double quotation mark after "written to Theosebia, etc....'" on page xxx.

Left "loadstone" on page 2 although it's spelled "lodestone" everywhere else, because it's in a quote.

Changed "silver-mines" to "silver mines" on page 5: "the silver mines at Freiberg."

Removed the extra comma after "ll." in footnote 20 on page 11: "Odes, I., 35, ll. 17-20;" and in footnote 21 on page 15: "Satires, II., 3, ll. 99-102."

Changed "realised" to "realized" on page 25: "his hopes are not realized."

Removed extra double quotation mark from before "probable that the work" on page 28.

Changed "Hipprocrene" to "Hippocrene" in footnote 19 on page 37: "named Hippocrene after that horse."

Changed "Joachimstal" to "Joachimsthal" on page 42.

Adjusted the formats of the captions to the illustrations on page 45, 55, 56 and 60 to be consistent with other captions.

Removed extra double quotation mark after "not a metal" in the footnote from page 51.

Changed "foot walls and hanging walls" to "footwalls and hangingwalls" on page 65.

Changed "hanging-wall" to "hangingwall" in footnote 5 on page 80: "into the hangingwall."

Changed "Phaenippis" to "Phaenippus" in the footnote on page 83: "the other against Phaenippus."

Inserted double quotation mark after "Droit Francais et Etranger" in the footnote on page 84.

Changed "Inama-Strenegg" to "Inama-Sternegg" in the footnote on page 84.

Changed "Himmelich" to "Himmelisch" on page 92: "Himmelisch Hoez." "Himmelsch hoz" was retained as a variant elsewhere.

Changed "shovelers" to "shovellers" on page 100: "miners, shovellers, windlass men."

The table in the note on page 109 refers to note 7 on p. 573. It would make more sense to refer to note 8, but was left as is.

Changed "chrusos" to "chrysos" in the footnote on page 110: "(chrysos, gold and kolla, solder)."

The footnote on page 110 contains the reference "(see note xx., p. x)." Rather than Roman numerals, this appears to be a placeholder to a reference that was not filled in. Perhaps it should be "(see note 8, p. 560)," but it was left as is.

Changed "tinstone" to "tin-stone" in the footnote on page 110.

Changed "De La Pirotechnica" to "De La Pirotechnia" in the footnote on page 112.

Changed "Mansfeld" to "Mannsfeld" in the footnote on page 113: "Mannsfeld copper schists."

Changed "CoAsA" to "CoAsS" in the footnote on page 113: "Cobaltite (CoAsS)."

Changed "Phoenecians" to "Phoenicians" on page 119: "Phoenicians must have possessed."

Changed "hanging wall" to "hangingwall" on page 124: "the hangingwall and the footwall."

Changed "venae dilatatae" (ae-ligature) to "venae dilatatae" on page 127: "mine venae dilatatae lying down."

Changed "venae cumulatae" (ae-ligature) to "venae cumulatae" on page 128: "as to venae cumulatae."

Changed "Watts's" to "Watt's" in footnote 1 on page 149: "Watt's improvements."

Changed "locks" to "blocks" on page 151: "blocks, and plates."

Something is wrong with the sentence on page 153 that ends with the reference to footnote 3. One metreta is larger than one-sixth of a congius. Perhaps "metreta" and "congius" should be swapped in this sentence, but it was left as is.

Changed "bail" to "bale" on page 153: "iron semi-circular bale."

Changed "Fosilium" to "Fossilium" twice in the footnote on page 155: "De Natura Fossilium."

Changed "decends" to "descends" on page 166: "descends into an underground chamber," and again on page 190: "the plank descends."

Changed "Pig-skin" to "Pigskin" in the caption to the illustration on page 168: "Pigskin sacks."

Left "vapor" as is in footnote 20 on page 210 although it's spelled "vapour" everywhere else, because it's in a quote.

Changed "de hydrated" to "dehydrated" in the footnote on page 221: "Probably dehydrated alum."

Changed "Na_{2}Co_{3}" to "Na_{2}CO_{3}" in the footnote on page 222.

