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Preface

It may be of use to explain briefly the principles underlying the construction of this book.

In the first place the aim has been to make the book comprehensive. All first-class and nearly all second-class authors (so far as such classification is generally accepted) have been included. Due proportion between the two groups has been attempted by giving the more important authors greater space. The complete index should assist in making the book a handy volume of reference as well as a historical sketch.

In accordance with the plan of making the volume as comprehensive as possible, a chapter has been added dealing with modern writers. An attempt of this kind has certain obvious drawbacks; but it has at least the double advantage of demonstrating the living nature of our literature, and of setting modern authors to scale against the larger historical background.

Secondly, the endeavor has been to make the book practical. Discussion has been avoided; facts, so far as they are known and verifiable, are simply stated; dates are quoted whenever it is possible to do so, and where any doubt exists as to these the general opinion of the best authorities has been taken; there are frequent tabulated summaries to assist the mind and eye; and, lastly, there are the exercises.

It would be as easy to overpraise as it is to underestimate the value of the exercises. But in their favor one can at least point out that they enable the student to work out for himself some simple literary and historical problems; that they supply a collection of obiter dicta by famous critics; and that they are a storehouse of many additional extracts. The index to all the extracts in the book should assist the student in locating every quotation from any writer he may have in view.

While he has never neglected the practical aspect of his task, the writer of the present work has never been content with a bleak summary of our literary history. It has been his ambition to set out the facts with clearness, vivacity, and some kind of literary elegance. How far he has succeeded the reader must judge.

The use of the Bibliography (Appendix II) is strongly urged upon all readers. Such a book as the present cannot avoid being fragmentary and incomplete. The student should therefore pursue his inquiries into the volumes mentioned in the Appendix. Owing to the restrictions of space, the Bibliography is small. But all the books given are of moderate price or easily accessible. Moreover, they have been tested by repeated personal use, and can be recommended with some confidence.

There remains to set on record the author’s gratitude to his colleagues and good friends, for their skill and good-nature in revising the manuscript and in making many excellent suggestions. E. A. EDINBURGH

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Permissions to use copyrighted material have been courteously granted by the following American publishers:

Brentano’s, Inc. for the right to print extracts from the works of Bernard Shaw; E. P. Dutton & Company for Siegfried Sassoon; _Duffield & Company_ for H. G. Wells; Dodd Mead & Company for Rupert Brooke; Harper & Brothers for Thomas Hardy; John W. Luce & Company for J. M. Synge; and Charles Scribner’s Sons for John Galsworthy, and R. L. Stevenson.

We have also obtained from the literary agents of Rudyard Kipling, Joseph Conrad, and J. E. Flecker, permission to use the selections included from these authors. To all the above we wish to express our acknowledgment and thanks.

A HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE

I. THE OLD ENGLISH PERIOD

THE BEGINNINGS

Of the actual facts concerning the origin of English literature we know little indeed. Nearly all the literary history of the period, as far as it concerns the lives of actual writers, is a series of skillful reconstructions based on the texts, fortified by some scanty contemporary references (such as those of Bede), and topped with a mass of conjecture. The results, however, are astonishing and fruitful, as will be seen even in the meager summary that appears in the following pages.

THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The period is a long one, for it starts with the fifth century and concludes with the Norman Conquest of 1066. The events, however, must be dismissed very quickly. We may begin in 410 with the departure of the Romans, who left behind them a race of semi-civilized Celts. The latter, harassed by the inroads of the savage Caledonians, appealed for help to the adventurous English. The English, coming at first as saviors, remained as conquerors (450–600). In the course of time they gained possession of nearly all the land from the English Channel to the Firth of Forth. Then followed the Christianizing of the pagan English, beginning in Kent (597), a movement that affected very deeply all phases of English life. In succession followed the inroads of the Danes in the ninth century; the rise of Wessex among the early English kingdoms, due in great measure to the personality of King Alfred, who compromised with the Danes by sharing England with them (878); the accession of a Danish dynasty in England (1017); and the Gallicizing of the English Court, a process that was begun before the Conquest of 1066. All these events had their effect on the literature of the period.

LITERARY FEATURES OF THE PERIOD

=1. Pagan Origins.= The earliest poems, such as Widsith and Beowulf, present few Christian features, and those that do appear are clearly clumsy additions by later hands. It is fairly certain, therefore, that the earliest poems came over with the pagan conquerors. They were probably the common property of the bards or gleemen, who sang them at the feasts of the warriors. As time went on Christian ideas were imposed upon the heathen poetry, which retained much of its primitive phraseology.

=2. Anonymous Origins.= Of all the Old English poets, we have direct mention of only one, Cædmon. The name of another poet, Cynewulf, obscurely hinted at in three separate runic or riddling verses. Of the other Old English poets we do not know even the names. Prose came much later, and, as it was used for practical purposes, its authorship is in each case established.

=3. The Imitative Quality.= Nearly all the prose, and the larger part of the poetry, consists of translations and adaptations from the Latin. The favorite works for translation were the lives of saints, the books of the Bible, and various works of a practical nature. The clergy, who were almost the sole authors, had such text-books at hand, and were rarely capable of reaching beyond them. This secondhand nature of Old English is certainly its most disappointing feature. In most cases the translations are feebly imitative; in a few cases the poets (such as Cynewulf) or the prose-writers (such as Alfred) alter, expand, or comment upon their Latin originals, and then the material is of much greater literary importance.

=4. The Manuscripts.= It is very likely that only a portion of Old English poetry has survived, though the surviving material is quite representative. The manuscripts that preserve the poetical texts are comparatively late in their discovery, are unique of their kind, and are only four in number. They are (a) the Beowulf manuscript (containing also a portion of a poem Judith), discovered in 1705, and said to have been written about the year 1000; (b) the Junian manuscript, discovered in 1681 by the famous scholar Junius, and now in the Bodleian Library, containing the Cædmon poems; (c) the Exeter Book, in the Exeter Cathedral library (to which it was given by Leofric about 1050, being brought to light again in 1705), which preserves most of the Cynewulf poems; and (d) the Vercelli Book, discovered at Vercelli, near Milan, in 1832, which contains, along with some prose homilies, six Old English poems, including Andreas and Elene.

THE LANGUAGE

The Old English language was that of a simple and semi-barbarous people: limited in vocabulary, concrete in ideas, and rude and forcible in expression. In the later stages of their literature we see the crudeness being softened into something more cultured. In grammar the language was fairly complicated, possessing declinable nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, and a rather elaborate verb-system. There were three chief dialects: the Northern or Northumbrian, which was the first to produce a literature, and which was overwhelmed by the Danes; the West Saxon, a form of the Mercian or Midland, which grew to be the standard, as nearly all the texts are preserved in it; and the Kentish or Jutish, which is of little literary importance.

BEOWULF

=1. Origin of the Poem.= It is almost certain that the poem originated before the English invasions. There is no mention of England; Beowulf himself is the king of the “Geatas.” The poem, moreover, is pagan in conception, and so antedates the Christian conversion. With regard to the actual authorship of the work there is no evidence. It is very likely that it is a collection of the tales sung by the bards, strung together by one hand, and written in the West Saxon dialect.

=2. The Story.= There are so many episodes, digressions, and reversions in the story of Beowulf that it is almost impossible to set it down as a detailed consecutive narrative. Putting it in its very briefest form, we may say that Beowulf, son of Ecgtheow, and king of the Geatas, sails to Denmark with a band of heroes, and rids the Danish King Hrothgar of a horrible mere-monster called Grendel. The mother of Grendel meets with the same fate, and Beowulf, having been duly feasted and rewarded, returns to his native land. After a prosperous reign of forty years Beowulf slays the dragon that ravishes his land, but himself receives a mortal wound. The poem concludes with the funeral of the old hero.

=3. The Style.= We give a short extract, along with a literal translation, to illustrate the style. The short lines of the poem are really half-lines, and in most editions they are printed in pairs across the page. The extract deals with Beowulf’s funeral rites:

Him ðá ge-giredan For him then did the people of the Geáta leóde Geáts prepare Âd on eorðan Upon the earth Un-wác-lícne A funeral pile, strong, Helm-be-hongen Hung round with helmets, Hilde-bordū With war-boards and Beorhtū byrnū Bright byrnies[1] Swá he béna wæs As he had requested. Ā-legdon ðá to-middes Weeping the heroes Máerne þeóden Then laid down Hæleð hiófende In the midst Hláf-ord leófne Their dear lord; On-gunnon ðá on beorge Then began the warriors Bæl-fýra mæst To wake upon the hill Wigend weccan The mightiest of bale-fires; Wu [du-r] êc á-stáh The wood smoke rose aloft, Sweart of swicðole Dark from the wood-devourer;[2] Swógende let Noisily it went, mingled [Wópe] be-wunden With weeping; the mixture Wind-blond ğ-læg Of the wind lay on it Oð that he tha bàn-hús Till it the bone-house Ge-brocen hæfd[e] Had broken, Hat on hreðre Hot in his breast: Higū un-róte Sad in mind, Mód-ceare mændon Sorry of mood they moaned Mod-dryhtnes [cwealm]. The death of their lord.

It will be observed that the language is abruptly and rudely phrased. The half-lines very frequently consist of mere tags or, as they are called, kennings. Such conventional phrases were the stock-in-trade of the gleemen, and they were employed to keep the narrative in some kind of motion while the invention of the minstrel flagged. At least half of the lines in the extract are kennings--beorhtū byrnū, hláf-ord leófne, higū un-róte, and so on. Such phrases occur again and again in Old English poetry. It will also be observed that the lines are strongly rhythmical, but not metrical; and that there is a system of alliteration, consisting as a rule of two alliterated sounds in the first half-line and one in the second half-line.

With regard to the general narrative style of the poem, there is much primitive vigor in the fighting, sailing, and feasting; a deep appreciation of the terrors of the sea and of other elemental forces; and a fair amount of rather tedious repetition and digression. Beowulf, in short, may be justly regarded as the expression of a hardy, primitive, seafaring folk, reflecting their limitations as well as their virtues.

OTHER POETRY

=1. The Pagan Poems.= The bulk of Old English poetry is of a religious cast, but a few pieces are distinctly secular.

(a) =Widsith= (i.e., “the far traveler”) is usually considered to be the oldest poem in the language. It consists of more than a hundred lines of verse, in which a traveler, real or imaginary, recounts the places and persons he has visited. Since he mentions several historical personages, the poem is of much interest, but as pure poetry it has little merit.

(b) =Waldhere= (or Walter) consists of two fragments, sixty-eight lines in all, giving some of the exploits of a famous Burgundian hero. There is much real vigor in the poem, which ranks high among its fellows.

(c) =The Fight at Finnesburgh=, a fragment of fifty lines, contains a finely told description of the fighting at Finnesburgh.

(d) =The Battle of Brunanburgh= is a spirited piece on this famous fight, which took place in 937. The poem has much more spirit and originality than usual, contains some fine descriptions, and forces the narrative along at a comparatively fast pace.

(e) =The Battle of Maldon= is a fragment, but of uncommon freshness and vivacity. The battle occurred in 993, and the poem seems to be contemporary with the event.

=2. The Dramatic Monologues.= These poems, which are called The Wanderer, The Seafarer, Deor’s Complaint, The Wife’s Complaint, The Husband’s Message, and Wulf and Eadwacer, appear in the Exeter Book. It is unlikely that they were composed at the same time, but they are alike in a curious meditative pathos. In Old English literature they come nearest to the lyric. As poetry, they possess the merit of being both original and personal, qualities not common in the poems of the period.

=3. The Cædmon Group.= In his Historia Ecclesiastica Bede tells the story of a herdsman Cædmon, who by divine inspiration was transformed from a state of tongue-tied ineffectiveness into that of poetical ecstasy. He was summoned into the presence of Hilda of Whitby, who was abbess during the years 658–80. He was created a monk, and thereafter sang of many Biblical events. On a blank page of one of the Bede manuscripts there is quoted the first divinely inspired hymn of Cædmon, a rude and distinctly uninspired fragment of poetry, nine lines in all, composed in the ancient Northumbrian dialect.

That is all we know of the life and works of Cædmon; but in the Junian manuscript a series of religious paraphrases was unearthed in the year 1651. In subject they corresponded rather closely to the list set out by Bede, and in a short time they were ascribed to Cædmon. The poems consist of paraphrases of Genesis, Exodus, and Daniel and three shorter poems, the chief of which is the Harrowing of Hell. Modern scholarship now recognizes that the poems are by different hands, but the works can be conveniently lumped together under the name of the shadowy Northumbrian. The poems appear in the West Saxon dialect, in spite of the fact that Cædmon must have written in his own dialect; but the difficulty is overcome by pointing out that a West Saxon scribe might have copied the poems.

In merit the poems are unequal. At their best they are not sublime poetry, but they are strong and spirited pieces with some aptitude in description. On the average they are trudging mediocrities which are frequently prosaic and dull.

