I. OF THE LABORATORY
The laboratory for pyrotechny may consist of a building, furnished with furnaces, boilers, &c. for the preparation or refining of saltpetre, and other substances for use; but according to its present acceptation, it is a place where all kinds of fire-works are prepared, both for actual service and for exhibition; such as, besides the ordinary works for show, quick matches, fuses, port-fire, grape-shot, case-shot, carcasses, hand granades, cartridges, &c. It should have tables, benches, and closets, where the tools, paper, thread, &c. may be commodiously placed, and an adjoining room to contain a supply of materials for two days' work.
The chief artificer takes the weight of the materials made use of, attends to the weighing of the different substances, and sees that the mixtures are made properly, &c. He also keeps an account of the number and kinds of fire-works. The prepared fire-works ought to be removed daily to the magazine. If they are made up in the field, under a tent, (denominated the Laboratory tent,) they should be packed in barrels or in caissons.
Sec. I. Of Laboratory Tools and Utensils.
The following constitute the furniture and equipments of a laboratory:
Copper rods, to load port fires, and the fuses of shells, howitzers, &c. Wooden formers, on which to roll the paper cases of the port fires. Wooden formers, to roll the cases of rockets. Balances, large and small, with weights, &c. Buckets to carry water. Boxes for loading priming tubes. Barrels with leather tops, that draw, in order to keep grained and meal gunpowder. Rods, or rammers for charging rockets. Brushes to wipe the tables and sweep the compositions together. Frames to dry priming tubes. Copper calibers to regulate the size of priming tubes. Penknives. Needles for piercing priming tubes in the direction of their length. Fuse drivers. Coopers' adzes. A copper kettle. Scissors for cloth and paper. Paper cutters. Priming wires. Skimmers for skimming the froth of boiling saltpetre. Funnels for charging port-fires, howitzers, shells, &c. Square ruler. Fuses for shells, &c. (or a lathe to make them.) Large and small wooden bowls. Small axes. Ladles for charging the fuses of shells, port-fires, &c. Mallets to hammer the fuses. Glue pots and brushes. Heavy mallets to beat the powder. Tin measures, of different sizes. Hand mortar. Foot rules. Rat-tail files to cleanse the interior of the reeds of priming tubes. Wooden rasps. Iron rulers, 1/2 foot long. Leather bags, in which gunpowder and charcoal are reduced to powder. Pocket saws. Pallet knives for saltpetre. Tables, small ones to mix the composition; large ones with a ledge to meal the powder on. Sieves, fine and common; of silk, and of hair. Fuse drawers. Tools for rolling cartridges. Gimblets of different sizes.
The materials required more particularly for military fire-works, are:
Gunpowder. Saltpetre. Sulphur. Charcoal. Camphor. Beeswax. Glue, rosin. Cotton yarn for quick match. Brandy or other spirits. Gum arabic. Linseed oil. Spirits of turpentine. Pitch. Reeds or quills for priming fuses. Mutton tallow. Vinegar. Thread for tying quick match. Cartridge paper. Thread, tow and spun yarn, to make match rope. Cordage, to make tourteaux. Flour to make paste.
The characters used to express certain substances employed in fire-works, are the following: (James's Mil. Dict. p. 101.)
M. means meal powder, ⊝. Saltpetre. C. Z. Crude sulphur. C. S. Sea coal. S. x Steel or iron filings. G. x Glass dust. C. I. Cast iron. X. Camphor. B. L. Lampblack. L. S. Lapis Calaminaris. W. Spirits of wine. P. O. Oil of spike. ∋. Corn powder. Z. Brimstone. C. + Charcoal. B. R. Beech raspings. B. x Brass dust. T. x Tanners' dust. C. A. Crude antimony. A. Y. Yellow amber. G. I. Isinglass. ⩀. Gum. S. T. Spirits of turpentine.
Sec. II. Of Mandrils and Cylinders for forming Cartridges and Cases.
The rollers or rods, on which cartridges are formed, ought to be solid, and perfectly straight and round. Very dry, sound wood should be selected, and when turned, the rod should be perfectly cylindrical; one extremity being concave, and the other convex.
Mandrils may be made of copper, which is preferable to wood, as this is apt to warp and crack; and in both cases, should be longer than the cartridge, so as to be drawn out easily. They are of different lengths and diameters, according to their respective uses.
Sec. III. Of Rammers, Chargers, and Mallets.
The rammers which are used for compression, are cylindrical like the preceding. They have a head much larger in dimensions than the part that enters the tube. (See A, B, C, D, and E of Fig. 1. in the Plate). Besides being made of wood, which should be of the hardest kind, as lignum vitæ, they may be formed of copper or brass. In this case, they are first cast of the requisite size and shape, and finished in a lathe. Wooden heads are sometimes put to them, but with little advantage; as they frequently split and require to be renewed.
The wooden rammer may be struck with metal; but when the rammer is of copper or brass, wooden mallets must be always employed.
We may here remark, that in charging rockets, it has been customary to employ several rammers. The first drift must be six diameters from the handle, and this, as well as all other rammers, ought to be a little thinner than the former, to prevent the tearing of the paper, when the charge is driven in. In the end of this rammer is a hole to fit over the piercer. (See B. Fig. 1.) The line marked on this rammer, as will be explained hereafter, when it appears at the top of the case, indicates that a second rammer must be used. This second rammer, from the handle, is four diameters, having a hole for the piercer, 1-1/2 diameters long. (C. Fig. 1.) When the case is filled as high as the top of the piercer, a short and solid drift is used. (E. Fig. 1.).
Rammers must have a ferrule, or collar of brass at the bottom, to keep the wood from spreading, or splitting. With regard to the handles of the rammers, if their diameter be equal to the bore of the mould, and two diameters long, the proportion is a good one. The shorter they can be used, the better. The longer the drift, the less of course, will be the pressure on the composition, by the blow given by the mallet.
We may observe here, that rockets may either be driven over a piercer, or driven solid, and afterwards bored.
As much of the effect of rockets depends upon the manner they are driven, whether lightly or compactly, or uniformly throughout, circumstances which affect their quality; it is necessary, in using the rammer, to employ an equal force for driving the composition. The mallet, therefore, should be of a given weight; and a certain number of strokes with the same force, on each new charge, must be accurately followed, until the driving is completed; taking care, at the same time, that the rocket stands firm on a solid body.
Dry beech is the best wood for mallets. A writer very judiciously observes, in the Encyclopedia Britannica, (vol. xv, 695), that, if a person uses a mallet of a moderate size, in proportion to the rocket, according to his judgment, and if the rocket succeeds, he may depend on the rest, by using the same mallet; yet it will be necessary, that cases of different sorts, be driven with mallets of different sizes. In all cases, under one ounce, the charge may be rammed with an ounce mallet.
There is an advantage, also, by having the handle of the mallet turned out of the same piece as the head, and made in a cylindrical form. If their dimensions are regulated by the diameters of the rockets; then, for example, if the thickness of the head be three diameters, and its length four, the length of the handle will be five diameters, whose thickness must be in proportion to the hand.
Bigot (Artifice de Guerre, p. 118) speaking of the flying fuses, or sky-rockets, observes, that the mallet used for driving the composition, is proportionably large, according to the rockets, and that it is five inches in length, and four in breadth, when the diameter of the rocket is from 12 to 18 lines. The mallets for larger rockets are stronger and heavier, and, in some instances, where a great force is required, as in driving war-rockets, a machine similar to the pile-engine, is used. See Congreve Rockets.
Sec. IV. Of Utensils necessary for constructing of Signal Rockets.
A detailed account of the tools used in making signal rockets, may be seen in Ruggeri, Pyrotechny, p. 143; but M. Bigot has enumerated them as follows:
One mandril for forming the cartridge, or case. One pair of curved compasses to determine the exterior diameter. Three conical mandrils. (See fig. 3, plate.) One solid, or massive cylinder. One mould for garnishing. Two moulds for the capitals, or heads, one of which is for the rockets with, and the other for the rockets without, the garnish, or furniture. One piercer and block (See plate, fig. 1, I & H.) One scoop. One punch. One mallet. One press. One large knife. One pair of scissors.
All the wooden utensils ought to be made of hard and sound wood, without knots. The rammers should be furnished with rings or ferrules, and the first bored with a hole of sufficient length to receive the piercer. The second should be bored deep enough to receive two-thirds of the piercer, and the third, to receive one-third, while the fourth should be solid. These rammers are all furnished with heads. (See section iii.)
Sec. V. Of the Rolling, or Plane Board.
This board is furnished with a handle, and is used for rolling rocket cases, &c. and is of different dimensions, according to its application. It is made of hard wood, such as oak or walnut.
When the paper is wrapped round the mandril or former, the rolling board is used to compress the paper, and make it round and smooth.
Sec. VI. Of the Driver for charging large Rockets.
This contrivance is similar to a pile driver in construction; and, by means of a weight falling upon the rammer, the charge is sent home with great force. Its use is confined to the largest kind of rockets.
Sec. VII. Of Mortars and Pestles.
Mortars are employed for the pulverization of substances, and, according to their use, may be either of wood, marble, brass, or cast-iron, which last costs less than the others. Large mortars have covers, in order to confine the finer particles. The pestles should be of very hard wood; because, in that case, no danger would be apprehended of an explosion of the materials, an occurrence which might take place, if iron were used. This, however, depends on the substances submitted to the pestle.
Sec. VIII. Of the Choaker or Strangler.
The choaker is nothing more than a contrivance, usually made of rope, by which the closing of the end of the rocket is effected, so as to form a kind of cup or mouth.
Sec. IX. Of the Table and Sack for mealing Gunpowder.
This table may be either square or an octagon, and made of hard wood. There is a rim, a few inches high, raised round it, and a gutter at one end to allow the powder to pass out, when the operation is finished. See plate, fig. 7 and 8.
This mode of mealing powder is by no means to be preferred. (See Gunpowder.)
A sack is also used for crushing powder. It should be made of strong elastic leather, and sewed together in such a manner as to prevent the impalpable powder from passing through its seams. They are of an oblong shape, and contain from 20 to 25 pounds. Fifteen pounds are generally put in at a time. This method of crushing powder is preferred, as it is less liable to accidents. It is hardly necessary to add, that the bag is beaten with a cylindrical stick.
Sec. X. Of Sieves.
There are several kinds of sieve. The common sieve has neither a cover nor a receiver, and may be either formed of horse hair, or of brass or copper wire. It is necessary to have some sieves of a finer kind. For this purpose, silk and gauze are generally used. The cover is merely leather, fixed in a frame, which fits on the top. The receiver is formed nearly in the same manner, having a skin stretched over a frame, which fits on the under part of the sieve.
Sec. XI. Of the Paper Press.
A press, for the purpose of pressing paper, is formed of two pieces of wood, which are brought together by means of one, or several screws. This press is sometimes, though seldom, used. If pasteboard is made, when it cannot be had ready prepared, then the press is actually necessary. The intention is to unite the several sheets, which have been pasted, by using the pressure of the screw, and to remove any extraneous paste, so that the paper may have no inequalities on its surface. In lieu of the screw-press, heavy weights laid on the paper for several hours, will answer the same purpose.
Chapter II
Preliminary operations in the preparation of fire-works, and observations on the preservation of gunpowder, and sundry manipulations.
Sec. I. Of the Workshop.
We have already noticed the principal furniture of a laboratory, and, therefore, can add nothing new on this head. There are, however, some utensils employed for particular works, which we may here describe.
In the disposition of the workshop, the tables, utensils, &c. are arranged, according as the judgment may dictate for convenience and use. Care must be taken to prevent the access of fire, and to prevent, as far as possible, the presence of moisture. Lanterns, if light is required, are always to be preferred; but the best manner of communicating light is through a window, placing the lights outside of the building, or apartment, as is done in powder mills. Other precautions may be necessary, which will readily suggest themselves.
In conducting the work, the workmen are to be so arranged, as that, while some are employed in the preliminary operations, others are making and finishing the preparations. The compositions may be ready prepared, and well preserved in jars or other vessels. This is named by the French, Cabinet de composition. It is a place, also, where the substances are weighed, and mixed.
Sec. II. Of the Magazine.
The magazine is a place of deposite for gunpowder, to preserve it from fire, and moisture. We have already mentioned the preservation of gunpowder in the article on that subject; but it may not be improper to offer some remarks, respecting the construction of magazines.
Authors differ in opinion, both in regard to their situation and construction; but they all agree, that they ought to be arched, and bomb-proof. The first powder magazines were made with gothic arches: Vauban constructed them in a semicircular form, to make them stronger. Their dimensions were, sixty feet long, within, and twenty-five broad. The foundations were eight or nine feet thick, and eight feet high, to the spring of the arch. The floors were two feet from the ground, for the purpose of keeping the magazine free from dampness.
It is observed, that the centres of semicircular arches will settle at the crown, and their sinking must break the cement. A remedy was applied for this inconvenience, by the arch of equilibration, as described in Hutton's work on bridges. As, in powder magazines, the ill effect of the breaking of the cement is particularly felt, Mr. Hutton proposed to find an arch of equilibration for them in particular, and to construct it, when the span is twenty feet, the pitch or height, ten, (which are the same dimensions as the semicircle), the inclined exterior walls at top, forming an angle of 113 degrees, and the height of their angular point, above the top of the arch, equal to seven feet.
A wall built round a magazine, gives it an additional security. The roof should be slated, or covered with lead or copper, and it ought to be furnished with a lightning rod, placed ten or fifteen yards from the building. The points of the rods may be either gilt, or of solid gold. Silver, however, is generally used; but, above all, platinum is to be preferred. The advantage of these points is, that they do not rust like iron, or become oxidized, an occurrence which would diminish their powers as conductors of the electric fluid.
To prevent the access of moisture, or rather to absorb it, some have recommended the inner walls to be covered with a composition of powdered coal, &c. Lining of magazines with sheet lead, appears to have some advantages.
St. Pierre observes, that a Prussian officer informed him, that, having remarked that vapour was attracted by lead, he had employed it for drying the atmosphere of a powder magazine, constructed under ground, in the throat of a bastion, rendered useless from its humidity. He ordered the concave ceiling of the arch to be lined with lead, where the gunpowder was deposited in barrels: the vapour of the wall collected in drops on the leaden roof, ran off, and left the gunpowder barrels perfectly dry.
Sec. III. Of the Driving or Ramming of Sky-rockets.
We purpose in the present article to give some general directions for the driving of rockets.
Rockets may be driven solid, or over a piercer. In the latter case, they must not have so much composition put in them at a time. The piercer, accompanying a greater part of the bore of the case, would cause the rammer to rise too high; so that the pressure of it would not be so great on the composition, nor would it be driven equally. For rockets rammed over a piercer, let the ladle, or copper scoop, hold as much composition, as, when driven, will raise the drift one-half the interior diameter of the case; and, for those driven solid, let it contain as much as will raise the drift one-half the exterior diameter of the case. Ladles are generally made to go easily into the case, and the length of the scoop is about one and a half of its own diameter.
The charge of rockets must always be driven one diameter above the piercer, and, on it, must be rammed, one-third of a diameter of clay; through the middle of which a small hole must be bored to the composition, so that, when the charge is burnt to the top, it may communicate its fire, through the hole, to the stars in the head. (See plate, fig. 14.) Great care must be taken to strike, with the mallet, with an equal force, giving the same number of strokes to each ladleful of composition; otherwise the rocket will not rise with a uniform motion, or burn equally and regularly, for which reason, they cannot carry a proper tail. It will break, in this case, before the rocket has ascended to its extreme height, where the rocket should break and disperse the stars, rain, or whatever is contained in the head. When in the act of ramming, the drift or driver must be kept constantly turning or moving; and when the hollow rammers are used, the composition is to be knocked out every now and then, or the piercer will split them. To a rocket of four ounces, give to each ladleful of charge, 16 strokes; to a rocket of 1 lb. 28; to a 2 pounder, 36; to a 4 pounder, 42; to a 6 pounder, 56. But rockets of a larger sort cannot be driven by hand, and must be rammed with a machine similar to a pile-driver.
The method of ramming wheel cases, or any other sort, in which the charge is driven solid, is much the same as that used for sky-rockets; for the same proportion may be observed in the ladle, and the same number of strokes given, according to their diameters, all cases being distinguished by their diameters. In this manner, a case, whose bore is equal to that of a rocket of four ounces, is called a four ounce case; and one which is equal, in bore, to an eight ounce rocket, an eight ounce case, &c. The method of ramming cases, without moulds, will answer for strong pasted cases, and save the expense of making so many moulds. In filling any case, it must be placed on a perpendicular block of wood, in order to keep it firm and solid; otherwise the composition would be rammed unequally.
When cases are to be filled without moulds, procure some nipples, made of brass or iron, in proportion to the cases, to screw or fix in the top of the driving block. When the nipple is fixed in, make, at about one and half inches from it, a square hole in the block, six inches deep, and one inch in diameter. Then have a piece of wood, six inches longer than the case intended to be filled, and two inches square. On one side of it, cut a groove, almost the length of the case, whose breadth and depth must be sufficient to cover near one-half the case. Then cut the other end, to fit the hole in the block; but take care to cut it, so that the groove may be at a proper distance from the nipple. This half mould being made, and fixed tight in the block, cut, in another piece of wood, nearly of the same length as the case, a groove of the same dimensions as that in the fixed piece. Then put the case on the nipple, and, with the cord, tie it, and the two half moulds together; and the case will be prepared for filling. The dimensions of the above half moulds are proportionable for cases of eight ounces; but they differ in size in proportion to the cases.
Sec. IV. Of the Boring of Rockets.
The machine, for boring rockets, is similar, in some respects, to a lathe. The rocket is confined in a box, and, by means of a wheel, which is made to turn a second one, an auger rammer is put in motion. The rammer must be of a size, proportionate to the rocket, and of the same diameter, as the top of the bore intended, and continue of that thickness, a little longer than the depth of the bore required. The thick end of each rammer must be made square, and all of the same size. The rammer is made to move backward, and forward, so that, after the rammer is marked three and a half diameters of the rocket, from the point, set the guide, allowing for the thickness of the front of the rocket box, and the neck and mouth of the rocket. When the rocket is fixed in the box, it must be pushed forward against the rammer, and, when the scoop of the rammer is full, draw the box back, and knock out the composition. A little oil is sometimes used, to prevent the friction from setting fire to the rocket. Having bored a number of rockets, taps must be used. These taps are similar to the common spicket. When employed, it is necessary to mark them three and a half diameters from the point, allowing for the thickness of the rocket's neck.
There are several contrivances for the boring of rockets. The operation is sometimes done, by confining the rocket in a box, and boring it with a borer, fixed in a brace, using, at the same time, a proper director. This brace is like the common brace, used by carpenters, or formed on that principle, and made of iron. The motion, given by the hand, performs the operation.
Sec. V. Of the Preservation of Steel or Iron Filings.
When treating of iron, we mentioned, that it has the property of oxidizing rapidly, when exposed to the air and moisture; and that its effects in fire-works, in that case, would be either destroyed, or considerably diminished. And even fire-works, in which iron enters as a component part, will, if kept long, lose some of their effect, in consequence of the change, which the iron suffers; for, instead of producing brilliant sparks, which is their intention, it would impart a dull red appearance.
Two methods are recommended for the preservation of iron. The one is to melt a portion of sulphur, and throw the filings into it, and afterwards to separate the extraneous sulphur. The other consists in wrapping them up in oiled paper. As to the first method, we may apprehend the effect of the sulphur, combining with some of the iron, instead of coating it, forming thereby a sulphuret, which, besides, is readily decomposed by the contact of air and moisture, producing sulphate of iron. The second method, of wrapping them in oil, or, in fact, covering them with oil, is certainly a greater preventive from rust, for where the oil is in contact, no oxidizement can take place.
There are several methods recommended to preserve iron-work from rusting. The use of paint and varnish for this purpose is familiar. In Sweden, they cover iron-work with a mixture of pitch, tar, and wood soot, which acquires a gloss, similar to that of varnish, and is said to prevent the oxidizement of the metal very effectually. Fat-oil varnish, mixed with four-fifths of rectified spirit of turpentine, has been recommended. It is applied with a brush, or sponge. Articles, varnished with this preparation, are said to retain their metallic brilliancy, and never contract any spots of rust. Another composition, for the same purpose, is highly recommended. It consists in applying a mixture of one pound of hogs' lard, free from salt, one ounce of camphor, two drachms of black lead in powder, and two drachms of dragon's blood. At Sheffield and Birmingham, sundry articles, made of steel and iron, are preserved from rust, when sent to foreign markets, by wrapping them in coarse brown paper, prepared first with oil.
Among the different preparations, recommended at various times to prevent iron from contracting rust, we may mention one, which has been used with success, and which gives a lead colour. It is nothing more than taking some litharge, and heating it in an iron pot, and scattering over it some sulphur. The litharge will change its colour, forming a kind of sulphuret of lead, which is then ground with drying oil, and applied like paint. We are told, that this preparation gets remarkably hard, and resists the weather more effectually than any other lead colour.
Sec. VI. Of the making of Wheels and other Works incombustible.
It is usual to give a coat of paint to the wood-work of wheels, &c. which are designed to carry a number of cases. To prevent their taking fire, paint, in some measure, has the effect. The following composition is recommended: Take brick dust, coal-ashes, and iron filings, of each an equal quantity, and mix them with a double size, made hot. Apply this to the wood, and when dry, give it another coat.
Several methods have been adopted for the same purpose; but wood may be made to resist, in a great degree, the action of fire, and rendered almost incombustible, by soaking it in a solution of the supersulphate of potassa and alumina, (alum), in sulphate of iron, (green vitriol), and in other salts, which are incombustible.
