Opening
CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS AND SCHOLARS.
CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS AND SCHOLARS
OR
_SKETCHES OF EDUCATION FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE COUNCIL OF TRENT_
BY
AUGUSTA THEODOSIA DRANE
AUTHOR OF “THE THREE CHANCELLORS,” “KNIGHTS OF ST. JOHN,” “THE HISTORY OF ST. CATHERINE OF SIENA,” ETC.
Anastatic Reprint of the Second Edition Published in London 1881.
NEW YORK G. E. STECHERT & Co. 1910.
Preface
The following pages have been written with the view of presenting a general and connected sketch of the history of Christian Education down to the period of the Council of Trent, illustrated from the lives of those who have, in successive ages, taken part in that great work. A subject extending over so wide a field could of necessity be only partially treated, and it seems desirable, therefore, to explain certain omissions which might otherwise cause disappointment. It was believed that the object aimed at would, in most cases, be better accomplished by introducing the reader to the teachers themselves, than by undertaking to give a complete account and critical examination of their writings. Such an examination would properly enter into a history of Christian Literature, a grand desideratum indeed, but one which the present volumes makes no pretensions to supply. Again, for obvious reasons, the philosophical and theological controversies connected with the lives of the great men who form the subjects of the following studies, have been designedly touched on with the greatest possible brevity: the history of such controversies seeming to belong to Ecclesiastical History, and to be unsuitable in a work like the present.
It has been the wish of the writer to treat the subject from a purely historical point of view, and to increase the value of the narrative by, as far as possible, preserving the colouring, and sometimes even the very language, of the original historians.
The notes appended to the text will give a general idea of the authorities whence the matter has been derived. The Ecclesiastical Histories of Fleury and Rohrbacher have furnished the groundwork of the general narrative. In the account of the Irish schools, the chronology and the main facts have been drawn from Lanigan’s Ecclesiastical History of Ireland. The sketch of the restoration of letters under Charlemagne has been chiefly taken from Crevier’s Histoire de l’Université de Paris, Launoy’s Treatise De Scholis Celebrioribus, and the various lives, both ancient and modern, of Charlemagne. In the chapters referring to the subsequent history of the Dark Ages, constant use has been made of the Acta Sanctorum Ord. S. Benedicti, by D’Achery and Mabillon, and of the collections of the Lives of the Saints by Surius and the Bollandists; also of the Vetera Analecta of Mabillon, the Spicilegium of D’Achery, the Amplissima Collectio of Martene, and the Histoire Litteraire de la France, by the Benedictines of St. Maur. Much valuable matter has also been derived from the Monumenta Germaniæ Historica of Pertz, and the collection of ancient German Chronicles by Meibomius; the account of the school and scholars of St. Gall’s being taken from Ekkehard’s History De Casibus S. Galli, printed in the first volume of Goldasti’s collection, and from the Benedictine Life of B. Notker. The notices of the foreign universities are chiefly drawn from Crevier, and from Tiraboschi’s Storia della Letteratura Italiana, which latter work has been almost exclusively used in the chapters on the Renaissance in Italy. The chapter on the Dominicans and the Universities is compiled from a considerable number of authorities; chiefly, Touron’s Vies des Hommes Illustres, the Scriptores Ordinis Prædicatorum by Echard and Quetil, the French translation of Dr. Sighart’s Life of Albert the Great, and the Constitutions of the Order.
The sketches of our English schools and universities are mostly derived from Wood’s Antiquities of Oxford, Ayliffe’s Ancient and Present State of the University of Oxford, and Dugdale’s Monasticon; whilst various notices of early English scholars have been gathered from Wright’s Biographia Britannica, Warton’s History of English Poetry, and the original lives of the English Saints, as given in the three collections already named. Hallam’s Literary History of Europe, and Ranke’s History of the Popes, have also been made considerable use of in treating of the period of the Renaissance, while the sketches of Colet and Pole have been drawn from their respective lives by Knight and Philipps. Pallavicini’s History of the Council of Trent, and Touron’s Life of St. Charles Borromeo, have furnished the chief materials for the concluding chapter of the work.
ST. DOMINIC’S CONVENT, STONE, May 1867.