=4. The Cynewulf Group.= In 1840 the scholar Kemble lighted upon three runic (or pre-Roman) signatures which appeared respectively in the course of the poems called Christ and Juliana (in the Exeter Book) and Elene (in the Vercelli Book). The signatures read “Cynewulf” or “Cynwulf.” In 1888 a signature “Fwulcyn” was discovered in The Fates of the Apostles. This is all we know of Cynewulf, if we accept the quite general personalities that appear in the course of the poems. Yet an elaborate life has been built up for the poet, and other poems, similar in style to the signed pieces, have been attributed to him. The Phœnix, The Dream of the Rood, and the Riddles of the Exeter Book are the most considerable of the additional poems.

The Cynewulfian poems are much more scholarly compositions than the Beowulf or even the Cædmon poems. There is a greater power of expression, less reliance on the feeble kenning, and some real expertness in description. The ideas expressed in the poems are broader and deeper, and a certain lyrical fervor is not wanting. The date is probably the tenth century.

PROSE

=1. Alfred (848–900).= Though there were some prose writings of an official nature (such as the laws of Ine, who died about 730) before the time of Alfred, there can be little objection to the claim frequently made for him, that he is “the father of English prose.” As he tells us himself in his preface to the Pastoral Care, he was driven into authorship by the lamentable state of English learning, due in large measure to the depredations of the Danes. Even the knowledge of Latin was evaporating, so the King, in order to preserve some show of learning among the clergy, was compelled to translate some popular monastic handbooks into his own tongue. These works are his contribution to our literature. As he says, they were often “interpreted word for word, and meaning for meaning”; but they are made much more valuable by reason of the original passages freely introduced into them. The books, four in number, are an able selection from the popular treatises of the day: the Universal History of Orosius; the Ecclesiastical History of Bede; the Pastoral Care of Pope Gregory; and the Consolation of Philosophy of Boëthius. His claim to the translation of Bede is sometimes disputed; and there is a fifth work, a Handbook or commonplace book, which has been lost. The chronological order of the translations cannot be determined, but they were all written during the last years of the reign.

We add a brief extract to illustrate his prose style. It is not a highly polished style; it is rather that of an earnest but somewhat unpracticed writer. When it is simplest it is best; in its more complicated passages it is confusing and involved. The vocabulary is simple and unforced.

Swa clæne heo wæs oðfeallen So clean [completely] has on Angelcynne [-þ] swiðe feawa ruin fallen on the English nation, wæron be-heonan Humbre þe that very few were there hira þe-nunge cuðon understanden this side the Humber that could on Englisc, oððe furðon understand their service in an ærend-ge-writ of Ledene English or declare forth an on Englisc areccan; and ic Epistle [an errand-writing] wene [-þ] naht monige be-geondan out of Latin into English; and Humbre næron. Swa feawa I think that not many beyond heora wæron [-þ] ic furbon anne Humber were there. So few ænlepne ne mæg geþencan be-suðan such were there, that I cannot Thamise þa þa ic to rice think of a single one to the feng. Gode Ælmightigum sy south of the Thames when I began þanc, [-þ] we nu ænigne an steal to reign. To God Almighty habbað lareowa. For þam ic be thanks, that we now have þe beode, [-þ] þu do swa ic gelyfe any to teach in stall [any [-þ] þu wille. place]. Therefore I bid thee that thou do as I believe that thou wilt. Preface to “Pastoral Care”

=2. Ælfric= (=955–1020=) is known as “the Grammarian.” Of his life little is known. It is probable that he lived near Winchester, and he was certainly the first abbot of Eynsham, near Oxford, in 1006. A fair number of his works, both in Latin and English, have come down to us. Of his English books, two series of homilies, adapted from the Latin, seem to have been composed about the year 990. A third series of homilies, called The Lives of the Saints, is dated approximately at 996. Several of his pastoral letters survive, as well as a translation of Bede’s De Temporibus and some English translations of Biblical passages.

Ælfric’s style is interesting, for it is representative of the scholarly prose of his time, a century after Alfred. It is flowing and vigorous, showing an almost excessive use of alliteration. In many cases it suggests a curious hybrid between the poetry and prose of the period.

=3. Wulfstan= was Archbishop of York from 1003 till his death in 1023. In his prose, which survives in more than fifty homilies and in his famous Letter to the English People (Lupi Sermo ad Anglos), he shows the effects of “style” to a marked degree. His Letter in particular is a fervid epistle, detailing with considerable power and fluency the dreadful plight of the English nation in the year 1014. The alliteration and rhythm are exceedingly well marked, much more so than in the case of Ælfric.

=4.= The =Anglo-Saxon Chronicle= was probably inspired by King Alfred, who is said even to have dictated the entries dealing with his own campaigns. The Chronicle has come down to us in four versions, all of which seem to have sprung from a common stock. The four versions are preserved in seven manuscripts, of which the most notable are those connected with Canterbury and Peterborough. From the period of the English invasions till the year 892 the books are fairly in accord. At the latter year they diverge. Each introduces its local events and miscellaneous items of news, and they finish at different dates. The last date of all is about the middle of the twelfth century.

The style of the Chronicle varies greatly; it ranges from the baldest notes and summaries to quite ambitious passages of narrative and description. Of the latter class the well-known passage on the horrors of Stephen’s reign is a worthy example. We give a brief extract, dated 1100, just at the close of the Old English period, which is a fair average of the different methods:

On þisum geare aras seo ungeþwærnes In the year arose the discord on Glæstinga byrig in Glastonbury betwixt the Abbot betwyx þam abbode Ðurstane Thurstan and his monks. and his munecan. Ærest hit First it came from the Abbot’s com of þæs abbotes unwisdome unwisdom: In that he mis-bade [-þ] he misbead his munecan on [ruled] his monks in many fela thingan, and þa munecas things and the monks meant it hit mændon lufelice to him and lovingly to him and bade him beadon hine [-þ] he [`s]ceolde healdan that he should hold [treat] hi rihtlice beon and lufian them rightly and love them and hi, and hi woldon him beon they would be faithful to him holde and gehyrsume. and hearsome [obedient].

THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY FORMS

From the time when it first appears till it is swamped by the Norman Conquest Old English literature undergoes a quite noticeable development. In the mass the advance appears to be considerable, but when we reflect that it represents the growth of some five hundred years, we see that the rate of progress is undoubtedly slow. We shall take the poetical and prose forms separately.

=1. Poetry.= Poetry is much earlier in the field, and its development is the greater. It begins with the rude forms of Beowulf and concludes with the more scholarly paraphrases of Cynewulf.

(a) The epic in its untutored form exists in Beowulf. This poem lacks the finer qualities of the epic: it is deficient in the strict unity, the high dignity, and the broad motive of the great classical epic; but a crude vigor and a certain rude majesty are not wanting. It is no mean beginning for the English epic. The later poems of the Cædmon and Cynewulf types are too discursive and didactic to be epics, though in places they are like The Battle of Maldon and The Fight at Finnesburgh in their narrative force.

(b) The lyric--that is, the short and passionate expression of a personal feeling--hardly exists at all. The nearest approach to it lies in the dramatic monologues, such as Deor’s Complaint. These poems are too long and diffuse to be real lyrics, but they have some of the expressive melancholy and personal emotion of the lyric.

=2. Prose.= The great bulk of Old English prose consists of translation; and in its various shapes English prose adopts the methods of its originals. We have many homilies, some history, and a few pastoral letters, all based strictly upon Latin works. There are very few passages of real originality, and they are short and disjointed. Of historical writing we have the rudiments in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. On the whole, the development is very small, for the prose is bound by the curse of imitativeness.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY STYLE

=1. Poetry.= We have once more to distinguish between the earlier Beowulf stage and the later Cynewulf stage. In the earlier period the style is more disjointed, abrupt, and digressive, and is weighted down by the reliance upon the kenning. In the later stage there is greater passion and insight, less reliance upon the stock phrases, and a greater desire for stylistic effects.

=2. Prose.= In spite of its limited scope, Old English prose shows quite an advance in style. The earlier style, represented by the prose of Alfred, is rather halting and unformed, the sentences are loosely knit, the vocabulary is meager, and there is an absence of the finer qualities of rhythm and cadence. By the time of Wulfstan the prose has gained in fluency. It is much more animated and confident, and it freely employs alliteration and the commoner rhetorical figures.

But within this development both of prose and poetry there was already the seed of decay. During the last century of the period the poetical impulse was weakening; there is little verse after the time of Cynewulf. The prose too was failing, and the language was showing symptoms of weakness. The inflections were loosening even before the Norman Conquest, and the Old English vocabulary was being subtly Gallicized. The Norman Conquest was in time to put an abrupt finish to a process already well advanced.

EXERCISES

1. Examine the style of the following poetical passages. Point out examples of kennings, and mention the purposes they serve. Comment upon the type of sentence, the use of alliteration, and the nature of the vocabulary. Compare the style with that of the Beowulf extract given on page 4.

(1) Us is riht micel, For us it is much right That we rodera weard, That we the Guardian of the skies, Wereda wuldor-cining, The glory-King of hosts, Wordum herigen With our words praise, Modum lufien. In our minds love. He is mægna sped, He is of power the essence, Heofod ealra The head of all Heah-gesceafta, Exalted creatures, Fréa Ælmīhtig. The Lord Almighty. Næs him fruma æfre To him has beginning never Ór geworden Origin been, Ne nu ende cymth Nor now cometh end Écean drihtnes, To the eternal Lord, Ac he bíth á ríce But he is ever powerful Ofer heofen-stolas. Over the heavenly thrones. CÆDMON.

(2) Nis tháer on thám lande There in that land is not Láth geníthle, Harmful enmity, Ne wop ne wracu, Nor wail nor vengeance, Weá-tácen nán, Evil-token none, Yldu ne yrmthu, Old age nor poverty, Ne se enga death, Nor the narrow death, Ne lífes lyre, Nor loss of life, Ne láthes cyme, Nor coming of harm, Ne syn ne sacu, Nor sin nor strife, Ne sár-wracu, Nor sore revenge, Ne wædle gewin, Nor toil of want, Ne wélan ansýn, Nor desire of wealth, Ne sorg ne sláep, Nor care nor sleep, Ne swar leger, Nor sore sickness, Ne winter-geweorp, Nor winter-dart, Ne weder-gebregd Nor dread of tempest Hreóh under heofonum. Rough under the heavens. The Phœnix.

2. Comment briefly upon the style of the following prose extract. How does it compare with modern English prose?

Ðu bæde me Thou for oft engliscera gewritena. hast oft entreated me for And English Scripture, and ic þe ne getiðode ealles swa I gave it thee not so soon, timlice ær ðam þe þu mid but thou first with weorcum þæs gewilnodest æt me deeds hast importuned me thereto; þa ða þu me bæde for Godes lufon at what time thou didst so earnestly georne [-þ] ic þe æt ham æt þinum pray me for God’s love that I should huse gespræce. And pu ða swiðe speak to thee at thy house at home, mændest þa þa ic mid þe wæs and when I was with thee great [-þ] þu mine gewrita begitan ne moan thou madest that thou couldst mihtest. Nu wille ic [-þ] þu hæbbe get none of my writings. Now will huru þis litle nu ðe wisdom I that thou have at least this little, gelicað. And pu hine habban wilt sith knowledge is so acceptable unto [-þ] þu ealles ne beo minra boca thee: and thou wilt have it rather bedæled. God luvað pa godan weorce than be altogether without my and he wyle big habban æt us. books. God loveth good deeds and will have them at our hands [of us]. ÆLFRIC, Introduction to the Old Testament

3. What appears to you to be the reasons why in Old English poetry appears before prose?

4. Mention some of the effects of translation upon both the poetry and the prose of the Old English.

5. “Old English prose is much nearer modern English prose than Old English poetry is to modern English poetry.” Discuss this statement.

II. THE MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD

THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND (1050–1350)

The extensive period covered by this chapter saw many developments in the history of England: the establishment of Norman and Angevin dynasties; the class-struggle between king, nobles, clergy, and people; and the numerous wars against France, Scotland, and Wales. But, from the literary point of view, much more important than definite events were the general movements of the times: the rise of the religious orders, their early enthusiasm, and their subsequent decay; the blossoming of chivalry and the spirit of romance, bringing new sympathy for the poor and for womankind; the Crusades, and the widening of the European outlook which was gradually to expand into the rebirth of the intellect known as the Renaissance. All these were only symptoms of a growing intelligence that was strongly reflected in the literature of the time.

STATE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

This period witnesses the disappearance of the pure Old English language and the emergence of the mixed Anglo-French or Middle English speech that was to be the parent of modern English. As a written language Old English disappears about 1050, and, also as a written language, Middle English first appears about the year 1200. With the appearance of the Brut about 1200 we have the beginning of the numerous Middle English texts, amply illustrating the changes that have been wrought in the interval: the loss of a great part of the Old English vocabulary; a great and growing inrush of French words; the confusion, crumbling, and ultimate loss of most of the old inflections; and the development of the dialects. There are three main dialects in Middle English: the Northern, corresponding to the older Northumbrian; the Midland, corresponding to Mercian; and the Southern, corresponding to the Old English Kentish or Southern. None of the three can claim the superiority until late in the period, when the Midland gradually assumes a slight predominance that is strongly accentuated in the period following.