Changed "fore-part" to "forepart" on page 226: "the forepart lies."

Changed "four-fold" to "fourfold" on page 226: "with fourfold curves."

Changed "or" to "of" on page 230: "an ore of copper."

Changed "factictius" to "facticius" in the footnote on page 233: "Sal facticius."

Changed "Interpretaltio" to "Interpretatio" in footnote 13 on page 234: "Interpretatio, die heffe."

Changed "Loehneys" to "Lohneys" in footnote 21 on page 237.

"Cramner" in footnote 21 on page 237 may be a typo for "Cramer," but it was left as is.

Changed "neutralized" to "neutralised" in footnote 21 on page 237: "neutralised by the nitre."

Changed "notes" to "note" in footnote 33 on page 248: "note 10."

Changed "liquified" to "liquefied" on page 250: "has become sufficiently liquefied."

Changed "touchneedles" to "touch-needles" in footnote 37 on page 253: "detailed account of touch-needles."

The reference to page 259 in footnote 39 on page 253 does not seem to make sense, but was not changed. Perhaps the reference should be to footnote 27 on page 242.

In the table on page 257, the entries for the 20th and 21st needles do not add up, because the entry for the number of sextulae of copper belongs in the 21st needle, not the 20th. This was corrected. However, there are other errors in this table, which are not so obvious and were not corrected. In particular, the entries for the 22nd, 28th and 31st needles do not add correctly.

In the table on page 258, the number for the siliquae of copper was sometimes in the sextulae column. These were corrected. The affected lines were the ones for needles 13, 22 and 24. There is some other error (uncorrected) for the 17th needle; probably it should have another sextula of silver.

Filled in the missing "4" in the line for the 8th needle in the table on page 260.

Changed "52" to "25" in the line for the 3rd weight in the table for the "greater" weights on page 261.

Changed "stele" to "stelae" on page 279: "Certain stelae."

Changed "hanging-wall" to "hangingwall" on page 279: "the hangingwall rock;" and on page 292: "from the hangingwall."

Changed "lead" to "led" in the footnote on page 281: "led through a series."

Changed "Humpfrey" to "Humphrey" in the footnote on page 283: "William Humphrey."

Changed "Erbisdroff" to "Erbisdorff" on page 304: "tin-stuff of Schlackenwald and Erbisdorff."

Changed "colleced" to "collected" on page 328: "concentrates are collected."

Changed "civilisation" to "civilization" in footnote 17 on page 330: "glimmer of civilization."

Changed "Chapter IX" to "Book IX" in footnote 22 from page 350.

Changed "Thothmes" to "Thotmes" in footnote 6 on page 362: "the time of Thotmes III."

Changed "unseasonable" to "unreasonable" on page 374: "yet it is not unreasonable."

Inserted "L--" in the caption for the illustration on page 385.

Footnote 23, p. 391, refers to a note on p. 265, but there is no such note.

Changed "carni" to "Carni" in the caption to the illustration on page 393.

Removed extra right parenthesis at end of footnote 28, from page 396, and footnote 7, from page 441.

Changed "Agatharcides" to "Agatharchides" in the footnote on page 399, and again in the footnote on page 465.

Changed "bare" to "bars" on page 418: "the lattice-like bars sells."

Changed "Nuetliche" to "Nuetzliche" in footnote 59 on page 433: "the Nuetzliche Bergbuechlein in association."

Changed "threequarters" to "three-quarters" on page 437: "three-quarters of a foot."

Changed "the spout from the opercula extends" to "the spouts from the opercula extend" in the caption to the illustration on page 446.

Changed "earthern" to "earthen" on page 451: "melted with copper in a red hot earthen crucible."

Changed "Boussingalt" to "Boussingault" in footnote 18 on page 454: "Investigation by Boussingault."

Footnote 26, on page 465, refers to a discussion on page 389; there is no such discussion. Perhaps the note on page 390 was intended, but no change was made.