With respect to the use of alum as a preservative against fire, it is certain, that, although its use in this way is very ancient, it was not often recommended; for writers on the art of war, such, for example, as Anas, mentions the use of vinegar, in the following quotation from his Poliorcet. cap. 24: "Majus juverit, si prius ligna aceto linantur; nam a materia aceto illita, ignis abstinet."
The use of alum, to prevent substances from taking fire, is not a new invention; notwithstanding we find it recommended in modern works, not only for wood, but also for paper, and linen and cotton dresses, &c. Aulus Gellius relates, that Archelaus, one of the generals of Mithridates, washed over a wooden tower with a solution of alum, and thereby rendered it so much proof against fire, that all Sylla's attempts to set it in flames proved abortive.
A writer in the Anthologia Hibernica, vol. iii, for 1794, observes, that the use of alum to prevent the action of fire, on wood, or other combustible bodies, is not new, and those, who lay claim, are not entitled to originality on that head.
Another mode to prevent wood from taking fire may also be adopted. It consists in mixing together, one ounce of sulphur, one ounce of red ochre, and six ounces of green vitriol. The wood work is covered with joiners' glue, and the mixture is then put over it. This process is to be repeated three or four times, allowing the glue to dry before a new coat is applied.
There are several other preparations for the same purpose, not only for the covering of wood, but also paper. But M. Ruggeri is of opinion, that they cannot be depended upon, when used on paper; for the paper will, in part, be consumed. The formula for one of these compositions, is thus given by that gentleman: To a pound of flour, mix a handful of powdered alum, and add to it strong glue-water, and bring it to a proper consistence with clay. Flour and glue-water, mixed together, with the addition of a small quantity of muriate of soda, (common salt), is also recommended for the same purpose. Wood, steeped in a solution of common salt, so as to be thoroughly impregnated with it, is very difficult of combustion. In Persia, salt is used to prevent timber from the attack of worms. The practice of salting ship timber is highly recommended.
Wood, in fact, may be rendered incombustible by several processes, some of which we have given. Earl Stanhope, among others, made some interesting experiments on this subject.[23]
Having thus given some of the modes, usually adopted to render wood incombustible, or to prevent its taking fire so instantaneously, we purpose to add some remarks respecting the processes for colouring it. An excellent preservation against moisture, which communicates a colour at the same time, is formed of 12 lbs of rosin, 3 lbs of sulphur, and 12 pints of whale oil, melted and mixed with a sufficient quantity of red or yellow ochre, and applied by means of a brush. Pulverized black lead may be substituted for the ochre. Several coats of this mixture may be put on, allowing each coat to dry before another is applied. This composition is particularly well adapted for wheel work, &c. and for aquatic fire-works. Chaptal advises, for the same purpose, a mixture of equal parts of white turpentine, bees' wax, and maltha, or, in the place of maltha, coal tar. Wood, covered with three coats of this composition, and immersed for two years in water, was found to be quite dry. It would be well, however, to cover it with some of the preparation, to render wood incombustible.
With respect to the staining of wood of various colours, several preparations may be used. To communicate a green colour, a hot solution of acetate of copper may be used; or verdigris, alum, and vinegar, boiled together. A decoction of brazil wood, with alum and cream of tartar, will impart a red; indigo, dissolved in sulphuric acid, (liquid blue dye), a blue; a decoction of logwood, nut-galls, and copperas, a black; a solution of dragon's blood, or of alkanet wood, in turpentine, a mahogany colour, &c. The imitation of bronze on wood may be effected, by covering it first with isinglass size, then suffering it to dry, and putting on a coat of oil gold size, and covering it with bronze powder, a preparation sold for that purpose. A solution of aloes in spirits, which communicates a greenish-black, is a great preservative of wood against worms.
M. Ollivier (Archives des Découvertes, v, p. 386) has given a variety of recipes for imitating bronze, stone, &c. He recommends the following for the imitation of ancient bronze, which may be applied to wood-work. Melt together 150 lbs of fine sand, 170 lbs of lead ore, (Galena), and 30 lbs of manganese, and add one-sixth part of brass. This compound is then pulverized. It is applied on the usual ground.
Black earth, as it is called, made of green earth, oxide of manganese, oxide of iron, and oxide of copper, is also recommended for covering wood-work. The composition for imitation marble, is 1 part of green earth, 1/2 a part of sand, and 1/8th of a part of bol. armen. By adding 1/14th part of yellow burnt copper, the colour will approach to green. The same composition, with 1/16th part of copper, and 1/32d iron, will give a black.
Sec. VII. Of the formation of Rocket, and other Cases.
The cases for rockets, as a general rule, are to be made 6-1/2 times their exterior diameter in length; and all other cases, that are to be filled in moulds, must be as long as the moulds, within a half of the interior diameter. Rocket cases, from the smallest, to 4 or 6 pounds, are generally made of the strongest sort of cartridge paper, and rolled dry; but the large sort are made of pasted pasteboard. (See observations on that subject.) As it is very difficult to roll the ends of the cases quite even, the best way is to keep a pattern of the paper for the different kinds of cases. These patterns should be longer than the case they are designed for, and the number of sheets required should be marked, which will prevent any paper being cut to waste. Cut the paper of a proper size, and the last sheet for each case, with a slope at one end; so that when the cases are rolled, it may form a spiral line round the outside; and that this slope may always be the same, let the pattern be so formed for a constant guide. Before you begin to roll, fold down one end of the first sheet so far, as that the fold will go two or three times round the former; then, in the double edge, lay the former with its handle off the table, and after rolling two or three turns, lay the next sheet on that which is loose, and roll it all on.
The smoothing board, which is about twenty inches long, is now to be applied; and after rolling the paper three or four times, lay on, in the same manner, another sheet of paper, and smooth it in the same manner. This operation is to be repeated till the case is sufficiently thick. When the last sheet is rolled, we must observe, that the point of the slope is placed at the small end of the roller.
The case being made, the small end of the former is put in, to about one diameter of the end of the case, and the end piece is inserted within a little distance of the former. Then give the pinching cord one turn round the case, between the former and the end piece. At first, pull easy, and keep moving the case, which will make the neck smooth, and without large wrinkles. This operation is called by the French strangling, or choaking. When the cases are hard to choak, let each sheet of paper (except the first and last in that part where the neck is formed) be a little moistened with water. Immediately after you have struck the concave stroke, bind the neck of the case round with small twine, which must not be tied in a knot, but fastened with two or three hitches.
Having thus pinched and tied the case, so as not to give way, put it into the mould without its foot, and, with a small mallet, drive the former hard on the end piece, which will force the neck close and smooth. When this is done, cut the case to its proper length, allowing, from the neck to the edge of the mouth, half a diameter, which is equal to the height of the nipple. Then take out the former, and drive the case over the piercer with the long rammer, and the vent will be of a proper size.
Wheel cases are sometimes driven on a nipple, with a point to close the neck, and make the vent of the size required; which, in most cases, is generally 1/4th of their interior diameter. As it is very often difficult, when the cases are rolled, to draw the roller out, a hole must be made in its handle, and a pin, as a purchase, put in.
The machine for pinching cases consists of a treadle, which, when pressed hard with the foot, will act upon a cord, and draw it tight. The cord runs over a small pulley, and is fixed to an upright piece. It is wound once round the case, between the former and end piece; and when the cord is drawn, the case is brought together.
Cases are commonly rolled wet for wheels and fixed pieces; and when they are required to contain a great length of charge, the method of making these cases is thus: The paper must be cut as usual, except the last, which ought not to have a slope. Having it ready, paste each sheet on one side, and then fold down the first sheet as before directed; but be careful that the paste does not touch the upper side of the fold. If the roller be wetted, it will tear the paper in drawing it out. In pasting the last sheet, observe not to wet the last turn or two in that part where it is to be pinched; for if that part be damp, the pinching cord will stick to it, and tear the paper. Therefore, in choaking those cases, roll a bit of dry paper once round the case, before the pinching cord is used. This paper is to be taken off after the operation. The rolling board, and all other methods, according to the former directions for the rolling and pinching of cases, must be used for these, as well as other cases. See Encyclopedia Britannica, vol. xv, p. 692.
Morel, in a practical work, (Traité Practique des Feux d'Artifice) speaking of rocket cases, observes, that the rule is, to give to their thickness, half the interior diameter, or half the diameter of the roller. If the roller, for instance, were half an inch, the case should be 1/4th of an inch in thickness. A rocket is divided into three equal parts; two for the interior diameter, and one for the thickness of the case.
As to the length of sky-rockets, it is regulated by the length of the piercer, if they are pierced in the charging. One-third more than this length is allowed for the choak, and the rest, of course, for the composition. With respect to other cases, Morel remarks, that the cases for turning pieces are usually six inches in length, and, for fixed pieces, seven and eight inches. The cases of Roman candles, are of the same thickness as those of rockets. In length they are, as well as the Mosaic candle, fifteen inches. They are choaked and cut.
Those of serpents are made with one or two cards, which are rolled upon a former of wood, or metal, 1/4th of an inch in diameter, and four inches in length. When made, the case measures three inches. Dry rolling is considered sufficient for these cases.
The fixed stars are made of common pasteboard, 3-1/2 inches long, on a mandril, 1/2 an inch in diameter. They are pasted with ordinary paste, but mixed with clay, and choaked, and bound as usual.
Sec. VIII. Of Tourbillon Cases.
This kind of case is generally made 8 diameters long; but, if very large, seven will be sufficient. From four ounces to two pounds, will succeed perfectly, but, when larger, there is no certainty. They are best rolled wet with paste, and the last sheet must have a straight edge, so that the case may be all of a thickness. After rolling them in the same manner as wheel cases, pinch them close at one end; then, with a rammer, drive the ends down flat, and, afterwards, ram in about one-third of a diameter of dried clay. The diameter of the former for these cases, must be the same as for sky-rockets. Tourbillons are to be rammed in moulds, without a nipple, or in a mould without its foot. (Ency. Brit.)
Sec. IX. Of Balloon Cases, or Paper Shells.
First, prepare an oval former, turned out of smooth wood; then paste a quantity of brown, or cartridge paper, and let it lie until the paste is quite soaked through. This being done, rub the former with soap or grease, to prevent the paper from sticking to it. Next, lay the paper on in small slips, until you have made it one-third the thickness of the shell intended. Having this done, set it to dry; and when dry, cut it round the middle, and the two halves will easily come off: but, observe, when you cut, to leave about one inch not cut, which will make the halves join much better than if quite separated. When you have some ready to join, place the halves even together, and paste a slip of paper round the opening, to hold them together, and let them dry. Then lay on paper, all over as before, every where equally, excepting that end which goes downward in the mortar, which may be a little thicker than the rest; for that part, which receives the blow from the pounder in the chamber of the mortar, consequently requires the greatest strength.
When the shell is perfectly dry, burn a vent at the top, with an iron, large enough for the fuse. This method will answer for balloons from 4 inches 2/5ths, to 8 inches in diameter; but, if they are larger, or required to be thrown to a great height, let the first shell be turned of elm, instead of being made of paper.
For balloons 4 inches 2/5ths, let the former be 3 inches 1/8th, in diameter, and 5-1/2 inches long. For a balloon of 5-1/2 inches, the diameter of the former must be 4 inches, and 8 inches long. For a balloon of 8 inches, let the diameter of the form be 5 inches and 15/16ths, and 11 inches 7/8ths long. For a 10 inch balloon, let the form be 7 inches 3/16ths, in diameter, and 14-1/2 inches long. The thickness of a shell for a balloon of 4 inches 2/5ths, must be 1/2 an inch. For a balloon of 5-1/2 inches, let the thickness of the paper be 5/8ths, of an inch; for an 8 inch balloon, 7/8ths, of an inch; and for a ten inch balloon, 1 inch and 1/8th of an inch.
Shells, that are designed for stars only, may be made quite round, and the thinner they are at the opening, the better; for if they are too strong, the stars are apt to break at the busting of the shell. When making the shell, employ a pair of callipers, or a round gage; so that you may not lay the paper thicker in one place than other, and also that you may be able to know, when the shell is of a proper thickness. Balloons must always be made to go easy into the mortars. (See Encycl. Brit. Art. Balloon cases.)
Sect. X. Of Cases for Illumination Port-fires.
These must be made very thin, of paper, and rolled on formers; from 2 to 3/8ths of an inch in diameter, and from 2 to 6 inches long: they are pinched close at one end, and left open at the other. When they are to be filled, put in but a little composition at a time, and ram it lightly, so as not to break the case. Three or four rounds of paper, with the last round pasted, will be sufficiently strong for these cases. (Ibid.)
Sect. XI. Of Cases and Moulds for Common Port-fires.
Common port-fires, are intended purposely to fire the works, their fire being very slow, and the heat of the flame so intense, that, if applied to rockets, leaders, &c. it will fire them immediately. When used, they are held in copper sockets, fixed in the end of a long stick. These sockets are made like port-crayons, only with a screw instead of a ring.
Port-fires, or lances of service of the French, may be made of any length, but are seldom more than 21 inches long.
The interior diameter of port-fire moulds should be 10/16ths, of an inch, and the diameter of the former half an inch. The cases must be rolled wet with paste, and one end pinched or folded down. The moulds should be made of brass, and to take in 2 pieces lengthwise: when the case is in the two sides, they are held together by brass rings or hoops, which are made to fit over the outside. The bore of the mould must not be quite through, so that there will be no occasion for a foot. The French make the cases of five thicknesses of paper, and form the moulds upon rollers of 3/8ths of an inch in diameter.
Port fire, according to the full acceptation of the term Porte-feu of the French, means a porter, or carrier of fire, and implies all sorts of fusées or matches, by which fire is communicated.
In a treatise on Military Fire-works, as taught at Strasburg in 1764, an extract of which was translated and published by order of the War Department in 1800, there are some observations on port-fires, which, as the mode of making them according to these directions appears to have been adopted, may be useful to notice in this place.
"Port-fires may be made in two ways. The first is made and beaten in a mould; the other simply rolled on a ramrod, and filled lying on the table.
"To make port-fires of the first kind, the mould must be made of dry wood, such as pear-tree, nut or box wood. The height of the mould is 13.85 inches; its diameter at the bottom, 3.2 inches; its diameter above, 2.13 inches; diameter of the hole or caliber, .62 inches; height of the base, 2.13 inches; its diameter, 3.2 inches.
"The base of the mould has in the middle a nob, which the turner leaves there, the diameter of which is equal to the whole of the mould, and one inch high, including the circle, which should be rounded like a hemisphere. There must be three rods, one of which, of hard wood to roll the cartridge upon; the two others of iron to ram down with. The one to roll upon, or the form, is to be of the length of the mould, exclusive of the handle, which is 3.2 inches longer. The diameter of this rod is .45 parts of an inch. The first, or greater one to charge with, is the same length with that to roll upon; the second is but half the length, and both are .44 parts of an inch in diameter.
"To make good cartridges, you must have good paper, well sized, cut according to the length of the rolling rod or form, which must be rolled very tightly round the form, so that the vacancy left may be exactly equal to the size of the mould, and that the paper should exactly fill the space between the form and the mould. Then the form is drawn out, after having tied it at the end with packthread. To fill it, it must be replaced in the mould. A cupful of composition is then put in, and five or six strokes given with the large ramrod. The ramrod is then withdrawn, and a new charge is put in, which is beaten like the first, until the cartridge is filled to the height of the mould. It is then drawn out, and primed with priming powder.
"The port-fire is filled with ease, in using a tunnel placed at the end of the cartouch, through which you pass the rod.
"Composition of Port-fires of the first kind.
Saltpetre 4 lbs. 2 oz. Sulphur 1 12 Priming powder 0 12
"After having mixed these materials well together with the hand, and then with a rolling pin, you pass them through a hair sieve, and fill your wooden bowls.
"The second kind of Port-fires, are made in rolling strips of paper 3 inches wide, and 1.278 inches long, on a form of hard wood, about 14 inches long, and .35 parts of an inch in diameter. When about two-thirds of the paper is rolled, the remainder of it is to be pasted over with paste made of flour and glue. You then finish it, by passing your hand along the extremity of the pasted paper. Having finished the number required, you place them in the sun, or near a stove, and turn them from time to time, to prevent them from sticking together, or bending.
"Cartridges being well dried, you must fill them with the following composition. Fold the paper at one of the ends, and at the other, pour in the composition, placing your cartridge against the composition; and having placed it perpendicularly on the table, you give it several strokes, to drive down the composition. Then you take your iron rod, which is .53 parts of an inch longer than the one which you use to roll with, and a little less in thickness at the top. There should be a ring, that it may hang to the finger, and move the more easily. Having laid your cartridges on the table, you introduce the rod, and with it compress the composition. Having withdrawn it, more is put in, it is pressed again, and so on until entirely full. You will take care to press the last layer of the composition more than the other, to prevent its falling out by moving.
"The port-fire cartridges being finished, they are laid by for use, putting ten in a packet as before.
"Composition of Port-fires of the second kind.
Saltpetre 6 ounces. Sulphur 2 do. Priming powder 3 do.
"These three articles being mixed, you will put them in a wooden bowl, and moisten them with linseed oil, until you find the composition (being pressed well) is sufficiently hard."
It may be sufficient to observe, that the present improved process of making port-fires is preferable. (See Port-fires.)
Sec. XII. Of Pasteboard, and its Uses.
The pasteboard, used in pyrotechny, is made of fine white paper, by joining together five, and sometimes six, seven, and eight sheets of paper. That which is generally employed, is made of five sheets, and the other descriptions are employed for large cases. Sized paper is preferable, having more firmness than the other.
Pasteboard is made in the following way: A paste of flour is first prepared with hot water, and passed through a hair sieve, to separate the lumps. A sheet of paper is stretched upon a table, and covered, by means of a brush, with paste, and a sheet is then laid over it. This is compressed, and another coat of paste applied; then another sheet, then paste, and the number is added according to the thickness required. After five or more sheets are thus pasted together, a dry sheet is laid over, and the operation is repeated, till five more are joined. Then a dry sheet is put on, and the pasting is renewed. By this means, every five sheets are joined together, and the sheet, thus formed, is kept apart from the rest, by the dry sheet. A pile of pasteboard, consisting of some hundred sheets, may be made in this manner at one time. They are then put into a press for the space of five or six hours, by which they become firmly united, and all the extraneous paste is pressed out. When a press cannot be had, they may be put between boards, and heavy weights laid on. The pasteboard is then hung up in the air to dry, and again submitted to the press, to remove any inequalities, and to make it smooth.
When glazed paper is used for making pasteboard, we may employ, alternately, a sheet of brown paper. It is better, however, to use more of the glazed paper, than of the brown paper. Pasteboard of three thicknesses will be sufficient for most purposes. It is this kind, which is used for the heads of rockets.
Several kinds of paper, however, are used in fire-works. For small preparations, common white paper is sufficient. For port-fire cases, the common brown paper; for the joints, guarding places from fire, and covering tubes of communication, any kind of gray paper; and for covering marrons, the most indifferent kind may be used. Cartridge paper, as known by that name, may be used for a variety of purposes.
Paper may be rendered incombustible, or nearly so, by soaking it repeatedly in a strong solution of alum. In the Literary Journal of 1785, of Petersburg, there is a discovery mentioned of a kind of pasteboard, which neither fire can consume, nor water soften. It appears that alumina, and its salt (alum) were used in this preparation.
In the Journal des Arts et Manufactures, tom. ii, p. 205, is an account of the manufacture of pasteboard at Malmedy; and in the Transactions of the Society of Stockholm for 1785, is a description of the process for making the Swedish stone paper, which resists equally fire and water. Stone paper is manufactured in France, (Dictionnaire de l'Industrie, article Carton), by taking two parts of martial earth, (ochre, for instance), and mixing them with one part of animal oil, and two parts of vegetable matter, previously made into a pulp. The British Repository of Arts contains several specifications of patents for the preparation of the same paper.
Although paper may be rendered very difficult of combustion by the process already mentioned, that of soaking it in a strong solution of alum, yet to make a paper completely indestructible by fire, it must be made of amianthus. The process for manufacturing paper with this mineral, was announced in the Gazette de France in 1778. Professor Carbury received a medal for the invention.
Incombustible paper, for cartridges, ought to have the property, not of inflaming, but of simply carbonizing, when exposed to heat. M. Brugnatelli (Bulletin des Neustin) recommends the paper to be prepared with silicated alkali, commonly called the liquor of flints. Muriate of potassa, and supersulphate of alumina-and-potassa are both used for a similar purpose.
Paper made according to Brugnatelli's process, is merely carbonized by fire, and reduced to powder.
M. Hermbstaedt (Bulletin des Découvertes,) observes, that paper, made with silicated liquor, attracts humidity, and proposes simply a solution of green vitriol, which has not that property.
Paper may be stained, or coloured, in a variety of ways, as is the case with the portable Chinese fire-works, that are brought to this country. Thus, a red paper may be formed by dipping it in a decoction of brazil wood and alum; yellow, by using fustic; a green, by a mixed bath of blue and yellow dye, or a solution of copper, &c. Coloured paper may be glazed with weak size, rubbing it afterwards with a polished stone.
The Chinese are in possession of several processes, as well for making, as for ornamenting paper. Their silver paper, which is sometimes put on their fire-works, is variously figured. The art is very simple. Two scruples of glue, and one scruple of alum, are dissolved in a pint of water. This is evaporated, and put on the paper, where they want it, and finally pulverized silvery talc (a magnesian stone) is sifted over it. It is then exposed to the sun, and the extraneous talc is brushed off. The glue, it is obvious, causes the talc to adhere.