LITERARY FEATURES OF THE AGE

The latter part of the three hundred years now under review provides a large amount of interesting, important, and sometimes delightful works. It is, however, the general features that count for most, for there is hardly anything of outstanding individual importance.

=1. The Transition.= The period is one of transition and experiment. The old poetical methods are vanishing, and the poets are groping after a new system. English poets had two models to follow--the French and the Latin, which were not entirely independent of each other. For a time, early in the period, the French and Latin methods weighed heavily upon English literature; but gradually the more typically native features, such as the systematic use of alliteration, emerge. It is likely that all the while oral tradition had preserved the ancient methods in popular songs, but that influence was slight for a long period after the Norman Conquest.

=2.= The =anonymous= nature of the writing is still strongly in evidence. A large proportion of the works are entirely without known authors; most of the authors whose names appear are names only; there is indeed only one, the Hermit of Hampole, about whom we have any definite biographical detail. There is an entire absence of any outstanding literary personality.

=3. The Domination of Poetry.= The great bulk of the surviving material is poetry, which is used for many kinds of miscellaneous work, such as history, geography, divinity, and rudimentary science. Most of the work is monastic hack-work, and much of it is in consequence of little merit.

Compared with poetry of the period, the prose is meager in quantity and undeveloped in style. The common medium of the time was Latin and French, and English prose was starved. Nearly all the prose consists of homilies, of the nature of the Ancren Riwle; and most of them are servile translations from Latin, and destitute of individual style.

POETRY

For the sake of convenience we can classify the different poems into three groups, according to the nature of their subjects.

=1. The Rhyming Chronicles.= During this period there is an unusual abundance of chronicles in verse. They are distinguished by their ingenuous use of incredible stories, the copiousness of their invention, and in no small number of cases by the vivacity of their style.

(a) The Brut. This poem was written by a certain =Layamon= about the year 1205. We gather a few details about the author in a brief prologue to the poem itself. He seems to have been a monk in Gloucestershire; his language certainly is of a nature that corresponds closely to the dialect of that district. The work, thirty thousand lines in length, is a paraphrase and expansion of the Anglo-Norman Brut d’Angleterre of Wace, who in turn simply translated from Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Latin history of Britain. In the Brut the founder of the British race is Brutus, great-grandson of Æneas of Troy. Brutus lands in England, founds London, and becomes the progenitor of the earliest line of British kings. In style the poem is often lifeless, though it has a naïve simplicity that is attractive. The form of the work, however, is invaluable as marking the transition from the Old English to the Middle English method.

Alliteration, the basis of the earlier types, survives in a casual manner; at irregular intervals there are rudely rhyming couplets, suggesting the newer methods; the lines themselves, though they are of fairly uniform length, can rarely be scanned; the basis of the line seems to be four accents, occurring with fair regularity. The following extract should be scrutinized carefully to bring out these features:

To niht a mine slepe, At night in my slepe Their ich læi on bure, Where I lay in bower [chamber] Me imæette a sweuen; I dreamt a dream-- Ther oure ich full sari æm. Therefore I full sorry am. Me imætte that mon me hof I dreamt that men lifted me Uppen are halle. Up on a hall; Tha halle ich gon bestriden, The hall I gan bestride, Swulc ich wolde riden As if I would ride; Alle tha lond tha ich ah All the lands that I owned, Alle ich ther ouer sah. All I there overlooked. And Walwain sat biuoren me; And Walwain sate before me; Mi sweord he bar an honde. My sword he bare in hand. Tha com Moddred faren ther Then approached Modred there, Mid unimete uolke. With innumerable folk.

(b) =Robert of Gloucester= is known only through his rhyming history. From internal evidence it is considered likely that he wrote about 1300. From his dialect, and from local details that he introduces into the poem, it is probable that he belonged to Gloucestershire. Drawing largely upon Layamon, Geoffrey of Monmouth, and other chroniclers, he begins his history of England with Brutus and carries it down to the year 1270. The style of the poem is often lively enough; and the meter, though rough and irregular, often suggests the later “fourteener.” As a rule the lines are longer than those of the Brut, and the number of accents is greater.

(c) =Robert Manning (1264–1340)= is sometimes known as Robert of Brunne, or Bourne, in Lincolnshire. In 1288 he entered a Gilbertine monastery near his native town. His Story of Ingelond (1338) begins with the Deluge, and traces the descent of the English kings back to Noah. The latter portion of the book is based upon the work of Pierre de Langtoft, and the first part upon Wace’s Brut. The meter is a kind of chaotic alexandrine verse; but an interesting feature is that the couplet rhymes are carefully executed, with the addition of occasional middle rhymes.

Manning’s Handlyng Synne (1303) is a religious manual based on a French work, Manuel des Pechiez. The poem, which is thirteen thousand lines in length, is a series of metrical sermons on the Ten Commandments, the Seven Deadly Sins, and the Seven Sacraments. The author knows how to enliven the work with agreeable anecdotes, and there are signs of a keen observation. The meter is an approximation to the octosyllabic couplet.

Manning’s language is of importance because it marks a close approach to that of Chaucer: a comparative absence of old words and inflections, a copious use of the later French terms, and the adoption of new phrases.

(d) =Laurence Minot=, who probably flourished about 1350, appears as the author of eleven political songs, which were first published in 1795. The pieces, which sing of the exploits of Edward III, are violently patriotic in temper, and have a rudely poetical vigor. Their meters are often highly developed.

=2. Religious and Didactic Poetry.= Like most of the other poetry of the period, this kind was strongly imitative, piously credulous, and enormous in length.

(a) The Ormulum, by a certain =Orm=, or =Ormin=, is usually dated at 1200. As it survives it is an enormous fragment, twenty thousand lines in length, and composed in the East Midland dialect. It consists of a large number of religious homilies addressed to a person called Walter. Of poetical merit the poem is destitute; but it is unique in the immense care shown over a curious and complicated system of spelling, into which we have not the space to enter. Its metrical form is noteworthy: a rigidly iambic measure, rhymeless, arranged in alternate lines of eight and seven syllables respectively. This regularity of meter is another unique feature of the poem, which we illustrate by an extract:

An Romanisshe Kaserrking A Roman Kaiser-king Wass Augusstuss [gh]ehatenn Was called Augustus And he wass wurrthenn Kaserrking And he became Kaiser-king Off all mannkinn onn eorthe, Of all mankind on earth, And he gann thenkenn off himmsellf And he gan think of himself And off hiss micle riche. And of his muckle kingdom, And he bigann to thenkenn tha, And he began to think Swa summ the goddspell kithethth Just as the gospel tells Off thatt he wollde witenn wel Of what he would well know Hu mikell fehh himm come, How much money [fee] would come to him [GH]iff himm off all hiss kinedom. If to him of all his kingdom Illc mann an penning [gh]æfe. Each man a penny gave.

(b) The Owl and the Nightingale, the date of which is commonly given as 1250, is attributed to =Nicholas of Guildford=. The poem consists of a long argument between the nightingale, representing the lighter joys of life, and the owl, which stands for wisdom and sobriety. The poem is among the most lively of its kind, and the argument tends to become heated. In meter it is rhyming octosyllabic couplets, much more regular than was common at the time.

(c) The Orison to Our Lady, Genesis and Exodus, the Bestiary, the Moral Ode, the Proverbs of Alfred, and the Proverbs of Hendyng are usually placed about the middle of the thirteenth century. Of originality there is little to comment upon; but as metrical experiments they are of great importance. The Proverbs show some regular stanza-formation, and the Moral Ode is remarkable for the steadiness and maturity of its measure, a long line coming very close to the fourteener.

(d) The Cursor Mundi was composed about 1320. It is a kind of religious epic, twenty-four thousand lines long, composed in the Northern dialect. The author, who divides his history into seven stages, draws upon both the Old and the New Testaments. The meter shows a distinct advance in its grip of the octosyllabic couplet.

(e) =Richard Rolle of Hampole=, who died in 1349, is one of the few contemporary figures about whom definite personal facts are recorded. He was born in Yorkshire, educated at Oxford, and ran away from home to become a hermit. Subsequently he removed to Hampole, near Doncaster, where he enjoyed a great reputation for sanctity and good works.

He wrote some miscellaneous prose and a few short poems, but his chief importance lies in his authorship of the long poem The Pricke of Conscience. This work, which is based upon the writings of the early Christian Fathers, describes the joys and sorrows of a man’s life as he is affected in turn by good and evil. The meter is a close approximation to the octosyllabic couplet, which shows extensions and variations that often resemble the heroic measure. It has been suggested that Hampole is the first English writer to use the heroic couplet; but it is almost certain that his heroic couplets are accidental.

(f) The Alliterative Poems. In a unique manuscript, now preserved in the British Museum, are found four remarkably fine poems in the West Midland dialect: Pearl, Cleannesse, Patience, and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. There is no indication of the authorship, but judging from the similarity of the style it is considered likely that they are by the same poet. The date is about 1300. The first three poems are religious in theme, and of them Pearl is undoubtedly the best. This poem, half allegorical in nature, tells of a vision in which the poet seeks his precious pearl that has slipped away from him. In his quest he spies his pearl, which seems to be the symbol of a dead maiden, and obtains a glimpse of the Eternal Jerusalem. The poem, which contains long discussions between the poet and the pearl, has some passages of real, moving beauty, and there is a sweet melancholy inflection in some of the verses that is rare indeed among the fumbling poetasters of the time. The meter is extraordinarily complicated: heavily alliterated twelve-lined stanzas, with intricate rhymes arranged on a triple basis (see p. 149). Cleannesse and Patience, more didactic in theme, are of less interest and beauty, but they have an exultation and stern energy that make them conspicuous among the poems of the period. They are composed in a kind of alliterative blank verse. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is one of the most captivating of the romances. Its meter also is freely alliterated and built into irregular rhyming stanzas which sometimes run into twenty lines.

=3. The Metrical Romances.= The great number of the romances that now appear in our literature can be classified according to subject.

(a) The romances dealing with early English history and its heroes were very numerous. Of these the lively Horn and Havelock the Dane and the popular Guy of Warwick and Bevis of Hampton were among the best. Even contemporary history was sometimes drawn upon, as in the well-known Richard Cœur-de-Lion.

(b) Allied to the last group are the immense number of Arthurian romances, which are closely related and often of high merit. Sir Tristrem, one of the earliest, is by no means one of the worst; to it we may add the famous Arthur and Merlin, Ywain and Gawain, the Morte d’Arthure, and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.

(c) There was also a large number of classical themes, such as the exploits of Alexander the Great and the siege of Troy. King Alisaunder is very long, but of more than average merit. Further examples are Sir Orpheo and The Destruction of Troy.

(d) The group dealing with the feats of Charlemagne is smaller, and the quality is lower. Rauf Coilyear, an alliterative romance, is probably the best of them, and to it we may add Sir Ferumbras.

(e) A large number of the romances deal with events which are to some extent contemporary with the composition. They are miscellaneous in subject, but they are of much interest and some of them of great beauty. Amis and Amiloun is a touching love-story; William of Palerne is on the familiar “missing heir” theme; and The Squire of Low Degree, who loved the king’s daughter of Hungary, is among the best known of all the romances.

It would take a volume to comment in detail upon the romances. The variety of their meter and style is very great; but in general terms we may say that the prevailing subject is of a martial and amatory nature; there is the additional interest of the supernatural, which enters freely into the story; and one of the most attractive features to the modern reader of this delightful class of fiction is the frequent glimpses obtainable into the habits of the time.

PROSE

=1.= The =Ancren Riwle=, or Rule of Anchoresses, is one of the earliest of Middle English prose texts, for it dates from about 1200. The book, which is written in a simple, matter-of-fact style, is a manual composed for the guidance of a small religious community of women which then existed in Somersetshire. Nothing certain is known regarding the author. Its Southern dialect shows some traces of Midland. As in some respects the text is the forerunner of modern prose, we give an extract:

Uorþi was ihoten a Godes Therefore it was ordered on half iðen olde lawe þet put the part of God in the old law were euer iwrien; & [gh]if eni that a pit should be ever unwrie covered, put were, & best feolle and if there were any uncovered þerinne, he hit schulde [gh]elden pit, and a beast fell þet þene put unwrieh. Ðis is a therein, he should pay for it, swuðe dredlich word to wummen that uncovered the pit. This is þet scheaweð her to wep-monnes a very dreadful saying for a eien. Heo is bitocned woman that shows herself to a bi þe þet unwrieð þene put: þe man’s eyes. She is betokened put is hire veire neb, & hire by the person that uncovers the hwite swire, & hire hond, [gh]if pit; the pit is her fair face, hes and halt forð in his eihsihðe. her white neck, and her hand, if she holds it forth in his eyesight.

=2.= The =Ayenbite of Inwyt= was written by Dan Michel of Northgate, who flourished about 1340. The book is a servile translation of a French work, and is of little literary importance. To the philologist it is very useful as an example of the Southern dialect of the period.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY FORMS

=1. Poetry.= (a) Meter. The most interesting feature of this period is the development of the modern system of rhymed meters, which displaced the Old English alliterative measures. Between the Old English poems of Cynewulf (about 950) and the Middle English Brut (about 1205) there is a considerable gap both in time and in development. This gap is only slightly bridged by the few pieces which we proceed to quote.