Chapter I
RISE OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS.--A.D. 60 TO 543. PAGE
St. Mark at Alexandria. The canonical life of the clergy gives rise to the foundation of the Episcopal schools. The school of the Patriarchium at Rome. Decrees of early Councils regarding the education of the clergy. Catechetical schools. The public schools of the Empire, and their distinctive character. The Christian method of education, as explained by St. Basil and St. Augustine. The Monks of the desert, and the first germ of monastic schools. The rules of St. Pachomius, St. Cæsarius, and St. Leander of Seville. Domestic education among the early Christians. The destruction of the Imperial schools on the fall of the Empire. General decay of letters. Some degree of learning survives in the ecclesiastical schools. The schools of Gaul in the fifth century. Boëthius and Cassiodorus. The academy of Toulouse. The seminaries of Tours and Lerins. 1
II. SCHOOLS OF BRITAIN AND IRELAND.--A.D. 380 TO 590
Mission of St. Ninian. St. Germanus and St. Lupus in Britain. Colleges established by them. The rule of St. David. St. Palladius in North Britain. St. Kentigern at Glasgow, and Llan-Elwy. St. Cadoc and St. Gildas. Early history of St. Patrick. His arrival in Ireland. Rapid extension of schools and monasteries in that Island. Aran of the Saints. Clonard. St. Finian, St. Kieran, and St. Columba. St. Kieran founds the monastery of Cluain-Macnois. St. Fintan at Cluain-Ednech. St. Comgall the founder of Benchor. Scholars of Benchor: St. Columbanus and St. Luanus. St. Luanus the founder of Clonfert. The voyage of St. Brendan. St. Carthag the founder of Lismore. Character of the Irish learning. The labours of the Irish scholars in foreign countries; in France, Italy, Germany, and Iceland. Iona and its scholars. 35
III. ANGLO-SAXON SCHOOLS.--A.D. 590 TO 875
State of Europe at the beginning of the sixth century. St. Gregory the Great. The mission of St. Augustine. The first English library. St. Augustine’s monastery at Canterbury. The schools of Lindisfarne and Ripon. Archbishop Theodore and Abbot Adrian. The school of Canterbury and its scholars. St. Aldhelm, and a sketch of his school studies. St. Bennet Biscop founds his two monasteries of Wearmouth and Jarrow. His collection of books and pictures. The manner of life in these monasteries. The Venerable Bede: a sketch of his life and learning. His scientific writings. The grammatical formation of modern languages mainly the work of the monastic scholars. St. Bede’s labours on the formation of English. His death. The school of York under Archbishops Egbert and Albert. Alcuin receives his education here. Its noble library. Manner in which the Bishops personally directed the studies of their young clergy. Danish invasions, and ruin of the Anglo-Saxon schools. Destruction of Lindisfarne. 56
IV. ST. BONIFACE AND HIS COMPANIONS.--A.D. 686 TO 755
Birth of St. Boniface. His early monastic life. The English missions in Friesland. St. Wilibrord. St. Boniface passes over into Germany. Story of St. Gregory of Utrecht. The canonical life of the clergy established among the missionaries. Episcopal monasteries and schools. St. Luidger: his childhood and his monastic foundations. Virgil, Bishop of Salzburg, and his supposed errors, and condemnation by Pope Zachary. Schools founded by St. Boniface. Letters from him and St. Lullus to English friends. Correspondence between Boniface and the Abbess Edburga. The nuns of Wimbourne and their learned pursuits. St. Lioba’s first letter to St. Boniface. Her Latin verses. New foundations in Germany. St. Sturm. The great foundation of Fulda. St. Boniface sends to England for some nuns. St. Walburga and St. Lioba cross over to Germany. The studies of St. Lioba. Reform of the Frankish Church by St. Boniface. He is appointed Papal Vicar. His interest in the state of religion in England. The Council of Cloveshoe, and its decrees on the subject of education. Martyrdom of St. Boniface. 89
V. CHARLEMAGNE AND ALCUIN.--A.D. 747 TO 804
Decay of letters and Church discipline in Gaul under the Merovingian dynasty. Prospects of a reform under Pepin. St. Chrodegang of Metz. Accession of Charlemagne. His early teachers: Paul Warnefrid, St. Paulinus of Aquileja. Alcuin is invited over into France. Foundation of the Palatine school. Nature of the studies introduced by Alcuin. They are chiefly ecclesiastical. Proof, however, that classical studies were not entirely neglected. Charlemagne’s application to study of all kinds. His introduction of the Roman chant. His attempts to perfect the Tudesque or German dialect. Method of teaching of the Anglo-Saxon scholars. Their fondness for dialogues and enigmas. Alcuin’s correction of the liturgical books. Schools of copyists founded in monasteries. Charlemagne’s public schools. Proofs that these were in every sense monastic schools. Difference between the exterior and interior schools of the Benedictine monasteries. University of Paris, properly so called, of far later date. Great men who took part in the restoration of learning under Charlemagne: Theodulph of Orleans, Smaragdus, St. Benedict Anian, St. Adalhard. Alcuin at Tours. Clement and Dungal. Death of Alcuin. 113