The Abbé Raynal (Histoire Philosophique des deux Indes t. iii, p. 225) has some interesting facts respecting Chinese paper. Some useful remarks on paper hangings, paper for decorations, tapestry paper, &c. may be found in the Journal de Paris, 1785, the Lycée des Arts 1795, and the Encyclopedie Method. Arts et Metiers, t. iv, p. 393. On the formation of paper vases, in imitation of Japan vases, consult the Dictionnaire de l'Industrie, article vases. The different patents, respecting paper, may be seen in the British Repertory of Arts, and the manufacture of paper generally, in Rees's Cyclopedia, and the Artist's Manual. The American improvements are noticed in the latter. Beckman (History of Inventions) has a variety of remarks on the same subject; and, in his article on paper hangings, &c. vol. ii, p. 161, says, that artists employed the silver-coloured glimmer (isinglass) for the covering of paper, and that the nuns of Reichtinstein ornamented with it, the images, which they made; as the nuns in France, and other catholic countries, ornamented their agni Dei, by strewing over them a shining kind of talc.
The quality of the paste, which is employed in making pasteboard, ought to be attended to. The flour should be of rye, and well boiled, after mixing it uniformly with cold water. Strong bookbinder's paste has the addition of a fourth, fifth, or sixth of the weight of the flour, of powdered alum. The patent paste is prepared by extracting starch from potatoes, in the usual manner, by means of cold water, and mixing it with mashed potatoes, after they have been boiled, and boiling the whole in water.
The Japanese cement, or rice-glue, may be advantageously used in many cases. It is formed by mixing rice flour intimately with cold water, and then boiling it very gently. It is beautifully white, and dries almost transparent. We are told, that it is preferable, in every respect, to the paste made with flour; and its strength is such, that paper, pasted together with it, will sooner separate in their own substance than at the joining.
The Chinese, to prevent accidents, and in order that they may fire their works without injury, and particularly their cases which are charged with brilliant fire, have a process, for preparing a paste of a different kind. With the exception of the clay, the same substances have been employed elsewhere for the like purpose. It consists of one pound of rye flour, boiled in water; to which is added, a small handful of common salt, the whole being thickened with finely pulverized white clay. The pasteboard, we are informed, which is made with this paste, is not only very solid, but not so susceptible of inflammation, as that prepared in the usual way.
A Chinese paste is announced in the Bulletin de la Société d'Encouragement, 1815, which is very economical, and used with success. It is made by mixing ten pounds of bullock's blood, with one pound of quicklime, and occasionally flour.
Sec. XIII. Of the Pulverization of Substances.
Various substances are employed either in grain, laminæ, filings, or impalpable powder. When treating of nitre, sulphur, and charcoal, and other bodies, we mentioned the processes for reducing them to powder. It will be sufficient here to remark, that cannon powder, when it is converted into fine powder, takes the name of meal-powder; the conversion being effected, by beating it in a leather sack, already described, by rolling it upon the mealing-table, or by the action of a wooden pestle in a mortar. It is then passed through a fine sieve. The sack is said to be a preferable mode, as nearly the whole of it becomes pulverized. Saltpetre, sulphur, charcoal, antimony, &c. may be reduced to powder in a mortar of cast-iron, marble, or wood. The best method of pulverizing saltpetre is given under that article, which consists in boiling it in a copper, and stirring it continually at the end of the process. The best mode of pulverizing, or bringing cast-iron to a state of fineness, is mentioned in the article on Iron. Some of the metals, as iron, zinc, the alloy of copper and zinc, (brass,) &c. are brought to a sufficient fineness by the file. The filings, if so required, may be afterwards sifted. Zinc, when in small pieces, may be pulverized, by means of a steel mortar and pestle. It may be granulated, by suffering it to run, when melted, through an iron cullender into water. For the pulverization of camphor, see that article.
Sec. XIV. Of Mixtures.
All compositions for fire-works, are generally made at first in mortars, and the mixture is then finished by passing it through a sieve; it being returned to the sieve, and again sifted. This operation is sometimes repeated several times. Of all compositions, that for sky-rockets requires to be most intimately blended.
To receive the sifted matter, leather or parchment is used; but, in lieu of either, pasteboard, or several sheets of paper, cemented or glued together will answer. It is obvious, that, in preparing mixtures, of two, three, or four articles, they should not only be very fine, but uniformly and intimately mixed.
Several receivers, made by stitching leather over a rim, in the manner of a sieve, would be found very convenient; but wooden bowls, and copper basins, are generally used.
Some ingredients must be passed through a lawn sieve, after having been previously incorporated. A receiver, with a top, is the kind of sieve to be preferred. The composition for wheels, and common works, need not be so fine as for rockets. But in all fixed works, from which the fire is to play regularly, the ingredients must be very fine, and great care taken in mixing them together; and in those works, into the composition of which, iron and steel enter, the hands must neither touch them, nor moisture be suffered to come in contact. In either case, they would be apt to rust.
I. OBSERVATIONS ON FIRE-WORKS
In Europe, the invention of fire-works is of a recent date, and ascribed to the Italians. In China, however, fire-works have been known for centuries. Some recent exhibitions at Pekin prove, that the Chinese have attained to a degree of perfection, not surpassed by the artists of France, Italy, or England. The observations of Mr. Barrow, (Travels in China), on this subject are worthy of notice. "The fire-works, in some particulars," says he, "exceeded any thing of the kind I had ever seen. In grandeur, magnificence, and variety, they were, I own, inferior to the Chinese fire-works, we had seen at Batavia, but infinitely superior in point of novelty, neatness, and ingenuity of contrivance. One piece of machinery I greatly admired; a chest five feet square, was hoisted up by a pulley, to the height of fifty or sixty feet from the ground: the bottom was so constructed as then, suddenly, to fall out, and make way for twenty or thirty strings of lanterns, enclosed in a box, to descend from it, unfolding themselves from one another by degrees, so as, at last, to form a collection of full 500, each having a light of a beautifully coloured flame, burning brightly within it. This devolution and development of lanterns was several times repeated, and, at every time, exhibited a difference of colour and figure. On each side, was a correspondence of smaller boxes, which opened in like manner as the others, and let down an immense net-work of fire, with divisions and compartments of various forms and dimensions, round and square, hexagons, octagons, &c. which shone like the brightest burnished copper, and flashed like prismatic colours, with every impulse of the wind. The diversity of colours, with which the Chinese have the secret of clothing fire, seems one of the chief merits of their pyrotechny. The whole concluded with a volcano, or general explosion and discharge of suns, stars, squibs, crackers, rockets, and granadoes, which involved the gardens for above an hour in a cloud of intolerable smoke."
Thevenot (Travels in the Levant) says, that during the bairam, or carnival, which takes place with a great deal of ceremony, the sultan causes fire-works to be played off all night; the sultan and sultanas diverting themselves with these and other amusements. Dr. Pococke (Travels through Egypt), says, that at Cairo, when the Nile is high, besides aquatic excursions, concerts of music, and other diversions, fire-works form a part of those pleasures and recreations. In a Description of the East Indies, fire-works are stated to be often exhibited at the marriage of the Banians or Gentoos.
With respect to the arrangement and display of sundry pieces of fire-works, either alone or combined, the effect depends, as well upon the ingredients, which compose the several sorts of fire, as on the taste displayed in their exhibition. It would be altogether unnecessary to notice, at this time, the order of exhibition usually adopted, reserving this subject until we have gone into the various preparations, which constitute, as it is called, a system of fire-works. In order, however, to become familiar with the manner of arranging them, as well as with their composition and preparation, whether designed for a general or a partial display, for the open air or for rooms, we purpose to appropriate distinct chapters for their consideration.
The variety of preparations, which become necessary where a full exhibition is intended, the accuracy of the different mixtures, and the adjustment of cases to wheels, whether vertical or horizontal, and the arrangement of the leaders, or communicators of fire, from one part to another of the work, with many other circumstances, in relation to stars, rain, &c. all require, from the artist, particular care and attention.
For the mere exhibition of one or two pieces, as a plain rocket, rocket with serpents, or the like, and likewise for some exhibitions, on water, called aquatic fire-works, in rooms or apartments, with scented fire, or on the stage; the preparations are by no means extensive.
It is, therefore, our design to present a view of the whole subject in detail, and to speak of the different combinations of arrangement, which are made according to fancy and taste, and calculated, as we have remarked, either for small or extensive exhibitions.
We have, in a preceding part of this work, made some observations on certain preliminary operations; on the various sizes and charges for cases; on the paper, necessary to be used, for different kinds of cases; and, generally, on sundry manipulations, connected with the making, filling, and preparation of sundry descriptions of fire-works. It remains, therefore, in the course of this subject, to give the several formulæ, with such observations as immediately concern the subject; and for this purpose we will pursue the following order:
Frazier is of opinion, that the arrangement of fire-works, which have been exhibited with effect, may, on particular occasions, be established as a guide. For this reason, Morel introduces an account of the celebrated fire-works at Versailles and Paris, in 1739, which we shall here notice.
Exhibition of fire-works at the city house of Paris, on occasion of the peace in 1739.
The theatre was a building, forty feet square, with a pyramid of eighty feet in height, on which was placed a globe, containing artificial fire, and accompanied with sixteen large vases of different forms.
All the edifice was ornamented with a variety of decorations, combined with figures and emblems of peace, and painted on marble.
After several guns were fired, as a signal, the exhibition commenced, with the discharge of a large number of honorary rockets, fired three and three at a time. Nearly five hundred lances, and saucissons garnished, lighted the four sides of the body of the works. Thirty cases of artificial fire, furnished with fusées, and double marquises, were placed upon the large terrace, with 1200 pots à feu (fire-pots); and upon the ballustrade of the same terrace, forty jets, twenty of which were aigrettes, and eight, revolving suns, four in the middle, and four on the angles. Four large fixed suns were placed above the four which revolved, and four pattes d'oies, (geese feet,) were situated before the grand pedestal of the pyramid, with jets, and pots with aigrette.
At the foot of the pyramid, on the steps, were placed 1200 fire-pots, and upon the pedestal of the pyramid, twelve large pots of aigrette, on the extremity of which, were arranged aigrettes in groups, and three large luminous stars, formed of two hundred fire lances. The four faces of the pyramid were lined with about fifty other jets; after which there were cascades, or fountains of fire. The first horizontal wheel was composed of, or furnished with, six cases, and contained also two hundred and forty double marquises. The second wheel contained two hundred and forty fire-pots, and six cases, with upwards of three hundred fusées, all in stars, twelve air balloons in the middle, but placed at the bottom of the fire-work. To this was added, twelve artificial bombs, fixed in mortars, and placed near the cannon, which pointed to the works.
This outline of the brilliant exhibition of fire-works in 1739, will give the reader some idea of the taste and magnificence of the work at that period. We may here add, however, that the improvements, which have since taken place, both in the composition of artificial fire, and its arrangement, are such as to place the modern exhibitions of this kind far above that we have just spoken of. But the following account of the execution of fire-works, performed on the Pont Neuf, in August of the same year, is more extensive, as the exhibition appears to have been more grand.
The theatre, which represented the temple of Hymen, was an edifice of the doric order. It was square. A gallery of five hundred feet in length was supported by thirty-two columns, four feet in diameter, and thirty-three feet in height. In the interior, were two solid bodies, and also one or more stair cases. At the two sides of this temple, along the parapets of the Pont Neuf, were thirty-six pyramids, eighteen of which were forty feet high, and the others, twenty-six feet. They were joined by what is called, in architecture, a corbil, and carried vases on their summits.
The signal for the exhibition was given by the firing of cannon. Immediately, were seen, rising into the air from each side of the temple, three hundred rockets, fired twelve at a time. They were discharged from the eight towers of the Pont Neuf, which face the Tuileries, and were succeeded (upon the same towers,) by one hundred and eighty pots of aigrette. The Chinese trees were disposed in such a manner, as to form a pyramid. A succession of Chinese trees now appeared, immediately on the tablet of the cornice of the bridge; then followed a great fixed sun, sixty feet in diameter, which appeared in all its splendour, in the midst of surrounding objects. Under this, was placed a large illuminated cypher, thirty feet in height, which consisted of different colours, in imitation of jewels. At the sides, between the pillars of the temple, were also two other artificial cyphers, six feet high, and composed of blue fire, which had a surprising effect. There were placed upon the two walks of the bridge, on the right and left of the temple, beyond the illuminated pyramids, two hundred cases of fusées de partement, of five or six dozen each. These cases were fired, five at a time, and succeeded the rockets. They began, on each side, from the first near the temple, and in succession, as far as the extremities to the right and left. There appeared then cascades of red fire, issuing from the five arches of the bridge, which seemed to pierce the illumination, and so vivid was the light, that the eye could scarcely sustain it. The combat of the dragons next ensued; and the water-fire, or aquatic fire-works, covered almost the whole surface of the river. Eight boats, containing works for the display on water, were arranged in symmetrical order, with the boats of illumination. There were also thirty-six cascades or fountains of fire, about thirty feet high, which appeared to rise out of the water. This exhibition of the cascades, was preceded by a revolving water-sun, and a discharge of stars from one hundred and sixty pots of aigrettes, which were placed at the lower part of the terrace.
Four large boats, containing aquatic fire-works, were moored near the arches of the bridge, and four others were disposed on the side next to the Tuileries. The fire-works, which they contained, consisted of a great number of large and small casks, charged with gerbes and pots, which, when discharged, filled the air with serpents, stars, &c. There was, also, a large number of hand gerbes, and revolving water-suns.
When the exhibition of the cascades was finished, the grand chandelier, composed of six thousand fusées, and resting on the top of the temple, was lighted. Both extremities were set on fire at the same time. This was followed by two smaller chandeliers, previously placed on each side of the foot-way of the bridge, and containing five hundred fusées each.
The fire-works, exhibited at Versailles, in the same year, and on the same occasion, were also magnificent. The account we have of them is the following: There was a large building erected, representing the temple of Hymen, nine hundred feet in length, and one hundred and twenty in height, in the gardens of Versailles, in front of the grand gallery. It was in the form of a portico, with re-enterings and salients at the two extremities, which faced the two great basins; and, in the centre, were illuminated works.
The forges of Vulcan, in the grottos, commenced with the sound of the hammers of the Cyclops. The sparks, then produced, covered, in a few instants, the two basins, provided for the purpose, with an apparent sheet or volume of fire.
From the summit of a rock, came out a jet of brilliant fire, more than thirty feet in height, accompanied with four others of less elevation, representing torrents of fire as from volcanoes. To this succeeded a great jet of water, forty-five feet in height, leading with it, as it were, seventeen other jets, which surrounded the rocks, and rushing forth with avidity, produced, in appearance, a mixture of flame and water, which, in the end, consumed entirely the two grottos.
After this, the fire-works, behind the decoration, were exhibited. Two hundred and fifty boxes, and as many caissons, arranged on both sides of the turf, which descended to the grass, were first exhibited. This, however, was less brilliant than the fire from the Cyclops. To this succeeded a brilliant fire, placed before the illumination. This composition, elevating itself to a mean height, pleased equally by its form, as by its brilliant whiteness. This fire composed three distinct decorations, which succeeded as the one replaced the other, following the same order. The spouting waters, which decorated the gardens, together with the artificial fire, appeared in the form of cascades and fountains. The first decoration, at the head of the two great basins, exhibited two handsome cascades, in the form of a white sheet, and surmounted with an aigrette twenty-five feet in height. This was accompanied with two pattes d'oies (geese feet) of seven jets each, and accompanied also with fifty jets playing from each of the sides, twenty feet in height, and occupying the fore ground.
The second appeared under the form of the pattes d'oies, of eleven jets each, of which four, at the head of the basins, were large, and all projected a body of fire, fifty feet in height. They were intermixed, however, with the pots of aigrettes, twenty feet in height, which threw a crown, composed of stars, &c. to the height of fifty feet, which produced in the atmosphere a lively and brilliant light.
The third represented thirteen fountains of fire, twenty-five feet in height, and thirty feet in diameter, with an aigrette in each. In these, there were six circular, and six spiral fountains. The largest was placed between the two basins, with four others on the right and left.
The fountains, which represented the combat of animals, had in each of them two. The animals threw, at the same time, jets of water and fire, and, between each of the fountains, large brilliant jets or spouts. This part of the exhibition was finished, by throwing into the air the garnishing or furniture of the pots, which produced crowns, &c. of great splendour.
To these three decorations, succeeded the exhibition of twelve Italian pots, placed six in a row, and in the middle of two great basins, which produced repeated discharges.
The whole was then closed by setting fire to two great chandeliers, which were placed behind the grand decoration, and contained more than three thousand fusées.
It appears from history, that when Henry II, entered Rheims, there was a representation of several figures in fire; and in 1606, the duke of Sully made an exhibition of fire-works at Fontainbleau; and in 1612, Morel, commissary of artillery, prepared a splendid exhibition of the same kind. It appears, also, that the art of communicating fire from one piece of fire-work to another, as in the combined piece of nine mutations, and the pyric-piece (which will be noticed hereafter) was discovered by Ruggeri, artificer to the king, at Boulogne, in France, in 1743.
It may not be improper, in concluding this article, to notice, in a general manner, the exhibition of the works of fire by the ancients.
The fire-works of the ancients consisted, for the principal part, of illuminations, and the use of some particular descriptions of fire. They were, however, very imperfect. Since the invention of gunpowder, its effects as well as its modifications, in this particular, became known; and, so far as respects the various preparations of artificial fire, gunpowder itself has produced a new era in pyrotechny, and the various modifications, to which it is subject, have occasioned a great variety of fire-works.
According to the authority we have on the subject, it appears, that the ancients, in exhibiting their preparations of fire, set them off by the hand, and directed them among the people, which produced great eclat.
Another description of fire-work was designed expressly for the theatre, part of which was exhibited in the form of man or beast. Of their theatrical works, our accounts are imperfect. Their works, generally, were formed of lardons, stars, and fire-balls, in imitation of grenades, and flying fusées or rockets. That they neither had a system in arranging, nor regularity in exhibiting their works, is evident from a variety of circumstances; for, although the number of their pieces, such as they were, was great; yet, they so crowded them upon each other, as that, when they were fired, they frequently destroyed the persons in their vicinity. An author of antiquity observes, that "he has seen a great many artificial machines, but, to speak the truth, few which have succeeded; and it is commonly after acclamations of joy, that the spectacle is finished by the destruction of some, and the wounding of a great number."
This fact is not at all surprising; because their works were prepared in wooden tubes, at least among the more modern, as paper cases were not then known. These tubes, moreover, were not secured by any covering, and were the more likely to burst, and hence accidents were common. The moderns, however, have rejected altogether the use of wood, in the formation of cases, and have availed themselves of the use of paper, which can be made of any size or thickness. (See Pasteboard.)
Notwithstanding wood is not employed by experienced fire-workers, partly in consequence of the reasons just given, and partly because paper furnishes a material in every way adapted to the purpose; yet, within a few years past, reed has been used in Spain, which, however, is secured by cloth and pack thread. Such substitutes, nevertheless, besides being more or less dangerous, have nothing to recommend them. It is a fact, that the Chinese, who undoubtedly excel in the manufacture of fire-works, if we believe the authority of the English embassy, use altogether paper cases; but in the war-rocket, employed by the natives against the British at Seringapatam, which did, according to the English account, great execution, their cases were formed entirely of sheet-iron. In their smaller works, which are prepared expressly for sale, paper cases are altogether made use of.
II. FIRE-WORKS FOR THEATRICAL PURPOSES
Sec. I. Of Puffs, or Bouffées.
The bouffée, according to the term used in French, signifies a species of fire, which exhibits itself in puffs, or in alternate appearances, more or less brilliant. It is also called the flambeaux of the furies. This description of artificial fire is used in theatres, and frequently in ordinary fire-works. It is fired from, and exhibited with, a funnel of tin, or sheet iron, having a hole at the apex of the cone. The hole is to be sufficiently large to admit the fire from a quick match. It is particularly calculated, when a gulf, crater, or the caves of the Cyclops, intended to eject flame, are to be exhibited.
Although many compositions may be used for this purpose, yet the following, which is employed in France, is considered preferable:
Composition for Bouffées.
Saltpetre 16 oz. Meal-powder 4 oz. Charcoal 8 oz.
When the materials are well mixed, a piece of silk paper is prepared in a round shape, by pressing it on the end of a roller, in the same manner as the ordinary cases. About one ounce of the composition is put into it, on which is placed very lightly two drachms of meal-powder. A double quick-match is now put on the meal-powder, and the paper is closed by pressing it between the fingers. It is then tied with twine. The quick-match is left sufficiently long to pass through the hole at the apex of the cone, in which is introduced the puff, being pressed a little at the bottom. The excess of the quick-match, should there be any, is cut off within an inch of the extremity of the funnel. When used, it is inflamed by a lance or port fire. The effect of the puff, in the first place, is to throw out of the funnel, by the meal-powder, a volume of fire, which will cause the appearances before mentioned.
Sec. II. Of Eruptions.
If the appearance of a volcano, or the effect of a mine is required in a piece, the following method is commonly followed: a tin, sheet-iron, or brass box is provided, either round or square, of nine inches in height, and three inches and a half in diameter, and placed on a wooden stand, sufficiently large to prevent it from overturning.
Three, four, or five ounces of the composition, mentioned in Sec. i. of this chapter, is put into it, according to the effect intended to be produced. The composition is pressed a little with the hand, and a piece of quick-match is used. This match projects out of the case, and is secured with a piece of paper, pasted over its circumference.
When the fire is presented to the quick-match, it communicates with rapidity to the inside of the box, or case, which produces an eruption, from twelve to fifteen feet in height. The effect may be made more or less great, by making the boxes of a proportional size, or by using several of them at the same time.
If a mine is the subject of representation, it is necessary to employ some large marrons, which should communicate with the boxes, and in such a manner, as that they may operate at the same time.
This exhibition, it is obvious, may be varied according to circumstances, either by employing a larger quantity of the composition in several cases, or by using one or more marrons, or some other descriptions of fire-works, the effect of which is calculated to increase the flame, and to produce the necessary variations.