A quatrain dated at about 1100 is as follows:

Merrie sungen the muneches binnen Ely, Tha Cnut chining[3] reu[4] ther by; “Roweth, cnichtes, noer the land, And here we thes muneches sang.”

In this example we have two rough couplets. The first pair rhyme, and in the second pair there is a fair example of assonance. The meter, as far as it exists at all, is a cross between octosyllables and decasyllables.

A few brief fragments by Godric, who died in 1170, carry the process still further. The following lines may be taken as typical:

Sainte Nicholaes, Godes druth, Tymbre[5] us faire scone[6] hus, At thy burth,[7] at thy bare,[7] Sainte Nicholaes, bring us wel thare.

These lines are almost regular, and the rhyme in the second couplet is perfect.

The Brut, with its ragged four-accented and nearly rhymeless lines, shows no further advance; but the Ormulum, though it does without rhyme, is remarkable for the regularity of its meter. Then during the thirteenth century there comes a large number of poems, chiefly romances and homilies. Much of the verse, such as in Horn, Havelock the Dane, and the works of Manning, is in couplet form. It is nearly doggerel very often, and hesitates between four and five feet. This is the rough work that Chaucer is to make perfect. The following example of this traditional verse should be carefully scanned:

For Engelond ys ful ynow of fruyt and of tren, Of wodes and of parkes, that joye yt ys to sen. Of foules and of bestes of wylde and tame also. Of salt fysch and eche fresch, and fayr ryueres ther to. Of welles swete and colde ynow, of lesen and of mede. Of seluer or and of gold, of tyn and of lede. ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER

During the fourteenth century, with the increase of dexterity, came the desire for experiment. Stanzas in the manner of the French were developed, and the short or bobbed line was introduced. The expansion of the lyric helped the development of the stanza. Thus we pass through the fairly elaborate meters of Minot, the Proverbs of Hendyng, and the romances (like The King of Tars) in the Romance sestette, to the extremely complicated verses of Sir Tristrem, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, and Pearl. We add a specimen of the popular Romance sestette, and a verse from a popular song of the period.

(1) The King of Tars came also The Soudan battle for to do, With many a Christian Knight; Either host gan the other assail, There began a strong battail That grisley was of sight. The King of Tars

(2) Sitteth alle stille, ant herkneth to me: The kyn of Alemaigne,[8] bi mi leaute[9] Thritti thousent pound askede he For te make the pees[10] in the countre Ant so he dude more. Richard, thah thou be euer trichard,[11] Trichten shalt thou neuer more.

(b) The Lyric. The most delightful feature of the period is the appearance of the lyric. There can be little doubt that from Old English times popular songs were common, but it is not till the thirteenth century that they receive a permanent place in the manuscripts. We then obtain several specimens that for sweetness and lyrical power are most satisfying.

Apart from its native element, the lyric of the time drew its main inspiration from the songs of the French jongleurs and the magnificent, rhymed Latin hymns (such as Dies Iræ and Stabat Mater) of the Church. These hymns, nobly phrased and rhymed, were splendid models to follow. Many of the early English lyrics were devoutly religious in theme, especially those addressed to the Virgin Mary; a large number, such as the charming Alysoun, are love-lyrics; and many more, such as the cuckoo song quoted below (one of the oldest of all), are nature-lyrics. In the song below note the regularity of the meter:

Sumer is i-cumen in, Summer is coming, Lhude sing cuccu: Loud sing cuckoo: Groweth sed, and bloweth med, Groweth seed and bloweth mead, And springth the wde nu. And springeth the wood now. Sing cuccu, cuccu. Sing cuckoo, cuckoo.

Awe bleteth after lombe, Ewe bleateth after lamb, Lhouth after calue cu; Loweth after calf the cow; Bulluc sterteth, bucke verteth; Bullock starteth, buck verteth[12] Murie sing cuccu, Merry sing cuckoo: Cuccu, cuccu. Cuckoo, cuckoo. Wel singes thu, cuccu; Well sing’st thou, cuckoo; Ne swik thu nauer nu. Nor cease thou ever now. Sing cuccu nu, Sing cuckoo now, Sing, cuccu. Sing, cuckoo.

(c) The Metrical Romances. A romance was originally a composition in the Romance tongue, but the meaning was narrowed into that of a tale of the kind described in the next paragraph. Romances were brought into England by the French minstrels, who as early as the eleventh century had amassed a large quantity of material. By the beginning of the fourteenth century the romance appears in English, and from that point the rate of production is great. Romantic tales are the main feature of the literature of the time.

TABLE TO ILLUSTRATE THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY FORMS

+----+---------------------------------+--------------------------+ | | POETRY | PROSE | |YEAR+----------+-----------+----------+------------+-------------+ | | Lyrical | Narrative | Didactic | Narrative | Didactic | +----+----------+-----------+----------+------------+-------------+ | | | Beowulf | | | | | | | | | | | | 700| | Cædmon | | | +----+----------+-----------+----------+------------+-------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 800| | | | | | +----+----------+-----------+----------+------------+-------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 900| | | | | Alfred | +----+----------+-----------+----------+------------+-------------+ | | | | | A.S. | | | | | Cynewulf | CHRONICLE | | |1000| | | | | Ælfric | +----+----------+-----------+----------+------------+-------------+ | | | | | | Wulfstan | | | | | | | | |1100| | | | | | +----+----------+-----------+----------+------------+-------------+ | | | | | | | | | | |Ormulum | | | |1200| | | | | | +----+----------+-----------+----------+------------+-------------+ | | | Brut | | |AncrenRiwle| | | | | | | | |1300| | | Manning | | | +----+----------+-----------+----------+------------+-------------+ | |Alysoun,| THE | Hampole | | | | | etc. | ROMANCES | | | | | | | | | | | |1400| | Cursor Mundi | | | +----+----------+-----------+----------+------------+-------------+

The chief features of the romance were: a long story, cumulative in construction, chiefly of a journey or a quest; a strong martial element, with an infusion of the supernatural and wonderful; characters, usually of high social rank, and of fixed type and rudimentary workmanship, such as the knightly hero, the distressed damsel, and the wicked enchanter; and a style that was simple to quaintness, but in the better specimens was spirited and suggestive of mystery and wonder. In meter it ranged from the simple couplet of The Squire of Low Degree to the twenty-lined stanza of Sir Tristrem. In its later stages, as Chaucer satirized it in Sir Thopas, the romance became extravagant and ridiculous, but at its best it was a rich treasure-house of marvelous tales.

=2. Prose.= The small amount of prose is strictly practical in purpose, and its development as a species of literature is to come later.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF STYLE IN POETRY

With poetry in such an immature condition, it can be easily understood that style is of secondary importance. The prevailing, almost the universal, style is one of artless simplicity. Very often, owing chiefly to lack of practice on the part of the poet, the style becomes obscure; and when more ambitious schemes of meter are attempted (as in Pearl) the same cause leads to the same result. Humor is rarely found in Middle English, but quaint touches are not entirely lacking, as facts revealed in the life of Hampole show. Pathos of a solemn and elevated kind appears in the Moral Ode, and the romance called The Pistyl of Susan and the Pearl, already mentioned, have passages of simple pathos.

EXERCISES

1. The following extracts show the development of English poetry from Old English to Chaucerian times. Trace the changes in meter (scansion, rhyme, and stanza-formation), alliteration, and style. Are there any traces of refinements such as melody and vowel-music?

(1) Swá íú wætres thrym When of old the water’s mass Ealne middan-geard, All mid-earth, Mére-flód, theáhte When the sea-flood covered Eorthan ymb-hwyrft, The earth’s circumference, Thá [`s]e æthela wong Then that noble plain Æg-hwæs án-súnd In everything entire With yth-fare Against the billowy course Gehealden stód, Stood preserved, Hreóhra wæga Of the rough waves Eádig unwemmed, Happy, inviolate, Thurh áest Godes; Through favour of God. Bídeth swá geblówen It shall abide thus in bloom, Oth bæles cyme Until the coming of the funeral fire Dryhtnes dómes. Of the Lord’s judgment. The Phœnix, 900

(2) And ich isæh thæ vthen And I saw the waves I there sæ driuen; In the sea drive; And the leo i than ulode And the lion in the flood Iwende with me seolue. Went with myself. Tha wit I sæ comen, When we two came in the sea, Tha vthen me hire binomen. The waves took her from me; Com ther an fisc lithe, But there came swimming a fish; And fereden me to londe. And brought me to land. Tha wes ich al wet, Then was I all wet And weri of soryen, and seoc. And weary from sorrow, and sick. Tha gon ich iwakien When I gan wake Swithe ich gon to quakien. Greatly I gan quake. LAYAMON, Brut, 1200

(3) Ich am eldre þan ich wes. a winter and ek on lore. Ich welde more þan ich dude. my wyt auhte beo more. Wel longe ich habbe child ibe[`s]. a werke and eke on dede. Þah ich beo of wynter old. to yong ich am on rede. Vnneð lif ich habbe ilad. and yet me þinkþ ich lede. Hwenne ich me biþenche. ful sore ich me adrede. Mest al þat ich habbe idon. is idelnesse and chilce. Wel late ich habbe me bi-þouht. bute god do me mylce. Veole idel word ich habbe ispeke. seoþþe ich speke cuþe. And feole yonge deden ido. þat me of-þincheþ nuþe. Moral Ode, 1250

(4) Herknet to me, gode men, Wiues, maydnes, and alle men, Of a tale that ich you wile telle Wo so it wile here, and ther to duelle The talk is of Hauelok i-maked; Wil he was litel he yede ful naked; Havelok was a ful god gome, He was ful god in eueri trome, He was the wicteste man at nede That thurte riden on ani stede That ye mouen nou y-here, And the tale ye mowen y-lere. At the beginning of vre tale Fille me a cuppe of ful god ale. Havelock the Dane, 1300

(5) Byteuene Mershe & Aueril When spray biginneþ to springe, Þe lutel foul haþ hire wyl On hyre lud to synge; Ich libbe in louelonginge For semlokest[13] of alle þynge, He may me blisse bringe, Icham in hire baundoun.[14] An hendy[15] hap[16] ichabbe yhent Ichot[17] from heuene it is me sent From alle wymmen mi loue is lent & lyht on Alysoun. Alysoun, 1300

(6) In Nauerne be [gh]unde the In Avergne beyond the sea see In Venyse a gode cyte, In Venice a good city Duellyde a prest of Ynglonde, Dwelled a priest of England, And was auaunsede, y And was advanced I understand. understonde. Every [gh]ere at the Every year at the flourishing florysyngge When the vynys shulde spryngge When the vines should spring A tempest that tyme began to A tempest then began to fall falle And fordede here vynys alle; And ruined all their vines. Every [gh]ere withouten fayle Every year without fail And fordyde here grete trauayle. And ruined their great labour. Therfor the folk were alle sory Therefore the folk were all sorry Thurghe the cyte comunly: Through the city commonly. Thys prest seyde, y shal [gh]ou This priest said, “I shall you telle tell What shall best thys tempest What shall best this tempest felle; fell; On Satyrday shal [gh]e ryngge On Saturday shall ye ring noon noun And late ne longer ne werke be And let no longer work be doun. done.” Handlyng Synne, 1350

(7) Ther faure citees wern set, nov is a see called, That ay is drouy[18] and dym and ded in hit kynde, Blo[19] blubrande[20] and blak, vnblythe to ne[gh]e[21] As a stynkande stanc that stryed[22] synne That euer of synne and of smach,[23] smart is to fele; Forthy the derk dede see hit is demed ever more, For hit dede[gh] of dethe duren there [gh]et. For hit is brod and bothemle[gh] and bitter as the galle, And no[gh]t may lenge in that lake that any lyf bere[gh], And all the coste[gh] of kynde hit combre[gh][24] vchone[25] For lay ther-on a lump of led and hit on loft flete[gh], And folde ther-on a ly[gh]t fyther and hit to founs synkke[gh], And ther water may walter to wete any erthe, Shal neuer grene ther-on growe, gresse ne wod nawther. Cleannesse, 1350

2. Account for the poor quality of English prose during this period.

3. What were the effects of the Norman Conquest upon English literature?

4. Describe the main features of the romance.

III. THE AGE OF CHAUCER

THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND (1350–1450)

Compared with the periods covered by the last two chapters, the period now under review is quite short. It includes the greater part of the reign of Edward III and the long French wars associated with his name; the accession of his grandson Richard II (1377); and the revolution of 1399, the deposition of Richard, and the foundation of the Lancastrian dynasty. From the literary point of view, of greater importance are the social and intellectual movements of the period: the terrible plague called the Black Death, bringing poverty, unrest, and revolt among the peasants, and the growth of the spirit of inquiry, which was strongly critical of the ways of the Church, and found expression in the teachings of Wyclif and the Lollards, and in the stern denunciations of Langland.

LITERARY FEATURES OF THE AGE

=1. The Standardizing of English.= The period of transition is now nearly over. The English language has shaken down to a kind of average--to the standard of the East Midland speech, the language of the capital city and of the universities. The other dialects, with the exception of the Scottish branch, rapidly melt away from literature, till they become quite exiguous. French and English have amalgamated to form the standard English tongue, which attains to its first full expression in the works of Chaucer.