VI. THE CARLOVINGIAN SCHOOLS.--A.D. 804 to 900
The Palatine school after the death of Alcuin. Scotus Erigena. The great monastic schools. Rabanus Maurus. A visit to Fulda. Rabanus and his scholars: Lupus of Ferrières, Walafrid Strabo, Otfried, &c.; their writings and characters. Cultivation of the German vernacular by the Fulda scholars. Troubles of Rabanus. He becomes Archbishop of Mentz. His controversies with Scotus and Gotteschalk. Classical studies of Lupus of Ferrières, Heiric, and Remigius of Auxerre. Remigius founds the schools of Paris. Old Corby and its Scholasticus. St. Paschasius Radpert: his early education. Importance attached to the study of music. St. Anscharius and New Corby. Reichnau and St. Gall. Description of St. Gall. Its great monastic school: varieties of studies pursued there. Reichnau. Story of Meinrad. General character of monastic studies examined and illustrated. The classics. The study of the Scriptures. 144
VII. KING ALFRED.--A.D. 873 TO 900
His restoration of learning. 195
VIII. ST. DUNSTAN AND HIS COMPANIONS.--A.D. 924 TO 992
Restoration of monastic schools under St. Dunstan, St. Oswald, and St. Ethelwold. Foundation of Ramsey Abbey. Bridferth. 212
IX. THE IRON AGE.--A.D. 900 TO 1000
Popular notions of the tenth century. Explanations of the causes of social disorder in that century. The break-up of Charlemagne’s empire. Incursions of Normans, Saracens, and Huns. Destruction of monasteries and their schools. Concealment of books. Anecdotes of the time. The relics of St. Evroult. Efforts made by the Popes and Bishops to preserve a knowledge of sacred letters. Heraclius of Liege. Fulk of Rheims attempts to restore the monasteries. The foundation of Cluny. St. Odo and St. Maieul. Stories from their lives illustrating the state of learning at this time. Abbo of Fleury and his travels in search of science. Restoration of the abbey of Gorze. John of Gorze and his studies. Village schools existed at this time. 225
X. THE AGE OF THE OTHOS.--A.D. 911 TO 1024
Prosperous state of Germany under her great emperors. The school of Utrecht, the fashionable school of the German nobles. St. Bruno: his education and after-career. Ratherius of Verona. The example of Bruno imitated by other Bishops, who found and restore episcopal schools. Poppo of Wurtzburg. Sketch of some early masters. Wolfgang’s school-days. St. Udalric of Augsburg. St. Bernward of Hildesheim. His early school-days. He becomes Bishop of Hildesheim, and restores the school. His disciples. Story of Bennon of Misnia and his master Wigger. St. Meinwerc of Paderborn. St. Adalbert of Prague. Anecdotes of these early schools, showing the nature of their studies and discipline. The schoolmasters of St. Gall: Notker, Radpert, Tutilo, and Ekkehard. Stories from their lives. Duchess Hedwiga, and the Greek studies of St. Gall. Familiarity of schoolboys with their masters. Anecdotes. Amiable character of the monastic Scholastici. The career of Gerbert. His science and his disciples. Guy of Arezzo. Hroswitha, the nun of Gandersheim. 254
XI. THE SCHOOLS OF BEC.--A.D. 1000 TO 1135
Close of the dark ages. Change observable in the scholastic system. First appearance of lay professors, who teach for gain. Character of the new teachers. Berengarius, a pupil of Fulbert of Chartres. Errors and character of Berengarius. The foundation of Bec. Vocation of Lanfranc. He opposes Berengarius. St. Anselm, as scholasticus of Bec. Their influence on learning in England. Anecdotes of English monasteries at this time. Encouragement of learning by Henry Beauclerk. Athelhard of Bath. Odericus Vitalis. 300
XII. THE RISE OF SCHOLASTICISM.--A.D. 1049 TO 1200
State of letters in Italy at the beginning of the twelfth century. Law schools of Bologna, founded by Irnerius. Other Italian schools. St. Peter Damian, scholasticus at Parma. His writings and poetry. The monastic masters still eminent. Anecdotes of some of them. Revival of classical studies in their schools at this time. Multiplication of books and libraries. Extraordinary activity of copyists. The libraries of Tegernsee and St. Emmeran’s. Othlonus and his studies. Customs of Cluny. Earliest known versions of the Scripture in the vulgar tongue. Frequent mention at this period of conversions to religious life of learned men. St. Bruno, founder of the Carthusians. Odo of Tournay. Stories of their lives. Odo’s school and disciples. The Nominalists and Realists. The state of the school of Paris. Notice of its most celebrated masters. Bernard of Chartres and his excellent system. Anselm of Laon. William of Champeaux. Abelard and his career. Scholasticism. Origin of the system of graduation. The school of St. Victor rises in opposition to the new school of scholastics. Character of its teaching. State of the schools as exhibited in the life of John of Salisbury. The heretical bias of the new independent professors. Their neglect of classical studies, and exclusive preference given by them to logic. The Cornificians. Scholastic sophistries. Peter Lombard, the real founder of scholastic theology. Gradual rise of the University of Paris. 324