Sec. III. Of the Flames.
If a flame is to be represented, as for example, the effect of an incendiary, and its appearance is to be prolonged, the fire from tow being too transient, small iron kettles, of four inches in diameter, and depth, may be used. In these are put three or four ounces of the composition of the lances of service, which is moistened with the oil or spirit of turpentine. When set on fire, they will produce a blaze three or four feet in height, and one and a half in diameter. Several may be used, according to the effect required. See the composition for the lances of service.
Sec. IV. Of the Fire-rain.
A variety of compositions for fire-rain are used, which will be noticed, when we speak of the garnishing of rockets, and other fire-works.
Cases are prepared of seven-twelfths of an inch in diameter, and ten inches long, which are choaked in such a manner, as that the hole of communication should be one-third of the diameter of the interior case. They are then charged with the following composition:
Composition of the fire-rain.
Saltpetre 8 ounces. Sulphur 4 do. Meal powder 16 ounces. Charcoal of oak 2½ do. Pitcoal 2½ do.
When the cases are charged and primed, they are tied upon a rod, having a groove cut in its length. In the inside of the groove, is a port-fire, or leader, which is tied to the cases with twine, and the groove is then covered with several pieces of paper, in the shape of a band.
This precaution is thus taken for the theatre, in order to prevent the inflamed port-fire from falling on the stage.
Sec. V. Of other Compositions for Fire-rain, in Chinese fire.
The composition of Chinese fire, which we will have occasion to mention more fully hereafter, is calculated to exhibit a more brilliant fire, with a steady and uniform effect. It is used principally on the French stage, in large operas. It is charged and used, in all respects, like the preceding.
Composition of Chinese Fire.
Saltpetre, 8 ounces Meal powder, 16 Sulphur, 4 Charcoal, 2 Powdered cast iron, 10
The elegance of the flame, produced by this mixture, depends entirely upon the effect, which cast iron possesses; and, by its combination with charcoal, sulphur, meal powder, and nitre, while an oxide of iron results from the combustion, we have, likewise, other products, arising from the decomposition of the nitre, and the union of carbon and sulphur respectively with a part of the oxygen of the nitric acid of the nitre. The gunpowder decomposes itself by reason of the nature of its own composition; but the sulphur, charcoal, and iron, decompose the nitric acid of the nitre, in the act of combustion. So that, to produce the effect, an additional quantity of nitre to that which is in the gunpowder, is required in this preparation.
Sec. VI. Of Thunderbolts. (Foudres F.)
The thunderbolts are charged in cases of two-thirds of an inch in diameter, in the same manner as cases for wheels and rockets. They are primed, whitened, well pasted, and left to dry. Some preliminary operations are required in their exhibition, as the use of the piercer, the tying of one end of the case, which is to descend first from the top of the theatre, &c. A port-fire is used for setting them off.
Composition of Thunderbolts.
Meal powder, 6 ounces. Saltpetre, 6 ---- Sulphur, 3 ---- Antimony, 4 drachms.[24]
Sec. VII. Of Dragons and other Monsters.
In certain pieces, exhibitions of this kind are made. They are formed in such a way, as to make them throw fire from the mouth, nose, and ears, which is blown out into the air. Cases, charged with brilliant fire, are so arranged that their fire may act all at the same time. Puffs may also be produced to go out at the mouth, by means of a tube or funnel, placed behind the monster. These preparations and exhibitions are so susceptible of variations, that, having a previous knowledge of the composition and effect of the fire-work, it may be so arranged as to produce a variety of appearances.
Sec. VIII. Of Lightning.
The effect of lightning may be shown by several preparations. Lycopodium, or puff-ball, is the substance most commonly employed. When it cannot be procured, rosin may be substituted; and, generally, as the latter is cheaper, it is used. Rosin, reduced to an impalpable powder, and thrown upon a flame, will produce the effect in a remarkable degree, and when blown through a tube, the effect is more striking.
Several fluid substances, when ejected from a syringe on a lighted candle, have the same appearance. Alcohol has this effect. The difficulty of preparing and employing them, has given the lycopodium a preference.
A tin or brass tube, larger at one end than the other, and covered at the former end, with a cover, perforated with holes, similar to the branch of a watering pot, is used for holding the composition, or substance made use of. Through this cover, or lid, a cotton wick is put, which, before lighting, is well soaked in alcohol or spirits of wine. When lighted, the torch or tube, containing the lycopodium, or rosin, is shaken at the smaller extremity; when these substances will pass through the holes in small quantities, and be successively inflamed.
Sec. IX. Of the Artifice of Destruction.
When, in any exhibition, palaces, castles, or forts are to be demolished, or thrown down, there are about twenty petards fixed on rods. Petards, for this use, are made with cases, and sometimes with wheels. The cases are generally three-quarters of an inch in diameter, charged with grain powder, and choaked at both ends. They are arranged in a zigzag direction.
This series of crackers has a fine effect. It is obvious, that, in all these exhibitions, intelligent artizans may employ various descriptions of artificial fire, where, in particular, it often seems, that there is something yet to be wished for.
Sec. X. Of the Spur-fire.
The spur-fire is so called, because its fire or sparks resemble the rowel of a spur. It is used in theatres and in rooms. It is the most beautiful of any yet known, and was invented by the Chinese, but greatly improved in Europe.
It requires great care to make it properly. Care ought to be taken that all the ingredients are of the best quality, that the lampblack is neither damp nor clodded, that the saltpetre is the best refined, and the sulphur perfectly pure. This composition is generally rammed into one or two ounce cases, about five or six inches long, but not driven very hard; and the cases must have their concave stroke struck very smooth, and the choak or vent not quite so large as the usual proportion: this charge, when driven, and kept a few months, will be much better than when rammed. If kept dry, it will last many years.
As the beauty of this composition cannot be seen at so great a distance as brilliant fire, it has a better effect in a theatre or room, than in the open air; and may be fired in a chamber, without danger. Its effect is of so innocent a nature, that it has been called cold fire; and so extraordinary is the fire produced from this composition, that if well made, the sparks will not burn a handkerchief when held in the midst of them. The hand, brought in contact with the spark, will feel only a sensation similar to that occasioned by the falling of rain. When any of these spurs are fired singly, they are called artificial fire-pots; but some of them, placed round a transparent pyramid of paper, and fired in a large room, make a very elegant appearance.
Composition of Spur-Fire.
1. Saltpetre, 4½ lbs. Sulphur, 2 lbs. Lampblack, 1½ lbs. or, 2. Saltpetre, 1 lb. Sulphur, ½ lb. Lampblack, 4 quarts.
The saltpetre and sulphur must be first mixed together, and sifted, and then put into a marble mortar, and the lampblack with them, which are to be worked by degrees, with a wooden pestle, till all the ingredients appear of one colour, which will be a gray, approaching to black. It is then to be tried by driving a little of it into a case, and fired in a dark place; and if the sparks, which are called stars, or pinks, come out in clusters, and afterwards spread well, without any other sparks, it is a criterion of its goodness. If any drossy sparks appear, and the stars are not full, it is then not mixed sufficiently: but, if the pinks are very small, and soon break, it is a proof that it has been rubbed too much; for, in this case, few stars will appear. When, on the contrary, the mixture is not rubbed sufficiently, the combustion will be too weak, and lumps, resembling dross, with an obscure smoke, but without stars, will be emitted.
The peculiar effect of this composition is owing to the carbon of the lampblack, one part of which is inflamed, its combustion being supported by the oxygen gas of the atmosphere.
Sec. XI. Of the coloured Flame of Alcohol.
We have already remarked, in treating of alcohol, that its flame may be changed of various colours, by using certain native substances. See Alcohol.
Alcohol, thus mixed, or combined with substances, may be exhibited on certain occasions; for even cotton, when immersed in it, and set on fire, will show the same appearances. Morel remarks, that, if vinegar, a small portion of crude tartar, and common salt, and a still smaller quantity of saltpetre, be mixed together, and distilled, a liquid will be obtained, which burns with great brilliancy. It is doubtful, however, if we judge from analogy, whether either tartar, the salt, or saltpetre, will communicate any peculiar property to the distilled vinegar; for these saline substances will remain unaltered in the distilling vessel. The vinegar, nevertheless, may be obtained in a more concentrated state, being deprived of its colouring and other matter, and the greater part of its water, and, therefore, approach to the state of acetic acid.
With respect to alcohol, it is known to dissolve a variety of saline substances, most of which have the property of changing the colour of its flame. Although we have not made any experiments with the spirits of turpentine, yet we are of opinion, that it may be used with resins, &c. in the same manner. In all cases, it is evident, that the fluid made use of must be inflammable.
Macquer (Memoirs of the Turin Academy) made a number of experiments on the solubility of salts in alcohol, and on the different coloured flames, which they produced. The principal results of his experiments, are the following:
Quantity in grains. Salts soluble in 200 Peculiar phenomena grains of spirit. of the flame.
{ Flame, larger, higher, 4 Nitrate of potassa, { more ardent, yellow, { and luminous.
5 Muriate of potassa, { Large, ardent, yellow, { and luminous.
0 Sulphate of soda, Considerably red.
15 Nitrate of soda, { Yellow, luminous, { detonating.
0 Muriate of soda, { Larger, more ardent, { and reddish.
0 Sulphate of ammonia, None.
108 Nitrate of ammonia, Whiter, more luminous.
24 Muriate of ammonia, None.
288 Nitrate of lime, { Larger, more luminous, { red, and decrepitating.
288 Muriate of lime, { Like that of nitrate of { lime.
84 Nitrate of silver, None.
204 Muriate of mercury, { Large, yellow, luminous, { and decrepitating.
4 Nitrate of iron, Red and decrepitating.
36 Muriate of iron, { More white, luminous, { and sparkling.
{ More white, luminous, 48 Nitrate of copper, { and green, much smoke. { The saline residuum { became black and burnt.
48 Muriate of copper, { Fine green, white { and red fulgurations.
The alcohol, he employed, had a specific gravity of 0.840.
Sec. XII. Of Red fire.
Dr. Ure (Chemical Dictionary) informs us, that the beautiful red, which is now frequently used at the theatres, is composed of the following ingredients: 40 parts of dry nitrate of strontia; 13 parts of finely powdered sulphur; 5 parts of chlorate (hyperoxymuriate) of potassa, and 4 parts of sulphuret of antimony. The chlorate of potassa and sulphuret of antimony, should be powdered, separately, in a mortar, and then mixed together on paper; after which they may be added to the other ingredients, previously powdered and mixed. No other kind of mixture than rubbing together on paper is required. Sometimes a little realgar is added to the sulphuret of antimony, and frequently, when the fire burns dim and badly, a very small quantity of very finely powdered charcoal or lampblack will make it perfect.
III. OF PORTABLE FIRE-WORKS
Sec. I. Of exhibitions on Tables.
Fire-works, it is obvious, may be employed in a variety of ways, either large or small, in the open air, or in apartments, according to circumstances. Fire-tables are composed of a great many works, the same as is exhibited upon a large scale; but of a size corresponding with small exhibitions. As fire-tables are used only in apartments, and the works are shown from tables, on which they are arranged, it is necessary that the cases which contain them should be of a small caliber, and their fire less extensive.
The cases or cartridges are made of one-eighth of an inch in diameter, and charged with the best pistol powder, which produces less smoke than cannon powder. These small works are usually exhibited on pasteboard, differently arranged.
Among the works are frequently figures, resembling fruit contained in gerbes and even small caprices. Pinks, which are also used, are generally modified, or accompanied with other decorations, and furnished with illuminated suns. Fire-pots of one inch in diameter, filled with small bombs and various devices, are employed, when a surprise is intended. The fire-table is arranged, although upon a small scale, in the same manner as other works. Their arrangement, therefore, is the same as for other kinds of fire-works, only proportioning them accordingly.
Brilliant fire.
Meal powder, 16 oz. Fine filings of steel. 2½ do
Jessamine.
Meal powder, 16 oz. Saltpetre, ½ -- Sulphur, ½ -- Fine steel filings, 2½ --
Aurora.
Meal powder, 16 oz. Gold powder, 2 --
White.
Meal powder, 16 oz. Saltpetre, 6 -- Sulphur, 10 --
Rays.
Meal powder, 16 oz. Needle filings, (or filings of the best steel,) 1½ --
Silver rain.
Meal powder, 16 oz. Saltpetre, ½ -- Sulphur, ½ -- Needle filings, (or filings of the best steel,) --
Chinese silver rain.
Meal powder, 18 oz. Sulphur, 2 -- Saltpetre, 1 -- Powder of cast iron, of the best, 5 --
As to aquatic fire-works, some of which are frequently shown in rooms, the reader will find in the article on that subject, a full account of the manner of forming them. He may also consult a treatise on Artificial fire-works by Perrint D'Orval, published in 1745. This work gives ample instructions for performing all kinds of fire-work on water.
In the article alluded to will be found several formulæ for preparing odoriferous fire, which may be used for exhibitions on the table. The succeeding chapter, however, is sufficiently comprehensive on that subject.
Sec. II. Of Table Rockets.
Table rockets are not calculated for exhibition. They are designed merely to show the truth of driving, and the judgment of a fire-worker. They have no other effect, when fired, than spinning round in the same place where they began, till they are burnt out, and showing a horizontal circle of fire. The method of making these rockets, is the following: Have a cone, turned out of solid wood, 2-1/2 inches in diameter, and of the same height, and, round its base, draw a line. On this line, fix four spokes, two inches long each, so as to stand one opposite the other; then fill four nine-inch one pound cases with any strong composition, within two inches of the top. These cases are made like tourbillons, and must be rammed with the greatest exactness. The rockets being filled, fix their open ends on the short spokes; then, in the side of each case, bore a hole near the clay. All these holes or vents must be so made, that the fire of each case may act the same way; and from these vents carry leaders to the top of the cone, and tie them together. When the rockets are to be fixed, set them on a smooth table, and light the leaders in the middle, and all the cases will fire together, and spin on the point of the cone. These rockets may be made to rise, like tourbillons, by making the cases shorter, and boring four holes in the under side of each, at equal distances. This being done, they are called double tourbillons.
All the vents in the under sides of the cases, must be lighted at once; and the sharp point of the cone cut off, at which place, it is to be made spherical.
Sect. III. Of the Transparent Illuminated Table Star.
The table star is usually twelve feet in diameter, and, from the nearest extremity to the frame, four feet. This proportion, observed on each side, will make the centre frame four feet square. In this square, a transparent star is fixed. This star may be painted blue, and its rays made like the flaming stars. The wheels for this star may be composed of different coloured fires, with a charge or two of slow fire. The wheels, on the extremities, may be clothed with any number of cases; so that the star-wheel consists of the same. The illuminated fires, which must be placed very near each other on the frames, in order to have a proper effect, ought to burn as long as the wheels, and be lighted at the same time.
Sect. IV. Of Detonating Works.
We have noticed various fulminating preparations in different parts of our work, such as the ordinary fulminating powder, Higgins's fulminating powder, fulminating oil, and several metallic powders. We have also given some preparations made with fulminating silver, the making of which we have noticed.
Besides the torpedo, &c. prepared with fulminating silver, there are some other preparations made with the same substance, which we purpose to give in this place.
Waterloo crackers. Take a slip of cartridge paper, about three-quarters of an inch in width, paste and double it. Let it remain till dry, and cut it into two equal parts in length, (No. 1 and 2), according to the following pattern.
+-----------+-----------+--+----------+----------------+ | No. 1. | Glass. |S.| Glass. | No. 2. | +-----------+-----------+--+----------+----------------+
Take some of the glass composition, and lay it across the paper as in the pattern, and put about a quarter of a grain of fulminating silver in the place marked S.; and, while the glass composition is moist, put the paper, marked No. 2, over the farthest row of glass. Over all, paste, twice over the part that covers the silver, a piece of paper; let it dry. By pulling both ends apart, the friction by the glass, will cause the fulminating silver to explode.
Detonating Girdle. Procure a piece of girth, from 12 to 18 inches in length. Double it, and fold it down about 1-1/2 inches, similar to the fold of a letter, and then turn back one end of the girth, and it will form two compartments. Then dissolve some gum arabic in water, and thicken it by adding coarsely powdered glass. Place two upright rows of the glass composition, in the inside of one of the folds, about a quarter of an inch in width, and, when they are dry, sow the first fold together on the edge, and then the second at the opposite end; so that one end may be open. Then in the centre of the two rows, put about a grain of fulminating silver, and paste a piece of cotton or silk over it. Make a hole at each end of the girdle, and hang it to a hook in the door post, and the other hook on the door; observing to place the silk part, so that it may come against the edge of the door upon being opened, which will occasion a report.
Detonating Tape. This is made of binding, about 3/8ths of an inch in width. The same directions are to be attended to, as those we have just given for making the girdle. It may be exploded by taking hold of each end, and rolling the ends from each other sharply, or by two persons pulling at opposite ends.
Detonating Balls. These are made in several ways, either by enclosing a shot in paper with fulminating silver, which is exploded by throwing it on the ground, or made of small glass globes. For the latter, procure some small glass globes, between the size of a pea and a small marble, in which there must be a small hole; put into it half a grain of fulminating silver, and paste a piece of paper over the hole. When this ball is put on the ground, and trod upon, it will go off with a loud noise. If put under the leg of a chair, and pressed by the weight of the body, the same effect will take place.
Detonating Cards. Take a piece of card, about three fourths of an inch in breadth and 12 in length; slit it at one end, and place in the opening a quarter of a grain of fulminating silver, close the end down with a little paste, and when dry light the end in a candle.
Fulminating silver may be used in several other ways, affording a variety in the effect, as the following: Fold a letter in the usual manner, and along with the wafer introduce the fulminating silver mixed with some glass: when the wafer is broken, in the act of opening the letter, a violent explosion will take place.
By placing a quarter of a grain of the powder in the midst of some tobacco in a pipe, or between the leaves of a segar, and closing the end again to prevent the powder from falling out; it need hardly be stated, that on lighting it, an explosion ensues. Such experiments should be made with caution.
One-third of a grain of fulminating silver, folded in a small piece of paper, and wrapped in another piece, then pasted round a pin, which is to be stuck in the wick of a candle, will make a loud report.
As fulminating silver explodes by heat, or friction, it is obvious, that various contrivances may be used for this purpose. If, for instance, half a grain be put on a piece of glass paper, (paper covered with a mixture of powdered glass and gum), then inclosed in a piece of tin foil, and put in the bottom or side of a drawer; on opening or shutting it, the powder will immediately explode. The same effect takes place by putting a quarter of a grain into a piece of paper, and placing it in the snuffers. When the candle is snuffed, it will go off.
Two figures, one of which blows out and the other relights a candle, are sometimes exhibited in rooms. This is performed by making two figures of any shape or material, and inserting in the mouth of one, a small tube, at the end of which is a piece of phosphorus, and in the mouth of the other, a tube containing at the end a few grains of gunpowder; observing that each be retained in the tube by a piece of paper. If the second figure be applied to the flame of a taper, it will extinguish it, by reason of the gunpowder, and the first will light it again.
Candle bombs. These are usually called candle crackers, and are made of glass. They are blown in small bubbles, having a neck about half an inch long, with very slender bores, by means of which a small quantity of water or spirit of wine is introduced. The orifice is then closed. When they are stuck into a candle, the heat converts the water or alcohol into vapour, which breaks the glass with a loud report, extinguishing the flame at the same time.
Detonations by Electricity. The electric fluid, it is known, will inflame combustible bodies, and, for the purpose of experiment, several contrivances have been used. That of placing the substance, gunpowder for instance, on a small insulated stand, and passing the spark through it by means of conductors, will cause its inflammation. The electrical house is also an exemplification of the effect of the electric fluid.
Detonations by Galvanism. Substances, placed on a glass plate, and brought in contact with the positive and negative poles of a galvanic battery, are readily inflamed. Hence phosphorus, gunpowder, the metals, &c. may be inflamed in this manner. The deflagrator of professor Hare of the University of Pennsylvania, is a powerful apparatus for the purpose; for the construction of which, and the details of its effects, see the American Journal of Science by professor Silliman, of Yale College.
Among the means of producing heat that of compression is well known. The common condensing syringe, for inflaming spunk or touch paper, is on this principle.
This syringe is now made very portable, not more than six inches in length and about three-eighths of an inch in diameter. The end of the piston, which fits tight in the cylinder, has a small cavity, in which the spunk is put, so that, when the piston is suddenly compressed, the air is condensed, and a temperature produced, sufficient to inflame it. The air, in the cylinder, is condensed in the ratio of about one to forty. The calculations on the degree of compression, which atmospheric air must undergo to produce fire by this kind of percussion, with observations on the subject, may be seen in M. Biot, (Traité de Physique Experimentale, &c. tome ii, p. 17), with other remarks concerning the sources of caloric.
To account for certain phenomena in the atmosphere, some of which are accompanied with detonations, Mr. Nicholson (Chemical Dictionary, article Air, atmospherical), conceives that the lower atmosphere consists chiefly of oxygen and nitrogen, together with moisture, and the occasional vapours or exhalations of bodies. The upper atmosphere seems to be composed of a large proportion of hydrogen, a fluid of so much less specific gravity than any other, that it must naturally ascend to the highest place; where, being occasionally set on fire by electricity, it appears to be the cause of the aurora borealis and fire-balls. It may easily be understood, that this will only happen on the confines of the respective masses of common atmospherical air, and of the inflammable air; that the combustion will extend progressively, though rapidly, in flashings from the place where it commences; and that, when, by any means, a stream of inflammable air, in its progress towards the upper atmosphere, is set on fire at one end, its ignition may be much more rapid than what happens higher up, where oxygen is wanting; and at the same time more definite in its figure and progression, so as to form the appearance of a fire-ball.