=2.= A curious =“modern” note= begins to be apparent at this period. There is a sharper spirit of criticism, a more searching interest in man’s affairs, and a less childlike faith in, and a less complacent acceptance of, the established order. The vogue of the romance, though it has by no means gone, is passing, and in Chaucer it is derided. The freshness of the romantic ideal is being superseded by the more acute spirit of the drama, which even at this early time is faintly foreshadowed. Another more modern feature that at once strikes the observer is that the age of anonymity is passing away. Though many of the texts still lack named authors, the greater number of the books can be definitely ascribed. Moreover, we have for the first time a figure of outstanding literary importance, who gives to the age the form and pressure of his genius.

=3. Prose.= This era sees the foundation of an English prose style. Earlier specimens have been experimental or purely imitative; now, in the works of Mandeville and Malory, we have prose that is both original and individual. The English tongue is now ripe for a prose style. The language is settling to a standard; Latin and French are losing grip as popular prose mediums; and the growing desire for an English Bible exercises a steady pressure in favor of a standard English prose.

=4. Scottish Literature.= For the first time in our literature, in the person of Barbour (died 1395), Scotland supplies a writer worthy of note. This is only the beginning; for the tradition is handed on to the powerful group of poets who are mentioned in the next chapter.

GEOFFREY CHAUCER (1340–1400)

=1. His Life.= In many of the documents of the time Chaucer’s name is mentioned with some frequency; and these references, in addition to some remarks he makes regarding himself in the course of his poems, are the sum of what we know about his life. The date of his birth is uncertain, but it is now generally accepted as being 1340. He was born in London, entered the household of the wife of the Duke of Clarence (1357), and saw military service abroad, where he was captured. Next he seems to have entered the royal household, for he is frequently mentioned as the recipient of royal pensions and bounties. When Richard II succeeded to the crown (1377) Chaucer was confirmed in his offices and pensions, and shortly afterward (1378) he was sent to Italy on one of his several diplomatic missions. More pecuniary blessings followed; then ensued a period of depression, due probably to the departure to Spain (1387) of his patron John of Gaunt; but his life closed with a revival of his prosperity. He was the first poet to be buried in what is now known as Poets’ Corner in Westminster Abbey.

=2. His Poems.= The order of Chaucer’s poems cannot be ascertained with certitude, but from internal evidence they can as a rule be approximately dated.

It is now customary to divide the Chaucerian poems into three stages: the French, the Italian, and the English, of which the last is a development of the first two.

(a) The poems of the earliest or French group are closely modeled upon French originals, and the style is clumsy and immature. Of such poems the longest is The Romaunt of the Rose, a lengthy allegorical poem, written in octosyllabic couplets, and based upon Jean de Meung’s Le Roman de la Rose. This poem, which, though it extends to eight thousand lines, is only a fragment, was once entirely ascribed to Chaucer, but recent research, based upon a scrutiny of Chaucerian style, has decided that only the first part, amounting to seventeen hundred lines, is his work. Other poems of this period include The Dethe of the Duchesse, probably his earliest, and dated 1369, the date of the Duchess’s death, The Compleynte unto Pité, Chaucer’s ABC, The Compleynte of Mars, The Compleynte of Faire Anelida, and The Parlement of Foules. Of these the last is the longest; it has a fine opening, but, as so often happens at this time, the work diffuses into long speeches and descriptions.

(b) The second or Italian stage shows a decided advance upon the first. In the handling of the meters the technical ability is greater, and there is a growing keenness of perception and a greater stretch of originality. Troilus and Cressida is a long poem adapted from Boccaccio. By far the greater part of the poem is original, and the rhyme royal stanzas, of much dexterity and beauty, abound in excellent lines that often suggest the sonnets of Shakespeare. The poem suffers from the prevailing diffuseness; but the pathos of the story is touched upon with a passionate intensity.

“If no love is, O God, what fele I so? And if love is, what thing and which is he? If love be good, from whennes com’th my wo? If it be wikke, a wonder thinketh me When every torment and adversite That com’th of him may to me savory thinke; For ay thurste I the more that ich it drinke.

“And if that in myn owne lust I brenne, From whennes com’th my wailing and my pleynte? If harm agree me, wher-to pleyne I thenne? I n’ot, ne why unwery that I fainte. O quike deth! O swete harm so queynte! How may of thee in me swich quantite, But if I consente that it be?”

The Hous of Fame, a shorter poem in octosyllabic couplets, is of the dream-allegory type, as most of Chaucer’s poems of this period are; and it is of special importance because it shows gleams of the genuine Chaucerian humor. In this group is also included The Legende of Good Women, in which Chaucer, starting with the intention of telling nineteen affecting tales of virtuous women of antiquity, finishes with eight accomplished and the ninth only begun. After a charming introduction on the daisy, there is some masterly narrative, particularly in the portion dealing with Cleopatra. The meter is the heroic couplet, with which Chaucer was to familiarize us in The Canterbury Tales.

(c) The third or English group contains work of the greatest individual accomplishment. The achievement of this period is The Canterbury Tales, though one or two of the separate tales may be of slightly earlier composition. For the general idea of the tales Chaucer may be indebted to Boccaccio, but in nearly every important feature the work is essentially English. For the purposes of his poem Chaucer draws together twenty-nine pilgrims, including himself. They meet at the Tabard Inn, in Southwark, in order to go on a pilgrimage to the tomb of Thomas à Becket at Canterbury. The twenty-nine are carefully chosen types, of both sexes, and of all ranks, from a knight to a humble plowman; their occupations and personal peculiarities are many and diverse; and, as they are depicted in the masterly Prologue to the main work, they are interesting, alive, and thoroughly human. At the suggestion of the host of the Tabard, and to relieve the tedium of the journey, each of the pilgrims is to tell two tales on the outward journey, and two on the return. In its entirety the scheme would have resulted in an immense collection of over a hundred tales. But as it happens Chaucer finished only twenty, and left four partly complete. The separate tales are linked with their individual prologues, and with dialogues and scraps of narrative. Even in its incomplete state the work is a small literature in itself, an almost unmeasured abundance and variety of humor and pathos, of narrative and description, and of dialogue and digression. There are two prose tales, Chaucer’s own Tale of Melibœus and The Parson’s Tale; and nearly all the others are composed in a powerful and versatile species of the heroic couplet.

To this last stage of Chaucer’s work several short poems are ascribed, including The Lack of Stedfastness and the serio-comic Compleynte of Chaucer to his Purse.

There is also mention of a few short early poems, such as Origines upon the Maudeleyne, which have been lost.

During his lifetime Chaucer built up such a reputation as a poet that many works were at a later date ascribed to him without sufficient evidence. Of this group the best examples are The Flower and the Leaf, quite an excellent example of the dream-allegory type, and The Court of Love. It has now been settled that these poems are not truly his.

=3. His Prose.= The two prose tales cannot be regarded as among Chaucer’s successful efforts. Both of them--that is, The Tale of Melibœus and The Parson’s Tale on Penitence--are lifeless in style and full of tedious moralizings. Compared with earlier prose works they nevertheless mark an advance. They have a stronger grasp of sentence-construction, and in vocabulary they are copious and accurate. The other prose works of Chaucer are an early translation of Boëthius, and a treatise, composed for the instruction of his little son Lewis, on the astrolabe, then a popular astronomical instrument.

The following extract is a fair example of his prose:

“Now, sirs,” saith dame Prudence, “sith ye vouche saufe to be gouerned by my counceyll, I will enforme yow how ye shal gouerne yow in chesing of your counceyll. First tofore alle workes ye shall beseche the hyghe God, that he be your counceyll; and shape yow to suche entente that he yeue you counceyll and comforte as Thobye taught his sone. ‘At alle tymes thou shall plese and praye him to dresse thy weyes; and loke that alle thy counceylls be in hym for euermore.’ Saynt James eke saith: ‘Yf ony of yow haue nede of sapience, axe it of God.’ And after that than shall ye take counceyll in yourself, and examyne well your thoughtys of suche thynges as ye thynke that ben beste for your profyt. And than shall ye dryue away from your hertes the thynges that ben contraryous to good counceyl: this is to saye--ire, couetyse, and hastynes.” The Tale of Melibœus

=4. Features of his Poetry.= (a) The first thing that strikes the eye is the unique position that Chaucer’s work occupies in the literature of the age. He is first, with no competitor for hundreds of years to challenge his position. He is, moreover, the forerunner in the race of great literary figures that henceforth, in fairly regular succession, dominate the ages they live in.

(b) His Observation. Among Chaucer’s literary virtues his acute faculty of observation is very prominent. He was a man of the world, mixing freely with all types of mankind; and he used his opportunities to observe the little peculiarities of human nature. He had the seeing eye, the retentive memory, the judgment to select, and the capacity to expound; hence the brilliance of his descriptions, which we shall note in the next paragraph.

(c) His Descriptions. Success in descriptive passages depends on vivacity and skill in presentation, as well as on the judgment shown in the selection of details. Chaucer’s best descriptions, of men, manners, and places, are of the first rank in their beauty, impressiveness, and humor. Even when he follows the common example of the time, as when giving details of conventional spring mornings and flowery gardens, he has a vivacity that makes his poetry unique. Many poets before him had described the break of day, but never with the real inspiration that appears in the following lines:

The bisy larke, messager of day, Salueth in her song the morwe gay, And firy Phœbus riseth up so brighte That all the orient laugheth with the lighte. The Knight’s Tale

The Prologue contains ample material to illustrate Chaucer’s power in describing his fellow-men. We shall add an extract to show him in another vein. Observe the selection of detail, the terseness and adequacy of epithet, and the masterly handling of the couplet.

First on the wal was peynted a forest, In which ther dwelleth neither man nor best, With knotty, knarry, barreyne trees olde Of stubbes sharpe and hidouse to biholde, In which ther ran a rumbel and a swough, As though a storm sholde bresten every bough; And dounward from an hille, under a bente, Ther stood the temple of Mars armypotente, Wroght al of burned steel, of which the entree Was long and streit, and gastly for to see. The northern light in at the dores shoon, For wyndowe on the wal ne was ther noon Thurgh which men myghten any light discern, The dores were al of adament eterne, Y-clenched overthwart and endelong With iren tough, and for to make it strong, Every pyler, the temple to sustene, Was tonne greet, of iren bright and shene. The Knight’s Tale

(d) His Humor and Pathos. In the literature of his time, when so few poets seem to have any perception of the fun in life, the humor of Chaucer is invigorating and delightful. The humor, which steeps nearly all his poetry, has great variety: kindly and patronizing, as in the case of the Clerk of Oxenford; broad and semi-farcical, as in the Wife of Bath; pointedly satirical, as in the Pardoner and the Summoner; or coarse, as happens in the tales of the Miller, the Reeve, and the Pardoner. It is seldom that the satirical intent is wholly lacking, as it is in the case of the Good Parson, but, except in rare cases, the satire is good-humored and well-meant. The prevailing feature of Chaucer’s humor is its urbanity: the man of the world’s kindly tolerance of the weaknesses of his erring fellow-mortals.

Chaucer lays less emphasis on pathos, but it is not overlooked. In the poetry of Chaucer the sentiment is humane and unforced. We have excellent examples of pathos in the tale of the Prioress and in The Legende of Good Women.

We give a short extract from the long conversation between Chaucer and the eagle (“with fethres all of gold”) which carried him off to the House of Fame. The bird, with its cool acceptance of things, is an appropriate symbol of Chaucer himself in his attitude toward the world.

Thus I longe in his clawes lay, Til at the laste he to me spak In mannes vois, and seyde, “Awak! And be not so agast, for shame!” And called me tho by my name. And, for I sholde the bet abreyde-- Me mette--“Awak,” to me he seyde, Right in the same vois and stevene That useth oon I coude nevene; And with that vois, soth for to sayn, My minde cam to me agayn; For hit was goodly seyd to me, So nas hit never wont to be.... And sayde twyes “Seynte Marie! Thou art noyous for to carie.”... “O god,” thoughte I, “that madest kinde, Shal I non other weyes dye? Wher Ioves wol me stellifye, Or what thing may this signifye? I neither am Enok, nor Elye, Ne Romulus, ne Ganymede That was y-bore up, as men rede, To hevene with dan Iupiter, And maad the goddes boteler.”

(e) His Narrative Power. As a story-teller Chaucer employs somewhat tortuous methods, but his narrative possesses a curious stealthy speed. His stories, viewed strictly as stories, have most of the weaknesses of his generation: a fondness for long speeches, for pedantic digressions on such subjects as dreams and ethical problems, and for long explanations when none are necessary. Troilus and Cressida, heavy with long speeches, is an example of his prolixity, and The Knight’s Tale, of baffling complexity and overabundant in detail, reveals his haphazard and dawdling methods; yet both contain many admirable narrative passages. But when he rises above the weaknesses common to the time he is terse, direct, and vivacious. The extract given below will illustrate the briskness with which his story can move.