The reference to p. 480 in the footnote on page 466 doesn't seem to make sense. Perhaps the reference should be to the note on p. 475 or the illustration on p. 481, but it was not changed.

Changed "Agricolas'" to "Agricola's" in footnote 27 on page 467.

Changed "roman" to "Roman" in the caption to the figure on page 481.

Changed "pinewood" to "pine-wood" on page 496: "shingles of pine-wood."

Changed "Fore-hearths" to "Forehearths" in the caption to the illustration on page 508.

Changed "or" to "of" in the table in footnote 17 on page 512: "564.8 lbs. of (A)."

Changed "near-by" to "nearby" on page 526: "in a nearby timber."

Changed "fore-hearth" to "forehearth" on page 540: "into the forehearth," and on page 543: "into the forehearth."

Changed "sideboards" to "side-boards" on page 552: "the side-boards are fixed."

Changed superscripts to subscripts in footnote 9 on page 561: "Ca(NO_{3}){2} + K{2}CO_{3} = CaCO_{3} + 2KNO_{3}."

Changed "crystallised" to "crystallized" in footnote 9 on page 561.

Changed "hydros" to "hydrous" in the footnote on page 565: "the hydrous sulphate."

Changed "octrahedra" to "octahedra" in the footnote on page 565.

Changed "subtance" to "substance" in footnote 11 on page 572: "that feathery substance."

Changed "ventholes" to "vent-holes" on page 580: "two or three vent-holes."

Changed "prehistoric" to "pre-historic" on page 582: "from pre-historic times."

Changed "Rawlinsons, Trans." to "Rawlinson's Trans." in the footnote on page 583.

Changed "Neavius" to "Naevius" on page 596: "Johannes Naevius."

Changed "Unstaendliche" to "Umstaendliche" in footnote 3 on page 599: "Umstaendliche ... Chronica."

Changed "Watts" to "Watt" on page 605: "Watt mentions it."

Changed "begininng" to "beginning" on page 611: "beginning of the sixteenth centuries."

Changed "oxidising" to "oxidizing" on page 615: "an oxidizing blast."

Changed "Oryguia" to "Orguia" on page 617.

Changed the reference for Annaberg on page 619 from "XXI" to "XXXI."

Changed "Ceragurite" to "Cerargurite" in its index entry on page 620.

Changed "Fibrae" to "Fibrae" (ae-ligature) in its index entry on page 622.

Changed the reference for Glass on page 623 from "534-592" to "584-592."

Changed two references for Magnes on page 625 from "584" to "585."

Changed the reference for Nuremberg, Scale of Weights on page 626 from "264" to "263."

Changed "Pickscheifer" to "Pickschiefer" in its index entry on page 626.

Changed the reference for Proustite on page 626, and the references for Pyrargyrite, for Ruby Silver, for Silver, for Silver Glance and for Silver Ores on page 627, from "109" to "108."

Changed the reference for Quicksilver on page 626 from "111" to "110."

Changed "Stuices" to "Sluices" on page 626, in the index entry for "Pockets in Alluvial Sluices."

Changed the references for Schneeberg, St. George mine and for St. George Mine on page 627 from "92" to "91."

Changed "Steinmack" to "Steinmarck" in its index entry on page 628.

In the Index to Persons and Authorities (starting page 630), there are a number of references to page 599 that appear to make more sense as references to 603, but which were not changed.

Changed the reference for Venice, Scale of Weights on page 630 from "264" to "263."

Changed the reference for De Mensuris et Ponderibus, Weights and Measures on page 632 from "264" to "263."

Changed the reference for De Natura eorum quae Effluunt ex Terra, Dedication on page 632 from "VIII" to "VII."

Changed the reference for De Precio Metallorum et Monetis on page 632 from "264" to "263."

Changed "Diphilus" to "Diphilos" in its index entry on page 632.

Changed the references for Forehearth and for Furnaces, Blast on page 637 from "390" to "389."

Changed the references for Pumps, Suction on page 638 from "188; 137" to "183; 187."

Changed the reference for "Tests" for Refining Silver on page 638 from "384" to "484."