Detonations frequently accompany combustion. There are many interesting experiments on this subject, some of which we will notice in this place, viz.
Experiment 1. If a small portion of fulminating powder be placed on a fire-shovel over a hot fire, it will become brown, then melt, and swell up, and finally explode. See Fulminating powder.
Experiment 2. Iron filings and sulphur, made into a paste with water, and buried in the ground for a few hours, will unite, decompose the water, and inflame; throwing up the earth with violence and noise. See Artificial Volcano.
Experiment 3. If nitrate of copper be spread on tin foil and wetted, and the foil immediately wrapped up, scintillations of fire will follow, accompanied with slight detonations.
Experiment 4. Five or six grains of sulphuret of antimony, with half its weight of chlorate of potassa, when struck with a hammer will cause a loud detonation.
Experiment 5. Two grains of chlorate of potassa, and one grain of flowers of sulphur, when rubbed together, will produce a detonating noise; and the same mixture, struck with a hammer, will give a loud report. See Chlorate of Potassa.
Experiment 6. One grain of phosphorus and two grains of chlorate of potassa, struck in the same manner, will produce a violent explosion. See Phosphorus.
Experiment 7. Mix ten grains of chlorate of potassa with one grain of phosphorus, and drop the mixture into sulphuric acid; detonation and flame will be the consequence.
Experiment 8. Make a mixture of arsenic and chlorate of potassa. On presenting a lighted match, combustion, accompanied with a detonation, will ensue; and, if a train of gunpowder be laid, and both inflamed at the same time, the arsenical mixture will burn with the rapidity of lightning, while the other burns with comparative slowness.
Experiment 9. If one grain of dry nitrate of bismuth be mixed with one grain of phosphorus, and rubbed together in a metallic mortar, a loud detonation will be produced.
Experiment 10. If a globule of potassium be thrown upon water, an instantaneous explosion will be produced.
Experiment 11. A grain of fulminating gold, struck gently with a hammer, will produce a loud explosion.
Experiment 12. A few grains of fulminating mercury, struck in the same manner, will produce a loud detonation.
Experiment 13. When a grain or two of potassium are mixed with the same quantity of sodium, no effect will take place; but if the mixture be brought in contact with a globule of mercury, and agitated, combustion, with a slight detonation, will follow, showing the vivid combustion of three metals, when brought in contact with each other.
Experiment 14. If to six grains of chlorate of potassa, we add three grains of pulverized charcoal, and rub the two in a mortar, no effect will ensue; but if we add to this mixture two grains of sulphur, and continue the rubbing, inflammation, accompanied with a report, will take place. See Gunpowder of chlorate of potassa.
Experiment 15. Chlorate of potassa and sulphur, rubbed in a mortar, will produce a crackling noise, similar to that of a whip. These reports will follow in succession as the pestle is pressed on the mixture.
Experiment 16. Combustion, with a slight detonation, takes place during the melting of coin in a nut-shell. For this purpose, make a mixture of three parts of nitre, one part of sulphur, and one of very fine dry saw dust; press a small portion of this powder into a walnut shell, and put on it a small silver or copper coin, rolled up, and fill the shell with the mixture. If the mixture be now inflamed, it will melt the coin in a mass, while the shell will be only blackened.
Experiment 17. Introduce, into an inflammable air pistol, a mixture of hydrogen gas with oxygen gas, or, in the place of the latter, atmospheric air, and apply a lighted taper: a violent detonation will be produced. See Inflammable air works.
Experiment 18. Mix some fine musket powder with pulverized glass, and strike the mixture with a hammer on an anvil; the gunpowder will explode. See Gunpowder.
Experiment 19. Take a small portion of fulminating platinum, and place it on the end of a spatula, or on the blade of a knife, and hold it over the flame of a candle; a sharp explosion will take place. See Fulminating platinum.
Experiment 20. If soap bubbles be formed of a mixture of hydrogen gas and atmospheric air, and touched with a lighted taper, they will detonate in the air.
Experiment 21. If a portion of detonating oil, (Chloride of azote) be heated to 212°, a violent explosion will ensue; or,
Experiment 22. If a portion of the same oil, of the size of a pin-head, be brought in contact with olive oil, the effect will be still more violent. See Detonating oil.
Experiment 23. Take ten or fifteen grains of Higgins's fulminating powder, and expose it to heat on a shovel: detonation will follow. See Higgins's Fulminating powder.
Experiment 24. If oxalate of mercury, to the amount of three or four grains, be struck with a hammer, a detonation will ensue, in the same manner as with the nitrous etherized oxalate of mercury, or Howard's fulminating mercury. See Mercury.
Experiment 25. Take some of the detonating powder, prepared from indigo, and wrap it up in paper, and strike the paper with a hammer: an explosion will ensue. See Detonating powder from indigo.
Experiment 26. If some gunpowder be placed on the stand of an electrical discharger, and the electric spark passed through it, combustion, with a detonation, will be produced.
Experiment 27. If some gunpowder be wrapped in tin foil, and placed on a glass plate, and the two wires of a galvanic battery brought in contact with the foil; the foil will inflame and explode the powder.
Experiment 28. Mix in a mortar one part of sulphuret of potassa with two parts of nitrate of potassa, and expose the mixture to the action of heat in the same manner as fulminating powder: a violent detonation will take place. The sulphuret of potassa is recommended, in lieu of potassa and sulphur in a separate state; and although called Bergman's fulminating powder, this compound is in fact, according to the theory of its explosion, the same as the ordinary fulminating powder.
Experiment 29. If, says Morey, (Silliman's Journal ii, 21), a given quantity of strongly compressed boiling water, be suddenly discharged into about an equal quantity of oil or rosin, at or near the boiling point, it will explode, to every appearance, as quickly and violently as gunpowder.
Experiment 30. If zinc or iron filings, or pulverized antimony, be mixed with chlorate of potassa, and struck with a hammer, violent detonations will ensue. If sulphuret of iron be used, the same effect will ensue. See MM. Fourcroy and Vauquelin's communication to the Société Philomatique, in their Transactions.
Experiment 31. If oxide of mercury, obtained from its solution in nitric acid by means of caustic potassa, be dried, and mixed with flowers of sulphur, and struck with a hammer, a detonation will be produced. (See Journal de Physique, 1779.)
Experiment 32. If alcohol or ether be mixed with chlorate of potassa, into a thick paste, and the mixture struck with a hammer, an explosion will be the consequence: or,
Experiment 33. If, instead of alcohol or ether, we make use of fixed or volatile oils, and proceed in the same manner, the same effect will ensue.
Experiment 34. If a small portion of chloride of azote (Detonating oil) be dropped into a solution of phosphorus in ether or alcohol, a violent explosion will take place: or,
Experiment 35. If in the place of phosphorized ether, other oils, as camphorated oil, palm oil, whale oil, linseed oil, sulphuretted oil, oil of turpentine, naphtha, &c. be brought in contact, the same effect will ensue.
Experiment 36. Chloride of azote will also detonate with sundry gaseous and solid substances, as supersulphuretted hydrogen, sulphuretted hydrogen, phosphuretted hydrogen, nitrous gas, aqueous ammonia, phosphuret of lime, ambergris, fused potassa, and sundry metallic soaps. Messrs. Porret, Wilson, and Kirk, brought one hundred and twenty-five substances in contact with it, and twenty-eight of the number produced detonations. (Nicholson's Journal, vol. 34.)
Experiment 37. If a small quantity of ammoniacal nitrate of copper be wrapped in paper, or in a piece of tin foil, and struck with a hammer, a detonation will ensue.
Experiment 38. If a small portion of arsenic and chlorate of potassa be mixed, and smartly struck, a flame will be produced, accompanied with an explosion; or,
Experiment 39. If the same mixture be touched with a lighted match, it will burn with considerable rapidity; or,
Experiment 40. If it be thrown into concentrated sulphuric acid, at the instant of contact, a flame will rise into the air like a flash of lightning.
Experiment 41. Heat a portion of deutoxide of chlorine: when the temperature arrives at 212°, an explosion will take place, and chlorine and oxygen be evolved.
Experiment 42. If prussine gas, otherwise called cyanogen, or carburet of azote, be mixed with atmospheric air, in the proportion of about one to four in volume, and the electric spark made to pass through the mixture; a violent detonation will result, leaving a mixture of carbonic acid gas and azotic gas.
Experiment 43. If a mixture of equal parts of nitrate of potassa, and titanium, be thrown into a red-hot crucible, detonation will follow.
Experiment 44. Melt some nitrate of potassa in a crucible, and bring it to the state of ignition: now throw in a small quantity of pulverized zinc, and a very violent detonation will take place.
Experiment 45. If one part of zinc filings and two parts of dry arsenic acid be distilled in a retort, or exposed to heat in a crucible, the moment it becomes red, a detonation will be produced.
Experiment 46. If a few drops of deutoxide of hydrogen, or the oxygenized water of Thenard, be let fall on dry oxide of silver, a violent action will follow, accompanied with an explosion. Several other oxides have the same effect.
Experiment 47. If a portion of black wadd, an ore of manganese found in Derbyshire, England, be brought in contact with linseed oil; the oil will take fire, producing sometimes slight detonations.
Experiment 48. Take a portion of the brown oxide of tungsten, formed by transmitting hydrogen gas over tungstic acid, in an ignited glass tube; mix it with chlorate of potassa, and strike the mixture with a hammer: a loud detonation will ensue; or,
Experiment 49. Heat some of the brown oxide in the air. It will take fire, and burn like tinder, passing to the state of the yellow oxide, or tungstic acid.
Experiment 50. If one measure of oxygen gas, and two measures of hydrogen gas be mixed in the explosive eudiometer, and the electric spark passed through them, a detonation will ensue, and a complete condensation take place.
Experiment 51. When equal volumes of protoxide of azote, or gaseous oxide of azote, (called also nitrous oxide), and hydrogen gas, are treated in the same manner, the mixture will explode, leaving a residuum, consisting of azotic gas.
Experiment 52. If two measures of carbonic oxide or gaseous oxide of carbon, and one measure of oxygen, be submitted to the action of the electric spark, a detonation will ensue, and the carbonic oxide will be changed into carbonic acid.
Experiment 53. If one measure of carburetted hydrogen gas, either the heavy or light carburetted hydrogen, called also the hydroguret and bi-hydroguret of carbon, (the former being sometimes called olefiant gas), be mixed with two or three measures of oxygen gas, and the electric spark transmitted through them; a detonation will ensue, forming water and carbonic acid.
Experiment 54. If one measure of cyanogen, (carburet of azote), be mixed with two and a half measures of oxygen gas, and treated with the electric spark, the mixed gases will explode very loudly. The cyanogen burns, in this case, with a blue flame; although it is usually of a purple colour. The products of combustion are carbonic acid and azote. (See Experiment 42.)
Experiment 55. If one measure of arsenuretted hydrogen gas, (obtained from an alloy of three parts of tin and one of arsenic, by treating it with muriatic acid), and two measures of oxygen gas are mixed together, and the electric spark is passed through the mixture; a detonation will ensue, and water and arsenious acid be formed.
Experiment 56. If potassium be made to act upon a compound of chlorine and sulphur, called chloride of sulphur, an explosion will immediately ensue; but,
Experiment 57. If potassium be dropped into chlorine gas, inflammation only will take place, accompanied with a vivid light, forming chloride of potassium, (dry muriate of potassa.)
Experiment 58. If sulphuret of potassium be heated in the air, it will burn with great brilliancy, forming sulphate of potassa; but, if mixed with chlorate of potassa, and struck with a hammer, a violent detonation will be produced.
Experiment 59. If potassium be heated in sulphuretted hydrogen gas, it takes fire, and burns with a vivid flame, and pure hydrogen is set free; thus proving that sulphuretted hydrogen gas, although inflammable itself in oxygen gas, is a supporter of combustion for potassium.
Experiment 60. If phosphuret of potassium be exposed to the air, it will inflame spontaneously, forming phosphate of potassa; but if it be dropped into water, it will produce a violent explosion, in consequence of the immediate disengagement of phosphuretted hydrogen gas.
Experiment 61. If potassium be moderately heated in the air, it inflames, burns with a red light, and emits alkaline fumes.
Experiment 62. If potassium be thrown upon water, it acts with great violence, burning with a beautiful light, of a red colour, mixed with purple, the water becoming a solution of potassa.
Experiment 63. When sodium is heated strongly in oxygen or chlorine, it burns with great brilliancy; but it does not inflame, when thrown into water. It is converted, however, into soda. If it be heated in oxygen gas in excess, it burns, and is converted into the peroxide of sodium, which, when mixed with combustible bodies, and exposed to the action of heat, deflagrates with violence, giving off its excess of oxygen, and becoming changed into soda, or protoxide of sodium.
Experiment 64. When sulphuret of sodium is mixed with chlorate of potassa, and struck with a hammer, a detonation will ensue; and when sodium is heated nearly to fusion, in contact with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, it will unite with the sulphur; flame will be produced, and hydrogen gas set at liberty. A sulphuret of sodium is thus formed, which is usually combined with some sulphuretted hydrogen.
Experiment 65. When a mixture of ammoniacal gas, in a dry state, and oxygen gas, is submitted to the influence of the electric spark, in the explosive eudiometer, explosion will take place, and water and azotic gas result.
Experiment 66. If potassium or sodium be heated in fluoric gas, a rapid combustion takes place, in all respects as brilliant as in oxygen gas.
Experiment 67. If gallic acid be placed on a red-hot iron, it burns with flame, and emits an aromatic smell, similar to that of benzoic acid; but, if mixed with chlorate of potassa and struck with a hot hammer, a detonation will ensue. Various vegetable acids, as the benzoic, which is highly inflammable, produce similar effects.
IV. OF SCENTED FIRE-WORKS
There is a variety of scented fires, all partaking, in a greater or lesser degree, of a peculiar flavour, according to the substances, which enter into their composition. It is a fact, that, in the ordinary odoriferous fire, into which, either the so called scented gums, or essential oils, enter as a component part, these substances are not only decomposed in the act of combustion, but evolve, during that process, a part of their respective odours, to which we attribute the scent imparted to the atmosphere. In those instances, in which gunpowder forms a part of the composition, it is to be remarked, that the peculiar smell of fired gunpowder is scarcely recognized, owing to the preponderance of the scent in the composition. Hence it is, that scented fire-works are more calculated for confined places than for the open air.
Scented fires are various both in their nature and composition, and may always be so modified, as, in their effect, to produce, not only the particular flame, or appearance of the fire, but the extrication, along with the gaseous products, of the odour of the essential oil, or other substance made use of.
Linnæus, in a dissertation on the odours of different substances, endeavoured to classify them. M. Lorrey (Mémoires de la Société Royale de Medicine 1784) divided them into five classes; viz. camphors, narcotics, ethers, volatile acids, and alkalies; but it is obvious, that it is an impossibility to class all the odours which exist, and may be formed by the mixture, or combination of various substances. We may consider them either pleasant, or unpleasant to the sense of smelling. But as we recognize bodies very frequently by their odour, with which we become familiar, as camphor and assafœtida, for instance; so the olfactories may be affected by other odours. Aromatic and fetid odours are opposite to each other. Some of the gases, as the olefiant, have a fragrant smell, and others, as hydrogen, and sulphuretted hydrogen, either alone or mixed, are extremely unpleasant. The intestinal gas (gas intestinaux of the French) is a particular instance of the odour of a compound gas, or mixture of gaseous fluids. The experiments of M. Jurine of Geneva, of MM. Chevreul and Magendie, (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. t. ii, 294), of M. Vauquelin, (Journal de Pharmacie, t. iii, p. 205), and of MM. Lameyran and Fremy, (Bulletin de Pharmacie, t. 1, p. 358), are interesting on this subject. Intestinal gas differs in its composition. It always contains carbonic acid gas, and azotic gas, and hydrogen gas, either pure, or combined with carbon and sulphur. Thenard (Traité de Chimie, iii, p. 576) contains some observations on this subject.
In the camphor odour, Lorrey includes not only camphor itself, but various species of laurel, myrrh, and turpentine. In the narcotic odour, he embraces opium, various gum-resins, roses, lillies, jessamine, &c. and musk, amber, and castor. In the ethereal odour, different kinds of ether. Under the odour of volatile acids, he considers that of fruits, aromatic barks, citron; and under the alkaline odour, the acrid, and, in general, the antiscorbutic plants. Fourcroy, in treating of the aroma of plants, or the spiritus rector of Boerhaave, (Bulletin de la Société Philomatique, an. 6, p. 52,) has some interesting facts on this subject.
It is evident, that perfumes, so called, owe their peculiar fragrance to an essential oil, which characterizes each kind; for the essential oil obtained by distillation, partakes of the odour of the plant. Hence the oils of mint, roses, thyme, cinnamon, cloves, &c. &c. all of which are peculiar in this respect. Odoriferous fire-works owe their particular properties to the presence of some gum, resin, or oil. As to the expansibility, or rather the divisibility of odour, several interesting facts are known. In a work, entitled l'Existence de Dieu, par les merveilles de la Nature, we are informed, that, if we take the one-fourth of a drachm of benzoin, and place it in the four corners of a room, the odour will be recognised in an instant. The chamber in which the experiment was made, the author states, was 24 feet by 16, and contained 9212 cubic feet of air, which, multiplied by 1000, would give 9216000 inches, and 1000000 parts of an inch were rendered appreciable. Therefore, he infers, that 9216000000000 are equally perceptible in the chamber. Prevot (Bulletin de la Société Philomatique, an. 6) has some observations of the same nature, respecting camphor. If such are the effects with benzoin, what, we may ask, would be those of the more powerful perfumes, such as musk? One grain, or perhaps the tenth part of a grain of musk, would scent the atmosphere of a room very perfectly.
De Laval (Description of the Maldiva Islands) mentions the use of scented fire by the inhabitants, in the celebration of their festivals. On the day of every new moon, they place at the entrance of the churches, and the gates of their houses, cocoa shells cut in the middle, and filled with white sand and burning coals, upon which they burn, almost all night, sweet scented gums and woods; and at the nocturnal festival, called maulude, the night on which Mahomet died, their halls are illuminated with a multitude of lamps, and the air is filled with the smoke of perfumes. The use of scented fire appears to form a principal part of their devotional exercises. Perfumes are even burnt on the graves of deceased persons.
Having mentioned the use of odoriferous plants in scented fire, we may add, that all plants possess some peculiar character, if aromatic, which, as one of their characters, serves to distinguish them.
The qualities of plants are said to be similar, when they have the same taste and odour. The odours of plants, Richard divides into 1. Fragrant, 2. Aromatic, 3. Ambrosiac, or resembling amber, 4. Alliaceous, or resembling garlic, 5. Fetid, 6. Nauseous. The three first are innoxious.
In the composition of scented fire-works, it is also to be observed, that gunpowder does not always form a part; and hence their character is various, according to the purposes they are applied to, or their uses.
In the odoriferous water balloons, (for which, see aquatic fire-works), we have, for instance, along with saltpetre and other substances, in the different compositions, either amber and flowers of benzoin; or frankincense, myrrh, and camphor; or amber, cedar raspings, and the essential oils of roses and bergamot; or the saw-dust of juniper, cypress, camphor, myrrh, dried rosemary, cortex elaterii, and oil of roses. These are the substances, therefore, which enter into the different compositions, in the order here given, and which impart to the fire an odoriferous character. The relative proportions may be learnt, by referring to the chapter on Aquatic fire-works.
Scented fires are, however, little used. Their effect is nevertheless agreeable in close rooms; but in the open air they lose this property, or rather it is not perceptible, owing to its extreme division.
The vases of scent were greatly employed in the public feasts and ceremonies at Rome, Athens, and, above all, in Egypt. In temples, palaces, &c. they were mostly used. The vessels, which contained the composition, were placed by the Athenians in sculptured or painted vases, as well to hide their appearance, as to serve for ornament.
Sec. I. Of Pastilles.
Pastilles, or fire crayons, are small conical troches, in the form of a loaf, of one and a quarter inches in height, and about an inch thick. They are made of the following composition, which is moistened with rose-water, having some gum arabic previously dissolved in it. The paste is made neither too thick nor too thin, but of a sufficient consistence to work with the hand.
Composition of Pastilles.
Storax calamite, 2 oz. Benzoin, 2 -- Gum Juniper, 2 -- Olibanum, 1 -- Mastich, 1 -- Frankincense, 1 -- White or yellow Amber, 1 -- Camphor, 1 -- Saltpetre, 3 -- Charcoal of the linden, or willow, 4 --
The pastilles are burnt upon a plate, and communicate to the air an agreeable odour.
Odoriferous paste.
Gum Benzoin, ½ oz. Storax calamite, 4 scruples. Peruvian balsam, (dried) ¼ oz. Cascarilla, 4 scruples. Cloves, ½ drachm. Charcoal, 1½ oz. Nitre, 1 drachm. Oil of Lemon, ½ do. Tincture of Amber, ½ do.
The dry substances are pulverized very fine, and mixed intimately together, and the oil of lemon and tincture of amber then added. The whole is then made into a thick paste with common mucilage, and formed into pieces as before mentioned. These pieces ought to be conical. When used, they are placed on a stone, or a piece of metal, and inflamed. This composition is said to burn with scintillations, and to exhale a very fragrant and agreeable odour. See Dictionnaire de l'Industrie.
Perfume for Apartments.
Orrisroot, 1 oz. Benzoin, ½ -- Charcoal, ¼ -- Ess. Bergamot, 1 drachm.
These ingredients are mixed into a paste in the usual manner, with orange flower water, and a small quantity of gum. A small portion, when dry, thrown on ignited coals, will exhale an agreeable odour.--Ibid.