This sely widwe, and eek hir doghtres two, Herden thise hennes crie and maken wo, And out at dores stirten they anon, And syen the fox toward the grove gon, And bar upon his bak the cok away, And cryden, “Out! Harrow! And weylaway! Ha! Ha! The Fox!” And after hym they ran, And eek with staves many another man; Ran Colle, oure dogge, and Talbot, and Gerland And Malkyn, with a dystaf in hir hand; Ran cow and calf, and eek the verray hogges, So were they fered for berkynge of the dogges, And shoutyng of the men and wommen eek; They ronne so hem thoughte hir herte breek. They yolleden, as feendes doon in helle; The dokes cryden, as men wolde hem quelle; The gees, for feere, flowen over the trees; Out of the hyve cam the swarm of bees; So hidous was the noys, a benedicitee! Certes, he Jakke Straw, and his meynee, Ne made never shoutes half so shrille, Whan that they wolden any Flemyng kille, As thilke day was maade upon the fox. The Nun’s Priest’s Tale

(f) His Metrical Skill. In the matter of poetical technique English literature owes much to Chaucer. He is not an innovator, for he employs the meters in common use. In his hands, however, they take on new powers. The octosyllabic and heroic couplets, which previously were slack and inartistic measures, now acquire a new strength, suppleness, and melody. Chaucer, who is no great lyrical poet, takes little interest in the more complicated meters common in the lyric; but in some of his shorter poems he shows a skill that is as good as the very best apparent in the contemporary poems.

(g) Summary. We may summarize Chaucer’s achievement by saying that he is the earliest of the great moderns. In comparison with the poets of his own time, and with those of the succeeding century, the advance he makes is almost startling. For example, Manning, Hampole, and the romancers are of another age and of another way of thinking from ours; but, apart from the superficial archaisms of spelling, the modern reader finds in Chaucer something closely akin. All the Chaucerian features help to create this modern atmosphere: the shrewd and placidly humorous observation, the wide humanity, the quick aptness of phrase, the dexterous touch upon the meter, and, above all, the fresh and formative spirit--the genius turning dross into gold. Chaucer is indeed a genius; he stands alone, and for nearly two hundred years none dare claim equality with him.

OTHER POETS

=1. William Langland=, or =Langley (1332–1400)=, is one of the early writers with whom modern research has dealt adversely. All we know about him appears on the manuscripts of his poem, or is based upon the remarks he makes regarding himself in the course of the poem. This poem, the full title of which is The Vision of William concerning Piers the Plowman, appears in its many manuscripts in three forms, called respectively the A, B, and C texts. The A text is the shortest, being about 2500 lines long; the B is more than 7200 lines; and the C, which is clearly based upon B, is more than 7300 lines. Until quite recently it has always been assumed that the three forms were all the work of Langland; but the latest theory is that the A form is the genuine composition of Langland, whereas both B and C have been composed by a later and inferior poet.

From the personal passages in the poem it appears that the author was born in Shropshire about 1332. The vision in which he saw Piers the Plowman probably took place in 1362.

The poem itself tells of the poet’s vision on the Malvern Hills. In this trance he beholds a fair “feld ful of folk.” The first vision, by subtle and baffling changes, merges into a series of dissolving scenes which deal with the adventures of allegorical beings, human like Do-wel, Do-bet, and Do-betst, or of abstract significance like the Lady Meed, Wit, Study, and Faith. During the many incidents of the poem the virtuous powers generally suffer most, till the advent of Piers the Plowman--the Messianic deliverer--restores the balance to the right side. The underlying motive of the work is to expose the sloth and vice of the Church, and to set on record the struggles and virtues of common folks. Langland’s frequent sketches of homely life are done with sympathy and knowledge, and often suggest the best scenes of Bunyan.

The style has a somber energy, an intense but crabbed seriousness, and an austere simplicity of treatment. The form of the poem is curious. It is a revival of the Old English rhymeless measure, having alliteration as the basis of the line. The lines themselves are fairly uniform in length, and there is the middle pause, with (as a rule) two alliterations in the first half-line and one in the second. Yet in spite of the Old English meter the vocabulary draws freely upon the French, to an extent equal to that of Chaucer himself.

We quote the familiar opening lines of the poem. The reader should note the strong rhythm of the lines--which in some cases almost amounts to actual meter--the fairly regular system of alliteration, and the sober undertone of resignation.

In a somer sesun, whan softe was the sonne, I shope me into a shroud, a sheep as I were; In habite of an hermite, unholy of werkes, Wende I wyde in this world, wondres to here. But in a Mayes morwnynge, on Malverne hulles, Me bifel a ferly,[26] a feyric me thouhte; I was wery of wandringe and wente me to reste Under a brod banke, bi a bourne syde, And as I lay and lened, and loked on the waters, I slumberde on a slepyng; it sownede so murie.

=2. John Gower=, the date of whose birth is uncertain, died in 1408. He was a man of means, and a member of a good Kentish family; he took a fairly active part in the politics and literary activity of the time, and was buried in London.

The three chief works of Gower are noteworthy, for they illustrate the unstable state of contemporary English literature. His first poem, Speculum Meditantis, is written in French, and for a long time was lost, being discovered as late as 1895; the second, Vox Clamantis, is composed in Latin; and the third, Confessio Amantis, is written in English, at the King’s command according to Gower himself. In this last poem we have the conventional allegorical setting, with the disquisition of the seven deadly sins, illustrated by many anecdotes. These anecdotes reveal Gower’s capacity as a story-teller. He has a diffuse and watery style of narrative, but occasionally he is brisk and competent. The meter is the octosyllabic couplet, of great smoothness and fluency.

=3. John Barbour (1316–95)= is the first of the Scottish poets to claim our attention. He was born in Aberdeenshire, and studied both at Oxford and Paris. His great work is The Brus (1375), a lengthy poem of twenty books and thirteen thousand lines. The work is really a history of Scotland from the death of Alexander III (1286) till the death of Bruce and the burial of his heart (1332). The heroic theme is the rise of Bruce, and the central incident of the poem is the battle of Bannockburn. The poem, often rudely but pithily expressed, contains much absurd legend and a good deal of inaccuracy, but it is no mean beginning to the long series of Scottish heroic poems. The spirited beginning is often quoted:

A! fredome is a nobill thing! Fredome mayss man to haiif liking! Fredome all solace to man giffis; He levys at ess that frely levys! A noble hart may haiff nane ess, Na ellys nocht that may him pless, Gyffe fredome failzhe: for fre liking Is zharnyt[27] our all othir thing. Na he, that ay hass levyt fre, May nocht knaw weill the propyrte, The angyr, na the wrechyt dome, That is couplyt to foule thyrldome.

PROSE-WRITERS

=1. Sir John Mandeville= is the English form of the name of =Jehan de Mandeville=, who compiled and published a French book of travels between 1357 and 1371. This French work was very popular, and it was translated into several languages, including English. The English version has a preface, in which it is stated that the author was a Sir John Mandeville, a knight, born at St. Albans, who crossed the sea in 1322 and traveled in many strange regions. Much of the personal narrative is invention; nowadays the very existence of Sir John is denied. The real author of the book is said to be =Jehan de Bourgogne=, who died at Liège in 1372.

It has now been demonstrated that the so-called “Travels” is a compilation from several popular books of voyages, including those of a Friar Odoric, of an Armenian called Hetoum, and (to a very small extent) of the famous traveler Marco Polo. These, with a few grains of original matter, are ingeniously welded into one of the most charming books of its kind. The travels are full of incredible descriptions and anecdotes, which are set down with delightful faith and eagerness. The style is sweet and clear, with some colloquial touches; and the short narrations freely dispersed through the text, tersely phrased and accurately gauged in length, are rendered with great skill.

We add an example to illustrate this admirable prose style. Observe the brief sentences, many of which begin with “and,” the simple but effective diction, and the straightforward style of narrative.

And zee schull undirstonde that whan men comen to Jerusalem her first pilgrymage is to the chirche of the Holy Sepulcr wher oure Lord was buryed, that is withoute the cytee on the north syde. But it is now enclosed in with the ton wall. And there is a full fair chirche all rownd, and open above, and covered with leed. And on the west syde is a fair tour and an high for belles strongly made. And in the myddes of the chirche is a tabernacle as it wer a lytyll hows, made with a low lityll dore; and that tabernacle is made in maner of a half a compas right curiousely and richely made of gold and azure and othere riche coloures, full nobelyche made. And in the ryght side of that tabernacle is the sepulcre of oure Lord. And the tabernacle is viij fote long and v fote wide, and xj fote in heghte. And it is not longe sithe the sepulcre was all open, that men myghte kisse it and touche it. But for pilgrymes that comen thider peyned hem to breke the ston in peces, or in poudr; therefore the Soudan[28] hath do make a wall aboute the sepulcr that no man may towche it. But in the left syde of the wall of the tabernacle is well the heighte of a man, is a gret ston, to the quantytee of a mannes bed, that was of the holy sepuler, and that ston kissen the pilgrymes that comen thider. In that tabernacle ben no wyndowes, but it is all made light with lampes that hangen befor the sepulcr.

=2. John Wyclif=, or =Wycliffe (1320–84)=, was born in Yorkshire about the year 1320. He was educated at Oxford, took holy orders, received the living of Lutteworth in Leicestershire (1374), and took a prominent part in the ecclesiastical feuds of the day. He was strong in his denunciation of the abuses then rampant, and only the influence of his powerful friends saved him from the fate of a heretic. He died peacefully in 1384.

An active controversialist, he wrote many Latin books in support of his revolutionary opinions. In addition, he issued a large number of tracts and pamphlets in English, and carried through an English translation of the Bible. His English style is not polished, but it is vigorous and pointed, with a homely simplicity that makes its appeal both wide and powerful.

=3. Sir Thomas Malory= may be included at this point, though his famous work, the Morte d’Arthur, was composed as late as the “ix yere of the reygne of Kyng Edward the furth” (1469). Nearly all we know about Malory is contained in the preface of Caxton, the first printer of the book. Caxton says that the book was written by Sir Thomas Malory “oute of certeyn bookes of frensshe.”

Like the travels of Mandeville, the Morte d’Arthur is a compilation. In the case of Malory’s books, French Arthurian romances are drawn upon to create a prose romance of great length and detail. However diverse the sources are, the book is written with a uniform dignity and fervor that express the very soul and essence of romance. The prose style, never pretentious, is always equal to the demands put upon it, and frequently it has that flash of phrase that is essential to the creation of a literary style. Malory is, in short, our first individual prose stylist.

And on the morn the damsel and he took their leave and thanked the knight, and so departed, and rode on their way until they came to a great forest. And there was a great river and but one passage, and there were ready two knights on the further side to let them the passage. “What sayest thou,” said the damsel, “wilt thou match yonder knights, or turn again?” “Nay,” said Sir Beaumains, “I will not turn again and they were six more.” And therewithal he rushed into the water, and in the midst of the water, either brake their spears upon other to their hands, and then they drew their swords and smote eagerly at other. And at the last Sir Beaumains smote the other upon the helm that his head stonied, and therewithal he fell down in the water, and there was he drowned. And then he spurred his horse upon the land, where the other knight fell upon him and brake his spear, and so they drew their swords and fought long together. At the last Sir Beaumains clave his helm and his head down to the shoulders: and so he rode unto the damsel, and bade her ride forth on her way.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY FORMS

The Chaucerian age saw a great and significant advance in poetical forms of literature, and a noteworthy one in the domain of prose.

=1. Poetry.= With regard to poetry, we can observe the various forms separating themselves and straightening out into form and coherence.

(a) The lyric, chiefly the religious and love-lyric, continues to be written and developed. Chaucer himself contributes very little toward it, but a number of anonymous bards add to the common stock. It is seldom that we can give precise dates to the lyrics of this period; but about this time were composed such exquisite pieces as The Nut-brown Maid, a curious hybrid between the lyric and the ballad, and the lovely carols of the Church.

(b) The Rise of the Ballad. The origin of the ballad has always been a question in dispute. There is little doubt, however, that ballads began to assume a position of importance at the end of the fourteenth century.

The true ballad-form had several features to make it distinct from the romance: it is commonly plebeian in origin and theme, thus contrasting with the romance, which is aristocratic in these respects; it is short, and treats of one incident, whereas the romance form is cumulative, and can absorb any number of adventures; it is simple in style, and is as a rule composed in the familiar ballad-stanza. Some of the fine ballads belonging to this time are Chevy Chace, Gil Morrice, and Sir Patrick Spens. Very old ballads, as can be seen in the case of Chevy Chace, which exists in more than one version, have descended to modern times in a much more polished condition than they were in at first. In their earliest condition they were rude and almost illiterate productions, the compositions of the popular minstrels.

(c) The Rise of the Allegory. This is perhaps the suitable place to note the rise of allegory, which in the age of Chaucer began to affect all the branches of poetry. Even at its best the allegorical method is crude and artificial, but it is a concrete and effective literary device for expounding moral and religious lessons. It appeals with the greatest force to minds which are still unused to abstract thinking; and about the period now under discussion it exactly suited the lay and ecclesiastical mind. Hence we have a flood of poems dealing with Courts of Love, Houses of Fame, Dances of the Seven Deadly Sins, and other symbolical subjects. Especially in the earlier stages of his career, Chaucer himself did not escape the prevailing habit. We shall see that the craze for the allegory was to increase during the next century and later, till it reached its climax in The Faerie Queene.