XIII. PARIS AND THE FOREIGN UNIVERSITIES.--A.D. 1150 TO 1250
Paris University in the thirteenth century. Its popularity. Its want of moral discipline. Total change by this time effected in the system of education, which has become exclusively intellectual. A sketch of the state of the Paris schools. Rise of the collegiate system to meet these evils. Early Parisian colleges. The monasteries and the Bishops obliged to send their students to the universities. Academic statutes of Robert de Courçon. Partial adaptation of the monastic system. Amount of time given by the Catholic system to religious duties. Decay of arts and rhetoric. Predominance of dialectics and law. Good and bad results of this. Necessary part of the mental development of Europe. Book trade in Paris University. Anecdotes of great men. Maurice of Sully. Fulk of Neuilly. Universities of Bologna, Padua, Naples, &c. Exertions of the Popes in the cause of education. Examination of the university system. Its result on the education of the clergy. From this date to the Council of Trent Church seminaries disappear. The old system of episcopal seminaries contrasted with that of universities. Political and religious errors fostered at the universities. Their support of State supremacy. Heresies which sprang out of the abuse of scholasticism, and the predominance of reason. 366
XIV. THE DOMINICANS AND THE UNIVERSITIES.--A.D. 1215 TO 1300
The foundation of the Dominican Order. Devotion to theological studies one of its primary objects. Its system of graduation. Its schools established in connection with the universities. Exactly adapted to correct the evils of those institutions. Albert the Great. His scientific writings. St. Thomas and his philosophy. Reconciliation of divine and human science the work of St. Thomas. Other great Dominican professors and writers. Vincent of Beauvais. The study of Oriental languages encouraged by the Dominican Order. Decrees of the Council of Vienne. Proofs of the existence of Oriental professors at Paris and Oxford, notwithstanding the denial of Hallam. Oriental scholars. Dominican influence on art. Contemplative character of the early scholastic theologians. 410
XV. ENGLISH SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES.--A.D. 1149 TO 1170
Early history and legends of Oxford. Its old inns and halls. Its early masters and scholars, previous to the thirteenth century. Want of regular discipline, and tumults among the scholars. Robert Pullus restores sacred studies. Curious illustrations of the state of studies. Rise of Cambridge University. Giraldus Cambrensis. Schools of Reading, Ramsay, St. Albans, &c. Alexander Neckham and his writings. London schools. School of Sempringham. Old English poor-schools. What was taught in them, and how. 451
XVI. OLD OXFORD.--A.D. 1200 TO 1300
Description of Oxford in the thirteenth century. Its customs. St. Edmund of Canterbury. Robert Grosteste. The arrival of the Friars. Distinguished Dominican and Franciscan scholars. Roger Bacon. Nicholas de Lyra. St. Richard of Chichester, Chancellor of Oxford. Opposition of the secular clergy to the mendicants. Decay of pure Latinity. Kilwarby, and John of Peckham. St. Thomas of Hereford, Chancellor of Oxford. Rise of Oxford Colleges, Baliol and Merton Colleges. The monastic colleges of Gloucester and Durham. Exeter College. 476
XVII. DANTE AND PETRARCH.--A.D. 1300 TO 1400
Dante regarded as the representative university student of the thirteenth century. Character of his learning as shown by a critical examination of his poem. His theology, scholastic learning, acquaintance with learned languages and love of science, especially of music and astronomy. His political views. The anti-papal tendencies of the universities. Petrarch and his revival of classical tastes. Share taken in the revival by Italian monks. Ambrose Traversari. State of letters in France under Charles V. Effect of the Gallican and anti-papal doctrines introduced by Philip le Bel hostile to letters. 508
Chapter XVIII
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.-- A.D. 1300 TO 1400.