M. Brillat-Savarin (Archives des Découvertes iii, p. 328) has invented a machine, which he calls the irrorateur, for perfuming apartments. He objects to the ordinary mode of perfuming by fire, and sprinkling odoriferous fluids in a room. His irrorateur consists of a small fountain, which, by compression, forces out the odour required, and may be conveyed to any place.
Sec. II. Of Vases of Scent.
We observed, that these vases were much in use at the public feasts and ceremonies of the Athenians, Romans, and Egyptians.
Composition for the Vases.
Storax, 4 oz. Benzoin, 4 -- Frankincense, 4 -- Camphor, 2 -- Gum Juniper, 1 -- Charcoal of the willow, 1 --
These substances are pulverized, and intimately mixed, and oil of juniper is added. The mixture is put in an earthen vessel, having a cotton, similar to a wick, supported by means of a wire. Among the ancients, the earthen vessels were afterwards placed in sculptured, or otherwise ornamented vases. By using stone-ware vessels, and mixing the composition with the spirit or oil of turpentine, the combustion will be more rapid, and the flame more enlarged.
Sec. III. Remarks on Spontaneous Accension.
The spontaneous accension of spirit of turpentine by the addition of nitric acid, might furnish also a means of preparing a scented fire extemporaneously; by putting into the vessel, previously to the spirit of turpentine, the composition above mentioned. See Nitric Acid, in the article Nitre.
An extemporaneous fire may also be prepared, by placing, on the scented mixture, the following composition, namely, chlorate, or hyperoxymuriate, of potassa and sugar, and touching the mixture with a glass rod dipped in sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol. The fire will then communicate to the other materials. See Chlorate of Potassa and the article on Pyrophori.
Camphor, which imparts an agreeable odour, may be readily inflamed in this manner, and the experiment even be made on snow or ice. See Camphor.
Sec. IV. Of Torches, and Odoriferous Flambeaux.
Flambeaux are usually wax torches. Odoriferous flambeaux may be formed by melting with the wax, camphor and frankincense, and mixing with the whole, when fluid, some of the essence of bergamot. Although there are no directions given on that subject; yet, judging from analogy, a mixture of that kind would be an improvement on the flambeau, when it is to be used in rooms or for particular occasions. They may be made either large or small, with a wick of a proportionate size.
Torches are principally used for military purposes, to give light, when an army is marching at night, during sieges, &c. They ought not to be extinguished by wind or rain. The Torches inextinguibles, of the French, are of this character.
Torches are made in the following manner: Take four large cotton matches, three or four feet long; boil them in a solution of saltpetre, and arrange them round a pine stick. Afterwards, cover them with priming powder and sulphur, made into a thin paste with brandy. When dry, they are to be covered with the following composition:
Composition for torches.
Yellow wax, 2 lbs. White turpentine, 2 -- Sulphur 12 oz. Camphor, 6 -- Pitch, 4 --
Ibid.
White pitch, 32 parts. Hard turpentine, 4 do. Yellow wax, 32 do. Sulphur, 12 do. Camphor, 6 do.
Ibid.
Black pitch, 24 parts. White pitch, 24 do. Turpentine, 4 do.
The second composition is that which is used in France, and, therefore, in all likelihood, is the best formula. The flame may be more or less scented, by using, at the same time, some of the aromatic substances before noticed. This, however, is unnecessary for common purposes. See Fire-works used in war. The flambeau, invented by Petitpierre, (Bulletin de la Société d'Encouragement, No. 102), is intended to give light to apartments.
Sec. V. Remarks concerning Odoriferous and Fetid Fire.
Fire-works may be made extremely unpleasant to the olfactory nerves, by mixing with their compositions, sundry substances of an opposite quality to odoriferous oils and aromatic gums. It will be sufficient, however, to remark, that this effect is communicated more particularly, as in the stink-balls of service, by using sulphur, rasped horses' and asses' hoofs, burnt in the fire, assafœtida, seraphim gum, and sundry fetid herbs or plants. The addition of the acid of amber, called succinnic acid, and, in the shops, the salt of amber, will give to the atmosphere in the vicinity of the fire, the peculiar property of causing a continual sneezing and coughing. Such are some of the opposite effects, which different substances produce in conjunction with fire-works. Some of these substances, it is obvious, would, if used in too large a proportion, retard, if not entirely prevent the combustion; and for that reason, they bear only a given proportion to the powder, nitre and charcoal, which forms the basis of some, as, for instance, the stink-ball composition. But in such cases, the combustion being in itself rapid, and the degree of heat consequently proportionate, these fixed, and otherwise incombustible bodies, in a general sense, are acted upon by the fire, already created; and, therefore, the smoke that results must necessarily possess, and partake of the fetid qualities of the substances employed. On the same principle, we may account for the effect of the scented paste, and the scented vases; but with this difference, that many of those substances are themselves inflammable, and, during their decomposition, emit the odour peculiar to each of them. We know, that the elementary principles of these bodies are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, variously combined, some of which are, and some are not inflammable; and that, in combustion, when it takes place, they are decomposed and new products necessarily ensue from a new arrangement of the elementary principles.
It is difficult, however, to give the precise order in which decompositions by fire result; since the substances made use of are numerous and employed in given proportions; and since their action upon each other, depends frequently on external agents, anomalous circumstances, and causes which do not follow at all times the same order of succession. Generally speaking, however, we may obtain such a datum, all things being considered, a datum derived from the known laws of chemical decomposition, as will furnish a rationale to explain both the cause and effect. See General Theory of Fire-works.
There is no doubt, that, by the action of fire on fetid, and particularly animal, substances, as hoofs, &c. products may be formed in the very act of combustion, which would increase the fetid properties of the smoke. Zimome, obtained from the gluten of wheat by alcohol, which takes up the gliadine, when thrown upon red-hot coals, exhales an odour, similar to that of burning hair or hoofs, and burns with flame. The pyro-products are the immediate consequences of the decomposition of the substance; the elements of which either separate entirely, or recombine under some other form, as we find in the process of destructive distillation.
Bones, and other hard parts of animals, when subjected to distillation, furnish several products, as impure ammonia, animal oil, and the like. Wood also, we remarked, when treating of its carbonization for the formation of coal, produces, besides gaseous and other volatile products, the result of its decomposition, a quantity of acid liquor, formerly called the pyroligneous, but now the pyroacetic acid. By separating the empyreumatic flavour, which at first constitutes a part of the acid, the acetic acid is obtained in a state of purity. The pyro-tartaric acid is also the result of the action of heat; and we know, when animal substances are calcined with potash, they produce cyanogen, the basis of the hydrocyanic and ferrocyanic acids, the latter of which when united with the peroxide of iron, forms the perferrocyanate of iron, commonly called Prussian blue. Caromel also, that peculiar substance which is disengaged from sugar and various saccharine substances, when submitted to the action of heat, is a product, resulting from the decomposition of the sugar. The empyreumatic, or burnt flavour of certain distilled liquors, which is corrected by redistillation with charcoal, or passing the liquor through a filter of charcoal, is owing to the same cause. The changes, that bodies undergo by partial roasting, are familiar to every one; as, for instance, the torrefaction of barley, after germination, in the preparation of malt, the degree of which determines the colour and taste of the beer; the roasting of rye and coffee, before they can be employed to form a beverage; and the torrefaction of the cocoa, before it can be made into chocolate, the sweet taste and brown colour of which are acquired in the process, are all examples of the effect of heat on bodies. The action of heat, according to its temperature, produces, therefore, effects of a particular kind; and, as we regulate the heat in such cases, we form products of different kinds. Destructive distillation, however, would again change the character of these products. Of this kind, we may consider the effect of the heat, produced in the combustion of inflammable substances. In a word, the action of heat may be so graduated, in the same manner as the tempering of steel, as to produce only partial changes, which must ensue at certain temperatures; or, by an increment of heat, in which a total decomposition takes place, the effect is regulated, by the force of affinities, exerting their influence under modified circumstances. Hence we perceive, by reasoning a priori, that as substances are altered by the action of heat, so they produce new compounds, according to the circumstances of the action, and with or without the agency of foreign bodies. These facts are so far applicable to the subject under consideration, as to enable us to explain, or account for the effects that result on the mixture, or combustion, of bodies, a knowledge of which is undoubtedly necessary to form a theory of fire-works in general.
V. OF MATCHES, LEADERS, AND TOUCH PAPER
We purpose, in the fourth part of our work, to go into the detail of the manufacture of various kinds of matches, which belong more particularly to military pyrotechny, adding, at this time, that fire matches are differently formed, and are called the quick and slow match. The former is commonly made of three cotton strands, drawn into lengths, and put into a kettle, and just covered with vinegar, (usually white wine vinegar), a quantity of saltpetre and meal powder being added, and the whole boiled together. Some put only saltpetre into water, and, after soaking the cotton, place it, while hot, in a trough with some meal powder, moistened with some spirits of wine, or brandy, which are thoroughly worked into the cotton, by rolling it backwards, and forwards with the hands. When this is done, they are taken out separately, and, after being drawn through meal powder, dried upon a line. Another mode is to steep the cotton first in vinegar, and then rub into it the following composition:
Composition for quick-match.
Vinegar in which matches are soaked, 2 quarts. Brandy, 1 do. Saltpetre, ½ lb. Priming powder, 1 do. As much cotton as will take up all the above, which will be about, 1 do.
To the proportions of one pound and three-quarters of cotton, one pound of saltpetre, two quarts of spirits of wine, one pound of meal powder, and three quarts of water, some recommend the addition of four ounces of isinglass, dissolved in three pints of water.
Another method is to steep the matches in brandy, and then rub them well with priming powder.
Slow match is made of hemp, or tow, spun on a wheel like cord, but very slack, and is composed of three twists, which are afterwards again covered with tow, so that the twists do not appear. It is finished by boiling in the lees of old wine. This, when lighted at the end, burns gradually, without going out.
There are several modes of preparing slow match. There is also, a kind of slow match, which is slower in carrying fire than the preceding quick match. The quick match, for this purpose, is drawn through the following composition, which is melted, and the operation is continued until it attains the size of a small candle; it is then hung up to dry.
Composition for a slow match.
Gum mastich, 1 lb. Saltpetre, 1 lb. Rosin, ½ lb. Yellow wax, ½ lb. Charcoal, 2 oz.
When these matches are used, they are to be lighted, and then blown out. If well made, they will burn a long time. They may be used for communicating fire from one work to another. Another slow match, used for common purposes, is made by soaking hempen cord in the following ley:
Lixivium for slow match.
Oak ashes, 3 lbs. Quicklime, 1 lb. Liquor of horse dung, 2 lbs. Saltpetre, 1 lb. Water, a sufficient quantity.
The cords are put into a pot, and boiled for two or three days, renewing the lixivium from time to time, as it evaporates. They are then taken out and dried. Good match makes a hard coal. Its duration depends upon the quality of the materials; but, generally, four inches will last an hour.
Further remarks on this subject, will be found in the fourth part of this work, in which the various modern improvements are given.
The preparation of touch paper, for capping of serpents, crackers, &c. may be here noticed. The directions of artists are: To dissolve in spirits of wine, or vinegar, a little saltpetre, and immerse into the solution, some purple or blue paper, and dry it for use. There is no advantage gained by using either spirits of wine, or vinegar: for the simple solution of the saltpetre in water, will be sufficient. In the former case, it may dry sooner, but neither of these fluids can add to the effect of the saltpetre.
In using this paper, care must be taken to prevent the paste which is made use of, from touching any part, that is to burn. The method of using it, is by cutting it into slips, sufficiently long to go once round the mouth of a serpent, cracker, &c. When they are pasted on, be careful to leave a little above the mouth of the case not pasted; then prime with meal powder, and twist the paper to a point.
The mode of threading and joining leaders, and placing them on different works, we shall here describe. The observations of a writer in the Encyclopedia Britannica, vol. xv, p. 713, are pointed on this subject, which we will briefly notice. Joining and placing leaders, is a very essential part of fire-works; as it is on the leaders that the performance of all complex works depends. The works being prepared, and ready to be clothed, the pipes must be cut of a sufficient length to reach from one case to the other; and then put in the quick match, which must always be made to go in very easy. When the match is in, cut it off within about an inch of the end of the pipe, and let it project as much at the other end; then fasten the pipe to the mouth of each case, with a pin, and put the loose ends of the match into the mouths of the cases, with a little meal powder. This being done, paste over the mouth of each case, two or three bits of paper. This method is used for large cases.
The practice adopted for small cases, and for illuminations, is the following: First, thread a long pipe; then lay it on the tops of the cases, and cut a bit of the under side over the mouth of each case, so that the match may appear, and then pin the pipe to every other case, observing, before the pipes are put on, to put a little meal powder in the mouth of each case. If the cases, thus clothed, are port-fires on illuminated works, cover the mouth of each case, with a single paper; but if they are choaked cases, situated so, that a number of sparks from other works, may fall on them before they are fired, secure them with three or four papers, which must be pasted on very smooth, that there may be no creases for the sparks to lodge in, which often set fire to the works before their time. Avoid, as much as possible, placing the leaders too near, or one across the other, so as to touch; as it may happen, that the flash of one will fire the other. If the works should be so formed that the leaders must cross, or touch, they must be made very strong, and well secured at the joints, and at every opening.
When a great length of pipe is required, it must be made by joining several pipes, in the following manner: Having put on one length of match, as many pipes as it will hold, paste paper over every joint; but, if a still greater length is required, more pipe must be joined, by cutting about an inch off one side of each pipe near the end, laying the quick-match together, and tying them fast with a small twine; after which, cover the joining with pasted paper.
Leaders, or pipes of communication, are formed of paper, which is cut into slips three or four inches broad, so that, when it is rolled on the mandril or form, it may go three or four times round. When they are very thick, they are too strong for the paper which fastens them to the works, and will sometimes fly off without leading the fire. The forms for these leaders are made from two to six-sixteenths of an inch in diameter; but four-sixteenths is the size generally made use of. The forms are made of smooth brass wire; and, when used, they are to be rubbed over with grease, or wet with paste, to prevent their sticking to the paper, which must be pasted all over. In rolling of pipes, make use of a rolling board, but press it lightly. Having rolled a pipe, draw out the form with one hand, holding the pipe as light as possible with the other, and avoiding any unnecessary pressure. Leaders are made of different lengths; and, in cutting them, as is often the case, care must be taken to do it with as little waste as possible. Leaders for marron batteries must be made of strong cartridge paper.
The Etoupille of the French is the same as the former match; it being nothing more than a kind of quick-match, prepared by soaking three threads of cotton in a paste, composed of the best priming gunpowder and brandy. It is designed to communicate fire with promptness, from one part of a fire-work to another, and, therefore, has the same effect as the common cotton quick-match. The cotton is usually soaked, or steeped in a paste of gunpowder and brandy, neither too thick nor too thin, for the space of two hours, adding more of the brandy as it evaporates. In the French preparation, gum arabic is used, in the proportion of one ounce to a pound of powder. In the English preparation, isinglass, or fish glue is employed, in the proportion of four ounces dissolved in three pints of water. Gummy and gelatinous substances are calculated for no other purpose, than to make the powder adhere to the cotton, the quantity not being sufficient to retard the combustion of the match. Pipes or leaders of communication, are an essential part of fire-works, and hence great care and attention are required in preparing them. Cotton, prepared in the manner already described, is the substance generally made use of. It has the property of imbibing fluids with facility; and when spirit of wine, or brandy, or even water, is used, it absorbs, and mechanically combines with the gunpowder, the impregnation with which determines the quality of the match. Alcohol, deprived of as much water as possible, or, in other words, the most concentrated, appears to have an advantage over brandy or water. If it be used merely as a vehicle, in order to suspend the gunpowder, and likewise to carry it, as it were, into the fibres of the cotton, which appears to be its modus operandi, then it is undoubtedly preferable to either brandy or water. The former, as it never exceeds fourth proof, contains always a considerable quantity of water; and, therefore, as water decomposes gunpowder, by dissolving the nitre, and separating the sulphur and charcoal, on which it has no effect, it is obvious, that the gunpowder itself, when mixed with brandy, is more or less injured. It is true, however, that the cotton in that case would be more effectually saturated with the nitre; but it does not follow, that it would be saturated with the gunpowder; as two of its component parts, viz. the charcoal and sulphur, would be separated. We have seen, that touch paper is nothing more than paper, soaked in a solution of, and consequently impregnated with, nitre; but, in order to render a match more combustible, and convey fire with more rapidity, which is required in many cases, gunpowder is the only substance, that possesses this property in any degree.
The cotton, which is used for this purpose, is the same as that for candle wick, and, with respect to thickness, may be from one to six threads, according to the pipe, it is intended for. The pipe must always be large enough for the match, so that the match may be pushed in easily without breaking it. After it is doubled into as many strands as required, it is usually put into a flat bottomed copper, or earthen pan, and there boiled in a solution of saltpetre. It is then taken out, and coiled into another pan, and the remaining solution is poured on. Meal-powder is then put in, and pressed down, till it is quite wet. It is then wound upon a reel, keeping the hands moistened with the powder and fluid of the last kettle, and suffered to remain a short time; when it is taken down, and meal-powder sifted on both sides of it, till it appears quite dry. When dry, it is cut, and secured in skins.
There is one advantage in this process, that the cotton in the first place is saturated with nitre; and, in the second place, while still wet, is combined mechanically with the meal-powder. The match I apprehend, is in all respects equal to the etoupille of the French.
The priming paste, as it is called, consisting of meal-powder and brandy, may be preserved in close vessels for a length of time; and, when used, may be brought to a proper degree of consistency, to be worked, by the addition of more brandy.
The preparation of the etoupille, or match for communicating fire, will be given at large, when we treat of military fire-matches. It will be sufficient to remark, that its preparation, according to Bigot, (Traité d'Artifice de Guerre, p. 74), consists in macerating the cotton in vinegar, then pressing it, and steeping it in brandy, and afterwards working it in a paste, composed of meal-powder, gum arabic, camphor, and brandy, and then rolling it on a table with meal-powder.
In preparing all kinds of matches, we may increase or lessen their effect by increasing or diminishing the quantity of gunpowder. By combining powder and sulphur with one or more parts of melted wax and rosin, in the manner before mentioned, and immersing the cotton into it, a match will be formed, which, for some purposes, is considered preferable to the ordinary kind.
The following proportions are given for preparing 100,000 priming fusées, or matches:
Cotton, 50 lbs. Meal-powder, 30 lbs. Vinegar, 12 galls. Brandy, 7 galls. Gum arabic, 2 lbs. Camphor, 1 lb.
VI. OF THE FURNITURE, OR DECORATIONS FOR FIRE-WORKS
By the term garniture, used by the French, we understand the furniture, equipage, embellishments, or decorations for sundry fire-works, as rockets, bombs, batteries, fire-pots, &c.
Sec. I. Of Serpents.
The directions, given for the formation of serpents, are the same in Morel and Bigot. Paper is rolled lengthwise on a mandril, or form, which is a quarter of an inch in diameter, of three thicknesses, according as it is stout, and the last turn of the paper is pasted. They are made tight and strong, and strangled first at one end. They are then put upright in a square or round box, called a bushel, for the purpose of charging them. For this end we must have a small mallet, and a rammer of brass, of a smaller diameter than the form. The composition is put in and rammed, proportioning the number and force of the blows to the size of the case. The petard is formed, with extremely fine powder, then rammed, and the case choaked. To prime them, we open the ends with a piercer, and by means of a spatula introduce a portion of priming paste, or priming powder, in order that the fire may communicate.
We may here remark, that large cases for serpents, as well as wheel cases, are driven solid. There is usually a mould, in which is a nipple, with a point at top, that serves, when the case is filling, to stop the neck, and prevent the composition from falling out. The air, in that event, would get into the case, and cause it to burst. These sorts of moulds are made of any length or diameter, as the cases are required; but the diameter of the form must be equal to half the caliber, and the rammers solid.
Lardons are of much the same nature as serpents, but are made stronger. They are charged in the same manner. To prime them, they are first pierced about five or six lines (or half an inch,) in depth, which presents a greater surface to the fire, and produces, when inflamed, more scintillations than serpents.
Composition of ordinary serpents.
1st proportion, 2nd proportion. Meal powder, 16 parts. Saltpetre, 3 do. 15 parts. Sulphur, 2 do. 4 do. Charcoal, ½ do. 2½ do.
Mine pots, or Serpents.
Meal powder, 1 lb. Charcoal, 1 oz.
Ibid.
Meal powder, 9 oz. Charcoal, 1 --
Serpents for Pots de Brins.
Meal powder, 1½ lbs. Saltpetre, 12 oz. Charcoal, 2 --
The serpents or snakes for pots of aigrettes, small mortars, skyrockets, &c. are made from two and a half inches, to seven inches long. Their formers are from three-sixteenths to five-eighths of an inch in diameter; but the diameter of the cases must always be equal to two diameters of the former. They are rolled and choaked like other cases, and filled with composition, five-eighths of an inch to one and a half inches high, according to the size of the mortars or rockets, they are designed for. The remainder of the cases are charged or bounced with grained powder, and their ends pinched and tied close. Before they are used, their mouths must be primed with wet meal powder or priming paste as before-mentioned.
Serpents, or snakes, in fire-works, are so called from the particular appearance, and the effect which ensues, namely, a hissing and spitting. This peculiar character is given by the charcoal; for, while one part is actually consumed, in immediate contact with the substances that enter into the composition; another part is thrown out with violence in the state of ignition, in the form of sparks, and receives, for the support of its combustion, the oxygen of the air, in consequence of which carbonic acid is produced.
Sec. II. Of Crackers.