(d) Descriptive and Narrative Poems. In this form of poetry The Canterbury Tales is the outstanding example, but in many passages of Langland and Gower we have specimens of the same class. We have already mentioned some of the weaknesses that are common to the narrative poetry of the day, and which were due partly to lack of practice and partly to reliance upon inferior models: the tantalizing rigmaroles of long speeches and irrelevant episodes, the habit of dragging into the story scientific and religious discussions, and an imperfect sense of proportion in the arrangement of the plot. In the best examples, such as those of Chaucer, there is powerful grip upon the central interest, a shrewd observation and humor, and quite often a brilliant rapidity of narration.

(e) The metrical romance is still a popular form, but the great vogue of the last century is on the wane. Among the lower classes it is being supplanted by the ballad; and the growing favor that is being shown to the fabliau--that is, the short French tale, realistic in subject and humorous-satirical in style--is leading to tales of the coarser Chaucer type.

=2. Prose.= In prose we have the first English travel-book in Mandeville’s Travels; one of the earliest translations of the Bible in Wyclif’s; and, among others, a prose chronicle in the work of =John of Trevisa (1326–1412)=, who issued a prose version of Higden’s Polychronicon. As yet such works are in an undeveloped state, but already some considerable growth is apparent. Prose is increasing both in quantity and in quality, and the rate of increase is accelerating.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY STYLE

=1. Poetry.= We have already stated that the time of transition and experiment is nearly over. English poetical style has established itself, and the main lines of development have been laid down. For this we are indebted almost entirely to Chaucer.

(a) With regard to meter, it is curious to observe that with increasing practice the tendency is toward simplicity. The extremely complicated stanzas are becoming less common, and rhyme royal and other shorter verses are coming into favor. Along with simplification is a greater suppleness and dexterity. There is less rigidity in the position of the pause, and a greater freedom in the substitution of three-syllabled feet for two-syllabled feet. These features are most strongly developed in the couplet forms. It is this union of simplicity and freedom that is to remain the dominating characteristic of English verse, thus contrasting with the quantitative system of the classical measures and the syllabic nature of the French.

(b) There is an interesting revival in alliteration. In the true alliterative poem the basis of the line is a system of repeating sounds, such as was the custom in Old English verse. One of the earliest examples of this type which occurs after the Norman Conquest is Wynnere and Wastour (1352), an anonymous poem of no great merit. The tradition is continued in the alliterative romances of the type of Cleannesse; and it attains its climax in Piers Plowman. Though this last poem gained a great popularity it left no important literary descendants. Hence the revival of the ancient system of alliteration remains as an interesting curiosity. In a very short time after Langland, alliteration becomes simply an ornament to meter--sometimes a device of great beauty, but not vital to the metrical scheme.

As regards the actual poetic diction of the period, there is a considerable liking shown for ornate French and classical terms. This can be observed in the earlier poems of Chaucer and in the Confessio Amantis of Gower. We have not yet attained to the aureate diction of the succeeding generation, but the temptation to use French terms was too strong to be resisted. Langland, though he draws upon the French Element, writes with much greater simplicity; and the ballads also are composed in a manner quite plain and unadorned.

=2. Prose.= The state of prose is still too immature to allow of any style beyond the plainest. Wyclif’s, the earliest of the period, is unpolished, though it can be pointed and vigorous. Mandeville’s prose style, though it is devoid of artifices, attains to a certain distinction by reason of its straightforward methods, its short and workmanlike sentences, and a brevity rare in his day. In the case of Malory, who comes some time after the others, we have quite an individual style. It is still unadorned; but it has a distinction of phrase and a decided romantic flavor that make Malory a prose stylist of a high class. His prose is, indeed, a distinct advance upon that of his predecessors.

EXERCISES

1. The following series of extracts is intended to show the development of English prose style from Old English times to those of Malory. The student should write a brief commentary upon the development of the prose, paying attention to vocabulary, sentence-construction, clearness, and brevity.

(1) Ða ic ða ðis eall gemunde, When I recollected all this, I ða wundrade ic swiðe wondered very much that of all swiðe ðara godena wiotona ðe the scholars that long were giu wæron giond Angelcynn, throughout England and had ond ða bec ealla be fullan learnt all the books in full, geliornod hæfdon, ðæt hie hiora none at all wished to turn them ða nænne dæl noldon on hiera into their own tongue. But in agen geðiode wendan. Ac ic a short space I answered myself, ða sona eft me selfum saying: “They did not andwyrde, ond cwæþ: “Hie ne believe that men should ever be wendon ðætte æfre menn so reckless, and learning so fall sceolden swæ reccelease weorðan, away; through that desire they ond sio lar swæ oðfeallan; for held back from it, and wished ðære wilnunga hie hit forleton that the more wisdom there ond woldon ðaet her ðy mara might be in the land the more wisdom on londe wære ðy we tongues we might know.” ma geðeoda cuðon?” ALFRED, Pastoral Care, 900

(2) Thæt witen ge wel alle, This know ye well all, that we thæt we willen and unnen, thæt will and grant that which our thæt ure rædesmen alle other councillors, all or the greater the moare dæl of heom, thæt art of them, who are chosen by beoth ichosen thurg us and us and by the land’s people in thurg thæt loandes folk on ure our kingdom, have done and kuneriche, habbeth idon and shall do, to the honour of God schullen don in the worthnesse and in allegiance to us, for the of Gode and on ure treowthe good of the land, by the ordinance for the frem of the loande of the aforesaid councillors, thurg the besigte of than be stedfast and permanent toforeniseide redesmen, beo stedefaest in all things, time without end, and ilestinde in alle and we command all our true thinge a buten ænde, and we men by the faith that they owe hoaten alle ure treowe in the us, that they stedfastly hold, treowthe, thæt heo us ogen, and swear to hold and defend thæt heo stedefaestliche the regulations. healden and swerien to healdan and to werien the isetnesses. Proclamation of Henry III, 1258

(3) And for als moche as it is longe tyme passed that ther was no generalle passage ne vyage over the see; and many men desiren for to here speke of the Holy Lond, and han therof gret solace and comfort; I, John Maundevylle, Knyght alle be it I be not worthi, that was born in Englond, in the town of Seynt Albones, passede the see, the yeer of our Lord MCCCXXII, in the day of Seynt Michelle; and hidra to have been longe tyme over the see, and have seyn and gon thorghe manye dyverse londes, and many provynces and kingdomes and iles and have passed thorghout Turkey, Percye, Surrye, Egypt the highe and the lowe, Ermonye, Inde the lasse and the more, and many iles, that ben abouten Inde where dwellen many dyverse folkes and of dyverse maneres and schappes of men, of which I schalle speke more pleynly hereafter. MANDEVILLE, Travels, 1370

(4) Yn Brytayn buþ meny wondres, noþeles foure buþ most wonderfol. Þe furste ys at Pectoun, þar bloweþ so strong a wynd out of þe chenes of þe eorþe þat hyt casteþ vp a[gh]e[29] cloþes þat me casteþ in. Þe secunde ys at Stonhenge, bysydes Salesbury, þar gret stones & wondur huge buþ arered[30] an hy[gh], as hyt were [gh]ates, so þat þar semeþ [gh]ates yset apon oþer [gh]ates; noþeles hyt ys no[gh]t clerlych yknowe noþer parceyuet hou[gh] & whar-fore a buþ so arered & so wonderlych yhonged. Þe þriddle ys at Cherdhol,[31] þer ys gret holwenes vndur eorþe; ofte meny men habbeþ y-be þer-ynne & ywalked aboute with-ynne & yseye ryuers & streemes, bote nowhar conneþ hy fynde ende. Þe feurþe ys, þat reyn[32] ys ys ye arered vp of þe hulles, & anon yspronge aboute yn þe feeldes. Also þer ys a gret pond þat conteyneþ þre score ylondes couenable[33] for men to dwelle ynne; þat pound ys byclypped aboute wiþ six score rooches.[34] JOHN OF TREVISA, 1387

(5) So Balan prayed the lady of her gentleness, for his true service that she would bury them both in that same place where the battle was done. And she granted them with weeping it should be done richly in the best manner. “Now will ye send for a priest, that we may receive our sacrament and receive the blessed body of our Lord Jesus Christ.” “Yea,” said the lady, “it shall be done.” And so she sent for a priest and gave them their rites. “Now,” said Balin, “when we are buried in one tomb, and the mention made over us how two brethren slew each other, there will never good knight nor good man see our tomb but they will pray for our souls.” And so all the ladies and gentlewomen wept for pity. Then, anon Balan died, but Balin died not till the midnight after, and so were they buried both, and the lady let make a mention of Balan how he was there slain by his brother’s hands, but she knew not Balin’s name. MALORY, Morte d’ Arthur, 1470

2. Comment upon the style of each of the following extracts. Note the use of French words, the type of sentences, the clearness of construction, and the handling of the meter. Compare (1) with the extract given from Chaucer on page 39. Which is the better narrative, and which shows the more humor?

(1) In a Croniq I fynde thus, How that Caius Fabricius Wich whilome was consul of Rome, By whome the lawes yede and come, Whan the Sampnitees to him brouht A somme of golde, and hym by souht To done hem fauoure in the lawe, Towarde the golde he gan hym drawe: Where of in alle mennes loke, A part in to his honde he tooke, Wich to his mouthe in alle haste He put hit for to smelle and taste, And to his ihe and to his ere, Bot he ne fonde no comfort there: And thanne he be gan it to despise, And tolde vnto hem in this wise: “I not what is with golde to thryve Whan none of alle my wittes fyve Fynt savour ne delite ther inne So is it bot a nyce sinne Of golde to ben to coveitous, Bot he is riche an glorious Wich hath in his subieccion The men wich in possession Ben riche of golde, and by this skille, For he may alday whan he wille, Or be him leef or be him loth, Justice don vppon hem bothe.” Lo thus he seide and with that worde He threwe to fore hem on the borde The golde oute of his honde anon, And seide hem that he wolde none, So that he kepte his liberte To do justice and equite. GOWER, Confessio Amantis

(2) The kyng and hise knyghtes To the kirke wente To here matyns of the day And the mass after. Thanne waked I of my wynkyng, And wo was withalle, That I ne had slept sadder And y-seighen moore. Ac er I hadde faren a furlong, Feyntise[35] me hente,[36] That I ne myghte ferther a foot For defaute of slepynge, And sat softly a-doun, And seide my bileve, And so[37] I bablede on my bedes Thei broughte me a-slepe. And thanne saugh I much moore Than I bifore of tolde, For I seigh the feld ful of folk, That I bifore of seide And how Reson gan arayen hym Al the reaume[38] to preche And with a cros afore the kyng Comsede[39] thus to techan. LANGLAND, Piers Plowman

3. The two extracts given below represent the older and the more modern versions of Chevy Chace. Compare them with regard to diction, vivacity, and general competence in the handling of meter.

(1) With that ther cam an arrowe (2) With that, there came an arrow hastely keen Forthe off a mightie wane,[40] Out of an English bow, Hit hathe strekene the yerle Which struck Erle Douglas to Duglas the heart, In at the brest bane. A deepe and deadly blow:

Thoroue lyvar and longs bathe[41] The sharp arrowe ys gane, Who never spoke more words than these, That never after in all his lyffe “Fight on, my merry men all; days, He spayke mo wordes but ane, For why, my life is at an end; That was, “Fyghte ye, my merry Lord Percy sees my fall.” men whyllys ye may, For my lyff days ben[42] gan.” Then leaving life, Erle Percy tooke The Perse leanyde on his brande, The dead man by the hand; And sawe the Duglas de;

He tooke the dede man be the And said, “Erle Douglas, for thy hande, life And sayd, “Wo ys me for the! Wold I had lost my land. To have sayvde thy lyffe I wold “O Christ! my verray heart doth have pertyd[43] with bleed My landes for years thre, With sorrow for thy sake; For a better man of hart, nare For sure, a more redoubted knight of hande Was not in all the north countre.” Mischance did never take.”

4. “In the union of the two [art and strength] Chaucer stood alone.” (Saintsbury.) Compare Chaucer with Langland and Gower, and show how he combines the strength of the former with the art of the latter.

5. The following quotations on Chaucer can each be taken as the theme of a short discussion, and all of them can be used as the foundation of a longer paper.

(1) Dan Chaucer, well of English undefiled, On Fame’s eternall beadroll worthy to be filed. SPENSER

(2) He is the father of English poetry.... He followed nature everywhere.... The verse of Chaucer is not harmonious to us.... There is the rudeness of a Scotch tune in it.[44] DRYDEN

(3) He was a healthy and hearty man, so humane that he loved even the foibles of his kind.... He was a truly epic poet, without knowing it.... He has left us such a picture of contemporary life as no man ever painted. LOWELL

(4) Dan Chaucer, the first warbler, whose sweet breath Preluded those melodious bursts that fill The spacious times of great Elizabeth With sounds that echo still. TENNYSON

6. Point out some of the traces that the social and religious unrest has left upon the literature of the time.

7. “There exists a general impression that our prose dates from the sixteenth century.” (Earle.) Is this impression a correct one?