Effect of French wars not favourable to learning. Richard of Bury and his libraries. State of the universities. They were not then, as now, places of education for the lay higher classes. System of education fostered by chivalry explained. Its advantages. The baronial households schools for noble youths. Christian principles fostered by this system. Elzear of Sabran. Education of women at the same period. The domestic virtues cultivated. Illustrations from old romances. Cultivation of the English language. Poor-schools. School books of the fourteenth century. Primers. Versified instructions. Chaucer as the representative of an educated Englishman of the fourteenth century. Character of his learning examined. Classics imperfectly known. Wickliffe and the Lollards. Their influence on learning. Early English Catholic versions of the Scriptures existed before the time of Wickliffe. Proofs and illustrations. 529
XIX. THE RED AND WHITE ROSES.--A.D. 1386 TO 1494
Foundations of Wykeham, Waynflete, and Henry VI. Education provided for all classes by colleges and hospitals. Details concerning the real character of these institutions from their statutes. Other schools kept up by religious houses. Ancient English religious poetry, with specimens. English book-collectors. Humphrey of Gloucester and Abbot Whethamstede. London schools. William Caxton as the representative of an educated London citizen of the fifteenth century. His life and works. 569
XX. THE RENAISSANCE AT FLORENCE.--A.D. 1400 TO 1492
Classic revival in Italy encouraged by her princes. Robert of Naples. Great men of the Renaissance. School of Victorino da Feltre, and the “Casa Giojosa.” Encouragement given by the Popes to the new learning. Depraved character of many of the classic scholars. Filelfo and Lorenzo Valla. The Medici at Florence. Its Greek scholars. Poggio Bracciolini. The Platonic Academy of Cosmo de’ Medici. Marsilius Ficinus. John Picus Mirandola. The Roman Academy. Pomponius Lætus. Politian begins to lecture at Florence. Fascination of his style. Florence under Lorenzo de’ Medici. Corruption of manners at this time. Savonarola. 599
XXI. DEVENTER, LOUVAIN, AND ALCALA.--A.D. 1360 TO 1517
Reaction against the irreligious tendency of the Renaissance. Popular instincts against the new learning. The origin of the school of Deventer. Sketch of Gerard der Groote, and his followers. Thomas à Kempis. German professors, and restorers of classical studies. Hegius, Langius, Dringeberg, and Rodolph Agricola. The Rhenish Academy. Tendency of the new learning in Germany increasingly irreligious. Reuchlin and Budæus at Paris. The “Humanists.” Erasmus. The art of printing, its early effects. The University of Louvain, founded from the first on Catholic principles. Protestantism supported by the new professors. Musculus and Bullinger. Effect of Protestantism on the German universities according to Menzel. The Renaissance in France under Francis I. French poets. State of letters in Spain. Ximenes and Alcala. 628
XXII. THE RENAISSANCE IN ROME.--A.D. 1513 TO 1528
Accession of Leo X. His entry into Rome. State of Rome at this time. Its brilliant society. The Roman Court. The wits and poets. Leo’s magnificent patronage of letters. Corruption of manners. Spread of infidelity in the literary circles of Italy. The Fifth Council of Lateran. Restoration of the Roman University. The Ciceronians. Sadolet and Bembo. Paganism of art and literature. Erasmus and Luther at Rome. Impressions received by both. Death of Leo, and accession of Adrian VI. Dismay of the professors. His attempts at Reform. Clement VII. Tokens of a change. The Oratory of Divine Love. St. Cajetan and the Theatines. The sack of Rome. 655
XXIII. ENGLISH SCHOLARS OF THE RENAISSANCE.--A.D. 1473 TO 1550
Scholars of Magdalen College. Visit of Erasmus to England. His opinion of Oxford. Dean Colet. His character and his friends. His friendship with Erasmus. Foundation of St. Paul’s School. Court of Henry VIII. Its brilliancy and learned character. Reginald Pole. Progress of the Reformation. Controversy between Erasmus and Luther. The divorce. The king consults the foreign universities. The Humanist professors espouse his cause. Pole retires from England. His life in Italy. Effect of the Reformation on the English universities. Utter decay of Oxford under Edward VI. 672