Crackers are made in the following manner; cut some cartridge paper into pieces, three and a half inches broad, and one foot long. One edge of each paper fold down lengthwise, about three-quarters of an inch broad. Then fold the double edge down one quarter of an inch, and turn the single edge back half over the double fold. Open it, and lay all along the channel, which is formed by the folding of the paper, some meal powder. It must now be folded over and over till all the paper is doubled up, rubbing it at every turn. It is now to be bent backwards and forwards, two and a half inches or more, as often as the paper will allow. These folds are to be held flat and close; and, with a small pinching cord, give one turn round the middle of the cracker, and pinch it close. Bind, as usual, with pack thread, in the place where it was pinched. Prime one end of it, and cap it with touch paper. When these crackers are fired, they will give a report at every turn of the paper. If there are to be a great number of bounces, the paper must be cut longer, or be joined after they are made. If, however, they are made very long before they are pinched, there must be a piece of wood, having a groove sufficiently deep to let in half the cracker, which will hold it straight, while it is pinching.
The report, produced by crackers, is on the same principle as the report of a gun. The reports, which succeed each other, in crackers, formed in this manner, depends, as we remarked, on the turn of the paper, each turn producing that effect. Every part of the cracker, by this division, represents in fact a gun; and hence, as the combustion of one part necessarily succeeds that of another, we have, according to the number of turns, successive explosions.
Crackers, formed in this way, may furnish a variety in exhibitions. They may be either hung on a board, or set off on the ground. As to the report itself, it may be increased or diminished by enlarging or diminishing the size of each cracker, or division.
Crackers, as they are usually called, are nothing more than small cases charged with gunpowder. The Chinese squibs are crackers of this description. Some are four ounce cases; but the squibs, so named, hold about half a thimble full of powder. A piece of twisted match paper is inserted in the mouth of each of them. They are made of five or six turns of paper, and the last one is pasted and formed of red paper. The interior diameter is about a quarter of an inch.
Sec. III. Of Single Reports.
Cases for reports are generally rolled on one or two ounce formers, and seldom made larger, except on particular occasions. They are from two to four inches in length, and are formed of thick paper. Having rolled a case, pinch one end, quite close, and drive it down. Then fill the case with grain powder, leaving sufficient room to pinch at the top. Before it is pinched, a piece of paper is to be put on the powder at the top. Reports are fired by a vent bored in the middle, or at one end. Among the portable Chinese fire-works, reports form usually a large number. They are closed with clay, which is perforated to admit the match and priming.
Sec. IV. Of Serpent Stars.
There are a variety of compositions, used to produce the appearance of stars. Thus, there are stars of different colours, which also produce tails of sparks, scintillations, more or less vivid, &c. and are calculated for particular exhibitions. The serpent stars, however, have a different object, namely, to imitate a star at first, and afterwards a serpent.
The cases for serpent stars are choaked half an inch lower than the common kind; and, after filling the hole with meal powder, the following composition is put in. It is finished, but without the operation of choaking, by adapting a piece of quickmatch, and adding more priming powder.
Composition for serpent stars.
Saltpetre, 16 oz. Sulphur, 8 -- Meal powder, 4 -- Antimony, 1 --
This is the formula, given by Morel; but the formulæ of Bigot are in some respects different, namely:
1. Saltpetre, 16 oz. Sulphur, 8 -- Meal powder, 5 -- Antimony, 2 -- 2. Saltpetre, 19¾ -- Sulphur, 8⅝ -- Antimony, 2 -- Charcoal, 0⅝ --
Serpent stars are of two kinds. The one is intended as the furniture for rockets, &c. and the other, when moulded, to be employed in the Roman candles.
When required to be moulded, or made into cakes, the composition is mixed with gum and brandy, into a paste, which is spread upon a table, having previously covered the table with meal powder. Small cubical or other shaped pieces are cut out, sprinkled with meal powder, and dried in the shade. The meal powder serves as a priming, so that they may all take fire at the same time. The composition may be formed into balls.
Serpent stars, being designed to produce a combined effect, it appears, that, while charcoal, (and, in some instances, the sulphur, according to the formula, but more especially the charcoal), imparts the serpentlike appearance, the antimony, in its turn, diversifies the flame by giving to it an asteroid character. The antimony, used in these compositions, is not the regulus, but the crude, or common sulphuret. Metallic antimony, however, would produce the effect in a greater degree: but as sulphur enters into their composition, and also into the crude antimony, there would be but little, if any, advantage, gained in the use of the regulus.
Besides the ordinary products of the combustion of gunpowder, or similar products, by employing nitre, charcoal, and sulphur, the antimony, by its combustion, would be changed into an oxide, or, if the combustion is sufficiently rapid, and the quantity of oxygen absorbed proportionate thereto, it would form the antimonic acid. That it is oxidized, however, and that during its oxidizement, the appearance we have mentioned takes place, there can be no doubt.
Sec. V. Of Whirling Serpents.
Serpents, prepared in the following manner, have a peculiar effect, by which they are characterized. They form in the air a kind of whirling sun; and, as they revolve by reason of their fire issuing out at the opposite sides of their extremities, they resemble the sun turning on its axis.
Barker's hydraulic machine, described in Gregory's Mechanics, which is put in motion by two opposite currents of water, acting from the two extremities of an oblong box, supported by a perpendicular hollow shaft, through which the water first passes, acts upon the same principle as this revolving sun. The ascension of rockets is also to be accounted for in the same way. See General Theory of Fire-works.
The whirling serpents are charged entirely with composition. No grain powder is used. A small paper stopper is rammed on the top of the composition. Near the two chokes, but in opposite sides, the cases are pierced with small holes, which are made to communicate with each other, and with the composition, by means of a short leader or match.
Sec. VI. Of Chinese Flyers.
Somewhat similar to whirling serpents are the Chinese flyers. Cases for flyers may be made of different sizes, from one to eight ounces. They are formed of thick paper, and are eight interior diameters long. They are rolled in the same manner as tourbillons, with a straight pasted edge, and pinched close at one end.
The case, being put in a mould, whose cylinder, or foot, must be flat at top, without a nipple, is to be filled within half a diameter of the middle. Then ram in half a diameter of clay, and, on that, as much composition as before; and again put in half a diameter of clay. Pinch the case then close, and drive it down flat, and afterwards bore a hole exactly through the centre of the clay in the middle. In opposite sides, at both ends, make a vent, and, in that side, intended to be fired first, a small hole to the composition, near the clay in the middle, from which carry a quickmatch, covered with a single paper, to the vent at the other end. Then, when the charge is burnt on one side, it will, by means of the quickmatch, communicate to the charge on the other, which may be of a different sort.
The flyers being thus prepared, put an iron pin, that must be fixed in the work, in which they are to be fired, and on which they are to run, through the hole in the middle. On the end of this pin, must be a nut to secure it. If they are required to turn back again, after they are burnt, make both the vents at the ends in the same side, which will alter its course the contrary way.
These flyers are intended to revolve on an axis, and to discharge at different periods. For this purpose, a communication is made from one vent to the other. It is evident, that the clay, which occupies the middle of the case, is intended to prevent any communication of fire, in the tube, from one end to the other, as this is effected on the outside.
Sec. VII. Of Simple Stars.
The stars, which are not made upon the former, or roller, serve to furnish bombs and rockets. They are made in the following manner: The composition being well mixed, and passed through a fine sieve, is made into a paste, with gum arabic and brandy. The proportion of the gum to the composition, is as one to sixteen. The composition is spread equally on a table, about the thickness of a finger, and cut into small square pieces. They are then covered with meal-powder, which will serve for priming, and are dried in the shade.
Composition for Simple Stars.
Saltpetre, 2 lbs. Sulphur, 1 -- Meal-powder, ½ -- Antimony, 3/16 --
This is the general composition, however, for stars.
Sec. VIII. Of Rolled Stars.
It will be sufficient to remark, that rolled stars are formed of the same composition as the simple stars. The composition is mixed with gum and brandy, formed into a paste, spread upon a table, and cut, by a circular instrument, into pieces of the size of the Roman candle, of which we shall speak hereafter. They are primed with the best pistol powder, and dried in the shade. See Roman Candle.
Sec. IX. Of Cracking Stars.
Cracking stars are nothing more than small marrons. They are primed, and covered afterwards with star-paste, in the same manner as meteors. They are employed as furniture for serpents and stars. They are rolled in meal-powder, before they are used. They are the étoiles à pet of the French.
Sec. X. Of Sundry Compositions for Stars designed for Various Purposes.
We purpose, in this section, to present a connected view of the different star-compositions, by merely introducing the formulæ for their preparation. Their application will claim our attention hereafter, when we treat of rockets and other works.
Rocket Stars.
White. Meal-powder, 4 oz. Saltpetre, 12 -- Sulphur vivum, 6 -- Oil of spike, 2 -- Camphor, 5 -- Blue stars. Meal-powder, 8 oz. Saltpetre, 4 -- Sulphur, 2 -- Spirit of wine, 2 -- Oil of spike, 2 -- Variegated. Meal-powder, 8 drachms. Saltpetre, 4 oz. Sulphur vivum, 2 -- Camphor, 2 -- Brilliant. Saltpetre, 3½ -- Sulphur, 1½ -- Meal powder, ¾ --
Worked up with spirit of wine only.
Common. Saltpetre, 1 lb. Sulphur, ¼ -- Antimony, 4¾ oz. Isinglass, ½ -- Camphor, ½ -- Spirit of wine, ¾ -- Tailed. Meal-powder, 3 oz Sulphur, 2 -- Saltpetre, 1 -- Charcoal, coarsely ground, ¾ -- Drove. 1. Saltpetre, 3 lbs. Sulphur, 1 -- Brass filings, fine, ¾ -- Antimony, 3 oz. Or 2. Saltpetre, 1 lb. Antimony, ¼ -- Sulphur, ½ -- Fixed pointed. Saltpetre, 8½ oz. Sulphur, 2 -- Antimony, 1 oz. 10 dr. Fine colour. Sulphur, 1 oz. Meal-powder, 1 -- Saltpetre, 1 -- Camphor, ½ -- Spirits of Turpentine, ½ --
Composition of stars of different colours.
1. Meal-powder, 4 oz. Saltpetre, 2 -- Sulphur, 2 -- Steel-filings, 1½ -- Camphor, ½ oz. White amber, ½ -- Corrosive sublimate, ½ -- Antimony, ½ -- 2. Roche-petre, 10 oz. Sulphur, ¾ -- Charcoal, ¾ -- Antimony, ¾ -- Meal-powder, ¾ -- Camphor, ¾ -- Oil of Turpentine, sufficient to moisten them.
These compositions are made into stars, by being first worked into a paste with brandy, in which has been dissolved some gum, usually gum arabic, or gum tragacanth. After being rolled in powder, a hole is made through the middle of each, and they are then strung on quick-match, leaving about two inches between each.
3. Saltpetre, 8 oz. Sulphur, 2 -- Amber, 1 -- Antimony, 1 -- Meal-powder, 3 -- 4. Sulphur, 2½ oz. Saltpetre, 6 -- Frankincense, 4 -- Mastich, 4 -- Corrosive sublimate, 4 -- Meal-powder, 5 -- White and yellow amber, of each, 1 -- Camphor, 1 -- Antimony and orpiment, each, ½ -- 5. Saltpetre, 1 lb. Sulphur, ½ -- Meal-powder, ½ -- Oil of petroleum, sufficient to moisten them. 6. Meal-powder, ½ lb. Sulphur, 4 oz. Saltpetre, 4 -- 7. Saltpetre, 4 oz. Sulphur, 2 -- Meal-powder, 1 --
The composition of stars, which carry tails of sparks, is the following:
1. Sulphur, 6 oz. Antimony, 2 -- Saltpetre, 4 oz Rosin, 4 -- 2. Saltpetre, rosin, and charcoal, of each, 2 oz Sulphur, 1 -- Pitch, 1 --
These compositions are sometimes melted in a pan, and, before they are made into stars, mixed with chopped cotton match. They may be worked in the usual manner.
The composition for stars, which yield some sparks, is the following. To be made into stars, it must be wetted in gum-water, and spirits of wine, that the whole may have the consistence of a thick fluid. One ounce of lint is put into the composition; where it remains, until it has taken up enough to be rolled into stars.
1. Camphor, 2 oz. Saltpetre, 1 -- Meal-powder, 1 -- 2. Saltpetre, 1 oz. Sal prunelle, ½ -- Camphor, 2 --
The composition for stars of a yellowish colour is to be incorporated, and made into stars after the common method.
Composition for Yellow Stars.
Gum arabic, finely pulverized, 4 oz. Camphor, dissolved in brandy, 2 -- Saltpetre, 1 lb. Sulphur, ½ -- Glass, in coarse powder, 4 oz. White amber, 1½ -- Orpiment, 2 --
The composition for another kind of star, is the following: The ingredients to be well mixed, and then rolled into stars, proportionable to the rockets they are intended for.
Camphor, dissolved in spirit of wine by heat, 1 lb. Gum arabic, dissolved in water, 1 -- Saltpetre, 1 -- Sulphur, 6 oz. Meal-powder, 5 --
We will have occasion hereafter, to notice the different modes of fixing, and arranging stars; the formation of strung stars, rolled and drove stars, &c. Great care must be taken in making stars, that the several ingredients are reduced to a fine powder, and the composition is well worked and mixed. The instructions for rolling of stars, are the following: Before we begin to roll, take a pound of the composition, and wet it with the following liquid, sufficient to make it stick together, and roll easy, viz: Spirit of wine one quart, in which dissolve 1/4 of an ounce of isinglass. If a great quantity of composition be wetted at once, the spirit will evaporate, and leave it dry, before all the stars are rolled. Having rolled one portion, shake the stars in meal-powder, and set them to dry, which will require three or four days; but, if wanted for immediate use, they may be dried in an earthen pan, over a slow heat, or in an oven. It is very difficult to make the stars all of an equal size, when the composition is taken up promiscuously with the fingers; but, by the following method, they may be made very exact: When the mixture is moistened properly, roll it on a flat smooth stone, and cut it into square pieces, making each square large enough for the stars required. There is another method used by some, which consists in rolling the composition in long pieces, and then cutting off the stars; so that each star will be of a cylindrical form. This method, however, is not so good as the former; for, in order to make the composition roll in this manner, it must be made very wet, which makes the stars heavy, as well as weakens their effect. All stars must be kept as much from the air as possible; otherwise they will lose their properties.
What are called, in pyrotechny, the flaming stars, with brilliant wheels, the moon and seven stars, the transparent stars with illuminated rays, the transparent table star, the projected star, and the illuminated star wheel, are all particular exhibitions, which are produced by disposing the works in a certain form and order. They have, therefore, no relation to those preparations, or compositions, which produce stars. They will be considered, however, in their respective places, when we treat of the disposition and arrangement of fire-works.
As a general theory of stars, we may remark, that while combustion ensues, as in other fire-works, in the manner explained in our chapter on that subject, some substances are always employed, which have, for their object, two effects in particular; viz. that of modifying the appearance of the flame, by producing certain colours, and increasing or diminishing the degree of combustion, and that of throwing out, at the same time, scintillations or sparks. The latter effect, however, is not so great in stars, as in some other preparations, which are designed especially for the purpose. That certain substances have a particular effect, which uniformly ensues, under the same circumstances, is a fact obvious to all. Hence, we see in all the numerous formulæ for stars, for those that produce a red, a blue, a yellow, or any other flame, and those which form tails, sparks, &c. being modified according to circumstances, that the effect is owing to the presence of one, and sometimes to the action of two, three, and more substances, co-operating together. That combustion may be greater or less; that it may be accelerated, retarded, and otherwise modified; that the flame of inflammable bodies may be varied, as to colour, by the presence of foreign substances; that the action of one substance upon another, in certain elevated temperatures, may produce results which would not take place at a reduced temperature; that, for the support of combustion, the oxygen of the nitre, or the oxygen gas of the atmosphere, may, singly, or jointly, produce that effect, as in instances of rapid combustion, and in the combustion of bodies actually thrown out in the state of ignition;--these are so many considerations, all necessary to be attended to, in establishing a theory of stars, as well as of fire-works in general.
Sec. XI. Of the Fire-rain, (filamentous.)
Fire-rains are generally two inches long, and formed on a small copper, iron, or wooden roller, two and a half lines in diameter. Two turns of the paper are considered sufficient for them. They are twisted at their extremities, and struck afterwards on a table, to flatten and close them in the same manner as common cases. Using a small funnel, they are charged with the following composition, in the same manner as serpents. Grained powder, however, is not employed. When charged, they are primed with paste, having also, a piece of cotton-match attached to them.
Composition.
Meal-powder, 16 oz. Fine oak charcoal, 3 --
Six ounces of charcoal to a pound of powder, is the formula of Bigot. The one given is that of Morel.
Sec. XII. Of Sparks.
The second kind of rain-fire, called sparks, is made in the following manner: The composition is formed into a thick liquid paste with brandy; and eight ounces of flax are immersed in it, and kept there for some time. The flax is then rolled into small balls, about the size of peas. They are then rolled in dry meal-powder, and hung up in the open air, in the shade to dry.
Composition.
Saltpetre, 8 oz. Meal-powder, 8 -- Camphor, 16 -- Flax, 8 --
Sec. XIII. Of Gold Rain.
We purpose to enumerate, in the following section, all the compositions which have been used for forming gold, as well as silver rain. The recipe here given, it may be proper to remark, appears to have been preferred to all others; as some French authors, and particularly Morel, have given it a distinct place.
Composition for Gold Rain.
Meal-powder, 8 oz. Sulphur, 1½ -- Gum arabic, ½ -- Pulverized soot, ½ -- Lampblack, ½ -- Saltpetre, ½ --
These substances are mixed, treated, cut, and primed in the same way as simple stars. They must be cut all of the same size. In the furnishing of rockets and bombs, the effect they produce, is very striking. With respect to the scintillated rain-fire, or that which appears in sparks, the effect is owing to the flax, which, being soaked in a mixture of meal-powder, saltpetre, camphor, and brandy, in the same manner as before stated, produces, when inflamed, a succession of fire, under the form we have mentioned. The camphor seems to add to the brilliancy of the flame. There is no doubt but a part, at least, if not the whole, is burnt, in consequence of the oxygen of the air, the inflammation of the gunpowder bringing it to the state of ignition. The powder itself produces at first the combustion. The flax is, therefore, consumed, which seems to be the last of the process, filaments, at the same time, being produced, and the combustion accelerated by the nitre.
The fire-rain owes its effect to the charcoal, which is thrown out in the state of ignition. In the gold fire, the effect is owing to the presence of lampblack, soot, and nitre. There are several methods of producing both gold and silver rains, which we will notice in the following section.
Sec. XIV. Of Rains in General, for Sky-Rockets, &c.
The following compositions are also used in the formation of fire-rain;
Gold rain, 1. Saltpetre, 1 lb. Meal powder, 4 oz. Sulphur, 4 -- Brass filings, 1 -- Sawdust, 2¼ -- Pulverized glass, ¾ -- 2. Meal powder, 12 oz. Saltpetre, 2 -- Charcoal, 4 -- 3. Saltpetre, 8 oz. Sulphur, 2 -- Glass dust, 1 -- Antimony, ¾ -- Brass filings, ¼ -- Sawdust, 1½ --
Silver-rain. 1. Saltpetre, 4 oz. Sulphur, 2 -- Meal-powder, 2 -- Antimony, 2 -- Sal prunelle, ½ -- 2. Saltpetre, ½ lb. Sulphur, 2 oz. Charcoal, 4 -- 3. Saltpetre, 1 lb. Sulphur, ¼ -- Antimony, 6 oz. 4. Saltpetre, 4 oz. Sulphur, 1 -- Powder, 2 -- Steel dust, ¾ --
For Calibers above two-thirds of an inch.
5. Meal-powder, 16 parts. Saltpetre, 1 ---- Sulphur, 1 ---- Steel filings, 4½ ----
Sec. XV. Of Rain-Falls, and Stars, double and single.
The cases which contain the gold and silver rain composition, are pinched close at one end. If they are rolled dry, four or five rounds of paper will be sufficient; but, if they are pasted, three rounds will be strong enough. The thin sort of cartridge paper is best for those small cases, which, in rolling, must not have the inside edge turned down, as in other cases, for a double edge would be too thick for so small a caliber. The moulds for rain falls should be made of brass, and turned very smooth in the inside; or the cases, being very thin, would tear in coming out. The charge must be driven in light, and the better the case fits the mould, the more driving it will bear. These moulds have no nipple, but are made flat. It is necessary to have a funnel made of thin tin, to fit on the top of the case, by the help of which, they may be filled very fast. For single rain-falls for four ounce rockets, let the diameter of the former or roller be two-sixteenths of an inch, and the length of the case two inches; for eight-ounce rockets, four-sixteenths, and two diameters of the rocket long; for two-pound rockets, five-sixteenths, and three and a half inches long; for four-pound rockets, six-sixteenths, and four and a half inches long; and for six pounders, seven-sixteenths, in diameter, and five inches long.
There are two kinds of double rain-falls described: some appear first like a star, and then as rain; and some appear first as rain, and then like a star. These different appearances may be produced in the following manner: When stars are to be formed first, the cases must be filled within half an inch of the top, with rain composition, and the remainder with star composition; but when it is intended that the rain should be first, we must drive the case half an inch with star composition, and the rest with rain. By this method, they may make many changes of fire; for in large rockets, they may be made to burn first as stars, then as rain, and again as stars; or, they may first show rain, then stars, and finish with a report. When they are thus managed, cut open the first rammed end, after they are filled and bounced, at which place they are to be primed. The star composition for this purpose, must be a little stronger than that for rolled stars.
Sec. XVI. Of Substances which show in Sparks.
There are many substances, which show in sparks, when rammed in choaked cases. The set colours are produced by regular charges. Other charges are called compound and brilliant. Set colours, produced by sparks, are divided into four sorts, which are denominated, the white, black, gray, and red. The charges, to produce these several effects, are composed of various ingredients. Thus, meal-powder and charcoal compose the black charges; saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal, the white; meal powder, saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal, the gray; and saltpetre, charcoal, and sawdust, the red.
With respect to compound and brilliant charges, the former is composed of many ingredients; such as meal-powder, saltpetre, sulphur, charcoal, sawdust, sea-coal, antimony, glass-dust, brass-dust, steel dust, cast-iron, tanner's dust, &c. or any thing that will yield sparks; all which must be managed with discretion, or judgment. Brilliant charges, on the contrary, are composed of meal-powder, saltpetre, sulphur, and steel-filings, or of meal-powder and steel-filings only, and sometimes of Chinese fire.
Sec. XVII. Of Italian Roses, or Fixed Stars.
We prepare cases for these works, in the same manner as described in the article respecting fixed stars. Half a spoonful of clay is put into them, which is rammed tightly, with twelve blows of a mallet of a moderate size. The height of the clay is then marked upon the case, which is then charged with four spoonfuls of the composition, ramming each spoonful with twelve blows of the mallet. These four charges should occupy about two fingers in height. After this we add another spoonful of earth; and divide, on the outside of the case, from the point we marked, five equal parts. We then apply the quick-match and paste. One end of the match is of a sufficient length, in order that it may turn round, and come out above the other choke. We afterwards roll the case in white paper, which must go twice round, and extend beyond each extremity about one and a half inches. This is called the covering. The lower end is twisted. The other end, the side of which is twisted, resembles a goblet, and serves to inflame the rose.
The composition of the rose is given in the table for those of revolving and fixed pieces. Their effect is, that they will produce as many streams of flames as there are holes, and consequently form the roses or stars. The composition is six parts of powder, eight saltpetre, five sulphur, and half a part of antimony; or two powder, four saltpetre, and one sulphur.
Sec. XVIII. Of Lances of Illumination, white, blue, and yellow.
We have already given the caliber, and the manner of forming the lances. They are charged by using the funnel and rammer, in the same manner as serpents, but without any grain-powder. They are filled within two-twelfths of their end, and primed with the paste without the match. The blue and yellow lances are loaded in the same manner. The yellow are made one-third of an inch in diameter, and one inch and a third in length; so as not to be of a longer duration in burning than the others.
Composition of lances.
White lances. | Blue lances. | Yellow lances. -------------------+--------------------+-------------------- Saltpetre 16 oz. | Saltpetre 16 oz. | Saltpetre 16 oz. Sulphur 8 oz. | Antimony 8 oz. | Sulphur 16 oz. Powder 4 oz. | | Powder 8 oz. Antimony 1 oz. | | Amber 8 oz.
Lances, or port-fires of illumination, may be made also without antimony, as follows:
Port-fire composition for Illuminations.
Saltpetre, 1 lb. Sulphur, 6 oz. Meal-powder, 6 oz.
The composition of the lance à feu of the French, which is used chiefly to throw occasional light across the platform, whilst artificial fire-works are preparing, and like port-fires and matches, to communicate fire, is given as follows: (Œuvres Militaires, tom xi, p. 208.)
Composition of the lance à feu.
Saltpetre, 3 parts. Sulphur, 2 ---- Antimony, 2 ----
The lance à feu puant is of a different kind. It is the stink-fire lance, used for military purposes, and prepared in the same manner as stink-pots. They are used principally in the mine, and produce so powerful an exhalation, as to render it impossible to approach the quarter for three or four days, and occasion also, even to the miners, an apparent suffocation. The lance de feu, however, is a different preparation from either. It is a species of squib, which is used by the garrison of a besieged town against a scaling party. For the preparation of fire lances, see the subsequent part.
Sec. XIX. Of Slow White-flame Lances.
The composition of this lance, or port-fire, is such, that it will burn longer than the ordinary lance. There are two formulæ given for it. Both compositions, when driven one and a quarter inches in an ounce case, will burn one minute, which is considered by some a much longer time than an equal quantity of any composition, yet known, will last.
Composition of slow Fire.
1. Saltpetre, 2 lbs. Sulphur, 3 lbs. Antimony, 1 lb. 2. Saltpetre, 3½ lbs. Sulphur, 2½ lbs. Meal-powder, 1 lb. Antimony, ½ lb. Glass-dust, ¼ lb. Brass-dust, 1 oz.
Sec. XX. Of Lights.
We purpose hereafter to treat particularly of the Chinese lights, Bengal lights, amber lights, blue lights, &c. We will merely mention in this place, the composition of some of them.
Composition for Lights.
1. Saltpetre, 3 lbs. Sulphur, 1 lb. Meal-powder, 1 lb. Antimony, 10½ oz. Oil of Spike, sufficient to mix them.
Composition for common fire.
Saltpetre, 3 lbs. Charcoal, 10 oz. Sulphur, 2 oz.
Composition for red Fire.
Meal-powder, 3 lbs. Charcoal, 12 oz. Sawdust, 8 oz.
Common fire for a caliber of one-third of an inch.
Meal-powder, 16 parts. Charcoal, pulverized, 3 ----
Idem, for a caliber half an inch.
Meal-powder, 32 parts. Charcoal, 7 ----
Idem, for a caliber above half an inch.
Meal-powder, 4 parts. Charcoal, 1 ----
Brilliant fire for ordinary calibers.
Meal-powder, 4 parts. Iron-filings, 1 ----
Idem, more brilliant.
Meal-powder, 4 parts. Steel-filings, 1 ----
Brilliant fire for all calibers.
Meal-powder, 9 parts. Sulphur, 1 ---- Steel, 2½ ----
Grand brilliant fire, for calibers of three-quarters of an inch, and upwards.
Meal powder, 16 parts. Sulphur, 1 ---- Saltpetre, 1 ---- Steel filings, 7 ----
Idem, clear and brilliant for any caliber.
Meal powder, 16 parts. Saltpetre, 1 part. Filings of the best steel, 3 ----
Idem, large jessamine for any caliber.
Meal powder, 16 parts. Saltpetre, 1 ---- Sulphur, 1 ---- Best steel, 6 ----
Idem, small jessamine for any caliber.
Meal powder, 16 parts. Saltpetre, 1 ---- Sulphur, 1 ---- Best steel, 5 ----
White fire for any caliber.
Meal powder, 8 parts. Saltpetre, 4 ---- Sulphur, 1 ----
TABULAR VIEW OF SOME OTHER COMPOSITIONS.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------- | PARTS OF COMPOSITIONS. +------+------+-----+-----+-------+----- | Meal |Salt- |Sul- |Char-|Filings| |powder| petre| phur| coal| &c. | -----------------------------------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+------- White fire for any caliber, | 16 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | Blue, for parasols and cascades, | 4 | 2 | 3 | 0 3 |Zinc. Do. for calibers, half an inch } | 4 | 8 | 4 | 0 | 17 |Zinc. and above, } | | | | | | Do. for any caliber, | 6 | 2 | 8 | 0 | 0 | Sparkling, or shining fire for } | 16 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 |Brass. any caliber, } | | | | | | Green fire, for any caliber, | 16 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3¼ |Brass. Aurora colour, | 16 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 |Gold | | | | | | powder Chinese fire, for calibers under } | 8 | 8 | 2 | 2 | 7 |Ct.iron an inch, } | | | | | | Do. for calibers above an inch, | 16 | 0 | 3 | 3 | 7 |Do. Do. for palmtrees and cascades, | 8 | 6 | 4 | 2 | 5 |Do. Do. in white for two-thirds and } | 8 | 8 | 4 | 0 | 6 |Do. five-sixths of an inch cal., } | | | | | | Do. for gerbes, of ten, eleven, } | 8 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 8 |Do. and twelve lines in diam., } | | | | | | Bengal lights, | 0 | 32 | 9 | 0 | 5 |Ant'y. Amber lights, | 9 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 |Amber. Water squibs, | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | Do. | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0½ | 0 | -----------------------------------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-------
Sec. XXI. Of Lances for Petards.
Lances for petards are a kind of port-fire, used in war, but not very often. As they will be noticed hereafter, it may be sufficient to remark, that they are formed of cartridge paper, and the case is strangled in the usual manner; that a small portion of bran is put in, and then about as much good priming pistol powder in grains; that the case is then strangled, or choaked, about two-thirds of its length, the remaining one-third serving for a handle; and, in using it, that the twisted end is cut off, so that the fire may communicate to the petard.
Sec. XXII. Of Lances of Service.
These lances serve for setting fire to works, &c. They are commonly made fifteen inches long, upon a former or roller, one-fourth of an inch in diameter. Four turns of the paper are sufficient for the case. They are charged in the same way as the petard lances, and also in the manner described for port-fires. They are primed with the match and paste.
Composition for the lances of service.
Saltpetre, 2 lbs. Sulphur, 1 -- Meal powder, 5 oz.
Sec. XXIII. Of Marrons.
Marrons are made in several ways. We shall first describe those in cases. Formers for marrons are from three-fourths of an inch, to one and a half in diameter. The paper for the cases must be cut twice the diameter of the former; broad, and sufficiently long to make three revolutions. When a case is rolled, paste down the edge, and tie one end close; and to remove the wrinkles, and make it flat at bottom, put in the former and drive it down. The case is then to be charged with granulated powder, one diameter and a quarter high, and the rest of the case, folded down tight on the powder.
The marrons being thus made, wax some strong pack-thread with shoemaker's wax, and wind it up in a ball. Then unwind two or three yards of it, and that part, which is near the ball, make fast to a hook. Now take a marron, and stand as far from the hook as the pack-thread will reach, and wind it lengthwise round it, as close as possible, till it will hold no more in that direction; then turn it, and wind the pack-thread on the short way; then lengthwise again, and continue this winding until the paper is all covered. Make fast the end of the pack-thread, and beat down both ends of the marron to bring it in shape.
The method of firing marrons is by making a hole at one end with an awl, and putting in a piece of quickmatch. Then take a piece of strong paper, in which wrap the marron with two leaders, put down to the vent, and tie the paper tight round with small twine. These leaders are bent on each side, and their loose ends tied to other marrons, and nailed, in the middle, to the rail of the stand.
Marron batteries are made of several stands, with a number of cross rails for the marrons, which are regulated by leaders, by cutting them of different lengths, and nailing them tight or loose. This arrangement, however, is only intended for a certain purpose. For as marrons, if well managed, will keep time to a march or a piece of music; so, by regulating them in that way, that is to say, by cutting the leaders of different lengths and nailing them tight or loose, we may adjust the time of their explosion by the time of the music. In forming batteries with marrons, the large and small kinds must be used, and the nails for the leaders, or pipes of communication must have flat heads. The marrons for service are a different kind; they resemble the incendiary bombs. See Fourth Part of the work.
The other kind of marron for fire-works, as described by Morel, (Traité Practique des Feux D'Artifice p. 37,) and Bigot, (Traité d'Artifice de Guerre p. 141,) are of a cubical form and of a suitable size for the pot, in which it is to enter, or of any dimensions, if it be fired alone, or without being employed as a decoration. These cubes are filled with grain powder, and are covered with two layers of pack-thread, which is bound very tightly, and over this, a coat of pitch or tar. They are pierced to the powder, and a match is adapted in the usual manner. Port-fire has been used, but is considered to possess no advantages.
The cubical marrons are formed in the following manner: Divide a piece of strong pasteboard in such a manner, as that each division will form one of the sides of the cube, as represented in the following figure.
k +-----+ k| |k | d | +-----+ | c | | | | b | +------+-----+------+ | c b | (A) | b c | | | | | +------+-----+------+ | b | | | | c | +-----+
Pasteboard, formed in the above manner, it is evident, when put together, will make a cube. (A) will be the base, and b c respectively, will form the sides, and d the top, k k k will come in contact with the edge of three sides. In d, (the cover), is a hole, in order to charge it, and, if necessary, to hold the match and priming. This, however, may be attached to either side. All the angles are well secured with paper pasted over them. The pack-thread must be well waxed with shoemakers' wax, before it is wound on it.
Sec. XXIV. Of Shining Marrons.
Shining marrons are cubes of an inch at least on each surface, and prepared in the same manner as the preceding. The excess of the match, which is cut off in the former marron, is sufficient for these smaller marrons. Cotton is macerated, or soaked in a paste of the star composition, in the usual manner, viz: by mixing the composition with brandy, and a small portion of gum, or a solution of isinglass. The marron is then covered, about a finger in thickness, with this cotton; or more may be used, according to circumstances. It is afterwards rolled in meal powder, which serves for priming, and then dried in the shade.
Shining marrons are used in furnishing bombs, fire-pots, and rockets. They produce a brilliant effect; a vivid white light, which finishes with a report.
Sec. XXV. Of Saucissons.
Saucissons differ from marrons only in form. They are intended, like them, for simple detonations. They are generally fired out of large mortars without chambers, the same as those for aigrettes, only somewhat stronger.
Saucissons are made of one or two-ounce cases, five or six inches long, and choaked in the same manner as serpents. Half the number which the mortar contains must be driven one and a half diameters with composition, and the other half, two diameters; so that, when fired, they may give two vollies of reports. But, if the mortars are very strong, and will bear a sufficient charge to throw the saucissons very high, there may be three vollies of reports, by dividing the number of cases into three parts, and making a difference in the height of the charge. After they are filled, pinch and tie them at the top of the charge, almost close; only leaving a small vent to communicate the fire to the upper part of the case, which must be filled with grain powder very near the top. The end then is to be pinched close and tied, and the case, bound very tightly with waxed pack-thread, from the choak, at the top of the composition, to the end of the case. This will strengthen the case, and cause the report to be very loud. Saucissons should be rolled a little thicker of paper than the common proportion. When they are to be put in the mortar, they must be primed in their mouths, and fired by a case of brilliant fire, fixed in their centre. The charge for these mortars should be 1/6th or 1/8th more than for pots d'aigrettes of the same diameter.
For flying saucissons, the French make use of cases of three-quarters of an inch in exterior diameter. They are charged, to the height of half an inch, with the composition for mosaic tourbillons, which see. They are then choaked and bound at this place, and four fingers of grain powder are put into each, which is then covered with a stopper of paper. They are then again choaked and bound, and the excess of the case is cut off. They are primed with a piece of match, using the priming paste at the same time. When the saucissons are required to make a louder report, the part of the case, in which the powder is, should be wrapped round with pack-thread, much in the same manner as already described, and then covered with glue or pitch. These saucissons are usually put in the pots of the mosaics, some times in the place of them, and are arranged for exhibition on the same frame. We may, if we wish to vary the effect, put a saucisson in one pot, and a mosaic in another. When thrown in the air, their effect is to occasion a report. They first, however, form a tail of fire, and finish with an explosion. Bigot gives the difference between their internal and external diameters at four lines, or one-third of an inch.
Saucissons may either be used in the manner we have mentioned or thrown by hand. According to their size, and the strength of the case, so will be the report. They resemble a thick and short sausage, hence their name.
Sec. XXVI. Of Fire-Pumps.
Fire-pumps are intended for a particular use, which we will describe hereafter. The composition is the following:
1. Saltpetre, 5 lbs. Sulphur, 1 -- Meal powder, 1½ -- Glass-dust, 1 -- 2. Saltpetre, 5 lbs. 8 oz. Sulphur, 2 -- Meal powder, 1 -- 8 -- Glass-dust, 1 -- 8 --
Cases for fire-pumps are made like those for tourbillons, except that they are pasted, instead of being rolled dry. In charging them, first put in a little meal powder, and then a star; then a ladleful or two of the above composition, which ram tightly; then a little meal powder, on that a star, and then composition again, and so on until the case is filled. Stars for fire-pumps should not be round; but must be made either square, or flat and circular, with a hole through the middle. The quantity of powder for throwing the stars must increase as we come near the top of the case; for, if much powder be put at the bottom, it will burst the case. The stars must differ in size in this manner: Let the star, which is first put in, be about one-fourth less than the caliber of the case; but let the next star be a little larger, and the third star a little larger than the second, and so on for the rest. Let them increase in diameter till within two of the top of the case, which two must fit in tight. As the loading of fire-pumps requires some skill, it will be necessary to make two or three trials before depending on their performance.
When a number of pumps are filled, care must be taken not to put in each an equal quantity of charge between the stars; so that, when they are fired, they may not throw up too many stars together. Cases for fire-pumps should be made very strong, and rolled on four or eight-ounce formers, each ten or twelve inches long. For the composition and preparation of stars, see stars.
Sec. XXVII. Of the Volcano of Lemery.
The artificial earthquake, or volcano of Lemery, is formed by mixing into a paste with water, about equal parts of sulphur and steel or iron filings, and burying the mixture in the earth. The composition in a short time, will grow hot, and burst out; the earth will break, and open in several places.
Baumé mixed 100 pounds of iron filings and the same quantity of sulphur together, with water, and rammed the mixture into an iron pot. After ten hours, the mass swelled up and grew warm, aqueous vapours arose, and the mass burst. Ten hours afterwards, the heat, vapours, &c. greatly increased, and a flame issued forth, lasting only from 2 to 3 minutes. Finally, the mass became red-hot, and the burning and heat continued 40 hours longer; but without flame.
We may merely remark, that this effect is produced by the chemical union, which takes place between the sulphur and iron, forming a sulphuret of iron, analogous in composition to the native martial pyrites. The water is at the same time, decomposed, during which the mixture swells, becomes hot, and throws up the earth, producing at the same time a large quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen gas. This gas is formed by the combination of a part of the sulphur with the hydrogen of the water; whilst the oxygen, the other element of the water, goes to oxidize the metal and to acidify the remaining sulphur. Hence sulphate of iron, or green vitriol is produced. The experiment may be made in a common basin.
It is a remarkable fact, that spontaneous combustion, which takes place without the application of an ignited body, ensues in a variety of instances; and new facts daily occur, which show, that cases of this kind are more numerous than we had reason to suspect. Besides the old and well known effect of quicklime, pyrites, pyritous schist, &c. in producing spontaneous combustion, it is found, that ashes and oil, oil and cotton, and a number of substances have set fire to cotton mills, and other works.
It is known, that, in the slaking of quicklime, a considerable degree of heat is produced. This is owing to the solidification of the water, or its union with the lime in the form of a hydrate, and the consequent change, which the caloric undergoes from a latent to an uncombined state. Hence inflammable substances, in contact with lime, under these circumstances, are necessarily set on fire.
Spontaneous combustion arises simply from a play of chemical affinities. The following general observations on this subject are given by Nicholson, (Chemical Dictionary); and an enumeration of the effects may lead to cautions of importance for preventing serious accidents: "If quicklime, in any quantity, be laid in contact with any combustible, as wood, and be wetted by accident, or to make it into mortar, a sufficient quantity of heat may be extricated to set fire to the wood. Animal or vegetable substances, laid together damp in large heaps, undergo a fermentation, which often excites combustion, as in the case of hay-ricks. Woollen cloth, not freed from the oil used in dressing it, and laid up damp in large heaps, has been known to take fire; and so has painted canvass. Flowers and herbs boiled in oil, as is done by druggists, and then laid in heaps, sometimes do the same. The mixture of linseed oil and lampblack, or of linseed oil and black wad, is very liable to inflame. Torrefied vegetables, as malt, coffee, or bran, put while hot, into coarse bags, are apt to take fire. The spontaneous combustion of phosphorus, and various pyrophori, is well known. It is suspected to be owing to the presence of one or other of these, that charcoal sometimes takes fire without any apparent cause; and the charcoal of peat is said to be particularly liable to this. Hyperoxygenated muriate of potassa, mixed with sulphur, or with sulphur and charcoal, is apt to detonate spontaneously.
"Many cases of spontaneous combustion taking place in the human body too are on record: and it has been observed, that all the persons, who thus suffered, were much addicted to the use of spirituous liquors."
Sec. XXVIII. Of the blue and green Match, for Cyphers Devices, and Decorations.
We had occasion to mention, that blue and green flame may be produced by employing sundry substances, which have the property of changing the colour of flame. This is effected in the present instance.
For the preparation of the match, we melt one pound of roll brimstone in a glazed earthen vessel, over a slow fire, and add one ounce of finely pulverized verdigris, and half an ounce of antimony. The cotton for the match, may be of any length and thickness, as we judge proper; and is to be immersed, and well soaked, in the wetted sulphur, having previously put in the verdigris, and antimony. Sulphur alone will form a blue light.
The matches are afterwards tied to a rod of iron, which is bent according to the design we purpose to form, and to which they are fastened with a very fine iron wire, called the carcase. They are covered with priming paste, and a quick match is tied along the whole length. They are then covered with bands of gray paper, and a piece of port-fire is fixed on the end, to communicate fire.
Sec. XXIX. Of the Purple or Violet Match.
The design is made, and the match is attached, in the same manner as described in the last section; but without bending it. The preparation is as follows: Make a decoction of jujubes, which have been peeled, and stoned, and thicken it by adding as much of the flour of sulphur, as will bring it to a proper consistence. The cotton is then covered with this mixture, in the manner before stated; its thickness to be determined, according to the time required for it to burn. While hot, the match is primed by rolling it in meal powder. It is then suffered to dry. The design, it is to be observed, ought to be supported at the distance of four or five inches from the rods which hold it, by small cross pieces of iron, to prevent it taking fire; a circumstance necessary to be guarded against.
Sec. XXX. Of Meteors.
Artificial fire-works, to resemble meteors in the atmosphere, have, if properly prepared and exhibited, a brilliant appearance. The composition must be projected to a great height, which is either done by rockets, or from mortars. Meteors are made in the same manner as shining marrons, which we have already described, except, however, that they are of a very large size and usually weigh ten pounds. The larger they are made the better, and the more grand is their effect. See Shining Marrons.