IV. FROM CHAUCER TO SPENSER

THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND (1450–1550)

The dates that appear at the head of this section are only approximate, but the general features of the time are well defined. In England the period begins with wars, unrest, and almost chaos; it concludes with a settled dynasty, a reformed religion, and a people united and progressive. Abroad, as well as in England, there is apparent the broad intellectual flood known as the Renaissance, running deep and strong: the renewed desire for knowledge, changes in religious ideals, the discovery of new worlds, both geographical and literary, and the enormous quickening of heart and mind. In England the scene is being prepared for the great age to follow.

LITERARY FEATURES OF THE AGE

=1. Poverty of Material.= Considering the length of the period, the poverty of the output is hard to explain. There is no English poet of any consequence; the prose writing is thin in quality and quantity; and if it were not for the activities of the Scottish poets the age would be poor indeed.

=2. Scottish Poetry.= Scottish poetry comes late into notice, but it comes with a bound. The poverty and disunion of Scotland, its severance from the intellectual stimulus of English thought, and the dearth of educational facilities all combine to retard its literary development. But these disadvantages are rapidly passing away, with the beneficial results apparent in this chapter.

=3. The Development of the Drama.= The popularity of the romance is almost gone; the drama, more suited to the growing intelligence of the time, is rapidly taking on a new importance. The professional actor and the playwright, owing to real demand for their services, are making their appearance. The development of the drama is sketched in this chapter.

=4. The Importance of the Period.= The importance of the time is belied by its apparent barrenness. In reality it is a season of healthy fallow, of germination, of rest and recuperation. The literary impulse, slowly awakening, is waiting for the right moment. When that movement comes the long period of rest gives the new movement swift and enduring force.

POETRY

=1. The Scottish Poets.= (a) =James I (1394–1437)= was captured by the English in 1405, and remained in England till 1424, when he married Joan Beaufort, the cousin of Henry V, and returned to Scotland. The chief poem associated with his name is The Kingis Quhair (quire or book). The attempts to disprove his authorship have not been successful. It seems to have been written during his captivity, and it records his first sight of the lady destined to be his wife. It follows the Chaucerian model of the dream, the garden, and the introduction of allegorical figures. The stanza is the rhyme royal, which is said to have derived its name from his use of it. The diction, which is the common artificial blend of Scottish and Chaucerian forms, is highly ornamented; but there are some passages of really brilliant description, and a few stanzas of passionate declamation quite equal to the best of Chaucer’s Troilus and Cressida. It is certainly among the best of the poems that appear between the periods of Chaucer and Spenser. Other poems, in particular the more plebeian Peblis to the Play and Christis Kirk on the Green, have been ascribed to James, but his authorship is extremely doubtful.

The two following stanzas are fair examples of James’s poetry. The man who wrote them was no mean poet.

Of her array the form if I shall write, Towards her golden hair and rich attire, In fretwise couchit[45] with pearlis white, And great balas[46] leaming[47] as the fire, With mony ane emeraut and fair sapphire; And on her head a chaplet fresh of hue, Of Plumis parted red, and white, and blue.

Full of quaking spangis bright as gold, Forged of shape like to the amorets, So new, so fresh, so pleasant to behold, The plumis eke like to the flower jonets,[48] And other of shape, like to the flower jonets; And above all this, there was, well I wot, Beauty enough to make a world to dote. The Kingis Quhair

(b) =Sir David Lyndsay (1490–1555)= was born in Fifeshire about the year 1490. He entered the royal service, and rose to fill the important position of Lyon King-of-Arms.

His longer works, which were written during his service at Court, include The Dreme, in rhyme royal stanzas, with the usual allegorical setting; The Testament of Squyer Meldrum, in octosyllabic couplets, a romantic biography with a strongly Chaucerian flavor; The Testament and Compleynt of the Papyngo, which has some gleams of his characteristic humor; and Ane Pleasant Satyre of the Thrie Estatis, a morality-play, coarse and vulgar, but containing much of his best work. It is full of telling satire directed against the Church, and it shows acute observation of the frailties of his fellows. Lyndsay represents the ruder type of the Scottish Chaucerian. He has a coarseness beyond the standard even of his day; but he cannot be denied a bluff good-humor, a sound honesty of opinion, and an abundant and vital energy.

(c) =Robert Henryson (1425–1500)= has left us few details regarding his life. In one of his books he is described as a “scholemaister of Dunfermeling”; he may have studied at Glasgow University; and he was dead when Dunbar (see below) wrote his Lament for the Makaris in 1506. Hence the dates given for his birth and death are only approximations.

The order of his poems has not been determined. His longest is a version of the Morall Fabillis of Esope, composed in rhyme royal stanzas and showing much dexterity and vivacity; The Testament of Cresseid is a continuation of Chaucer’s Troilus and Cressida, and it has a finely tragic conclusion; Orpheus and Eurydice, an adaptation from Boëthius, has, along with much commonplace moralizing, some passages of real pathos; and among his thirteen shorter poems Robene and Makyne, a little pastoral incident, is executed with a lightness, a brevity, and a precision that make it quite a gem among its fellows. His Garment of Gude Ladies, though often quoted, is pedantically allegorical, and of no high quality as poetry.

We quote two stanzas from The Testament of Cresseid. The diction is an artificial blend of that of Chaucer and of colloquial Scots, and it is heavily loaded with descriptive epithet; but it is picturesque and dramatic, in some respects suggesting the later work of Spenser.

His face frosnit,[49] his lyre was lyke the leid, His teith chatterit, and cheverit[50] with the chin, His ene[51] drowpit, how,[52] sonkin in his heid, Out of his nois the meldrop[53] fast did rin, With lippis bla,[54] and cheikis liene and thin, The iceschoklis that fra his hair doun hang, Was wonder greit, and as ane speir als lang.

Atouir[55] his belt his lyart[56] lokkis lay Felterit[57] unfair, ovirfret with froistis hoir, His garmound and his gyis[58] full gay of gray, His widderit weid[59] fra him the wind out woir; Ane busteous bow within his hand he boir, Under his girdill ane flasche[60] of felloun flanis,[61] Fedderit[62] with ice, and heidit with hailstanis. The Testament of Cresseid

(d) =William Dunbar (1460–1520)= is generally considered to be the chief of the Scottish Chaucerian poets. He was born in East Lothian, studied at St. Andrews University (1477), and went to France and became a wandering friar. Returning to Scotland, he became attached to the household of James IV, and in course of time was appointed official Rhymer. He died about 1520.

Dunbar wrote freely, often on subjects of passing interest; and though his work runs mainly on Chaucerian lines it has an energy and pictorial quality that are quite individual. Of the more than ninety poems associated with his name the most important are The Golden Targe, of the common allegorical-rhetorical type; The Thrissill and the Rois, celebrating the marriage of James IV and the English Margaret (1503); The Dance of the Sevin Deidlie Sins, with its strong macabre effects and its masterly grip of meter; The Twa Meryit Wemen and the Wedo, a revival of the ancient alliterative measure, and outrageously frank in expression; and The Lament for the Makaris, in short stanzas with the refrain Timor Mortis conturbat me, quite striking in its effect.

The following short extract reveals Dunbar’s strong pictorial quality and his command of meter.

Let see quoth he now wha begins:-- With that the foul Sevin Deidlie Sins Beyond to leap at anis[63]; And first of all in dance was Pride With hair wyld[64] back and bonnet o’ side, Like to make vaistie wanis.[65] And round about him as a wheel Hung all in rumples to the heel His kethat[66] for the nanis.[67] Mony proud trumpour[68] with him trippit; Through scalding fire aye as they skippit They girned[69] with hideous granis.[70] Then Ire came in with sturt[71] and strife His hand was aye upon his knife, He brandeist like a beir.[72] The Dance of the Sevin Deidlie Sins

(e) =Gawain Douglas (1474–1522)= was a member of the famous Douglas family, his father being the fifth Earl of Angus, Archibald “Bell the Cat.” He studied at St. Andrews University (1489) and probably at Paris, became a priest, and rose to be Bishop of Dunkeld. He took a great share in the high politics of those dangerous times, and in the end lost his bishopric, was expelled to England, and died in London.

His four works belong to the period 1501–13: The Palice of Honour, of elaborate and careful workmanship, and typical of the fifteenth-century manner; King Hart, a laboriously allegorical treatment of life, the Hart being the heart of life, which is attended by the five senses and other personifications of abstractions; Conscience, a short poem, a mere quibble on the word “conscience,” of no great poetical merit; and the Æneid, his most considerable effort, a careful translation of Virgil, with some incongruous touches, but done with competence and some poetical ability. It is the earliest of its kind, and so is worthy of some consideration. Douglas is the most scholarly and painstaking of his group; but he lacks the native vigor of his fellows. His style is often overloaded and listless, and in the selection of theme he shows little originality.

=2. John Skelton (1460–1529)= comes late in this period, but he is perhaps the most considerable of the poets. His place of birth is disputed; he may have studied at Oxford, and he probably graduated at Cambridge. He took orders (1498), entered the household of the Countess of Richmond, the mother of Henry VII, and became a tutor to Prince Henry. In 1500 he obtained the living of Diss in Norfolk, but his sharp tongue ruined him as a rector. He fell foul of Wolsey, and is said to have escaped imprisonment by seeking sanctuary in Westminster Abbey, where he died in 1529.

In his Garlande of Laurell Skelton gives a list of his own works, most of which have perished. This poem itself is a dreary effort, stilted in style and diffuse in treatment. It is in satire that Skelton appears at his best. His satirical poems, in spite of their shuffling and scrambling meters, are usually sharp, often witty, and nearly always alive. Why come ye not to Court? is addressed to Wolsey, and for jeering impertinence it is hard to find its equal, at that time at least; The Tunnynge of Elynore Runnynge is realism indeed, for it faithfully portrays the drunken orgies of a pack of women in an ale-house. His more serious poems include a Dirge on Edward IV, The Bowge of Court, and a quite excellent morality-play, Magnificence.

We quote an example of Skelton’s peculiar meter, which came to be called “Skeltonics.” It is a species of jingling octosyllabic couplet, but crumbling and unstable, often descending to doggerel. It is, however, lively, witty in a shallow fashion, and attractive. His own description of it is quite just:

For though my rhyme be ragged, Tattered and jagged, Rudely rayne beaten, Rusty and moughte eaten, It hath in it some pyth.

The following extract shows his powers of invective:

But this mad Amelek Like to a Mamelek, He regardeth lords Not more than potshords; He is in such elation Of his exaltation, And the supportation Of our sovereign lord, That, God to record, He ruleth all at will. Without reason or skill; Howbeit the primordial Of his wretched original, And his base progeny, And his greasy genealogy, He came of the sank[73] royal That was cast out of a butcher’s stall. Why come ye not to Court?

=3. John Lydgate (1370–1451)= had a great reputation in his day, but little of it has survived. He was born at Lydgate, near Newmarket, and became a monk at Bury St. Edmunds, where he rose to be priest in 1397. He studied and wrote much, gaining a wide reputation both as a scholar and a poet. The dates of his birth and death are only approximately fixed.

Lydgate was a friend of Chaucer, upon whom he models much of his poetry. But as a poet he is no Chaucer. He has none of the latter’s metrical skill and lively imagination, and the enormous mass of his poems only enhances their futility. The Falls of Princes, full of platitudes and wordy digressions, is no less than 7,000 verses long; The Temple of Glass, of the common allegorical type, is mercifully shorter; and so is The Story of Thebes, a feeble continuation of Chaucer’s Knight’s Tale. On rare occasions, as in London Lickpenny, he is livelier; but he has no ear for meter, and the common vices of his time--prolixity, lack of humor, and pedantic allegory--lie heavy upon him.

=4. Thomas Occleve=, or =Hoccleve (1368–1450)=, may have been born in Bedfordshire; but we know next to nothing about him, and that he tells us himself. He was a clerk in the Privy Seal Office, from which in 1424 he retired on a pension to Hampshire.

His principal works are The Regement of Princes, written for the edification of Henry VIII, and consisting of a string of tedious sermons; La Male Règle, partly autobiographical, in a sniveling fashion; The Complaint of Our Lady; and Occleve’s Complaint.

The style of Occleve’s poetry shows the rapid degeneration that set in immediately after the death of Chaucer. His meter, usually rhyme royal or couplets, is loose and sprawling, the style is uninspired, and the interest of the reader soon ebbs very low. He himself, in his characteristic whining way, admits it with much truth:

Fader Chaucer fayne wold han me taught, But I was dul, and learned lite or nought.

=5. Stephen Hawes (1474–1530)= was a Court poet during the first twenty years of the sixteenth century. Very little is known of him, even the dates of his birth and death being largely matters of surmise.

His chief works include The Passetyme of Pleasure, a kind of romantic-homiletic poem, composed both in rhyme royal stanzas and in couplets, and dealing with man’s life in this world in a fashion reminiscent of Bunyan’s, The Example of Virtue, The Conversion of Swerers, and A Joyfull Medytacyon. Of all the poets now under discussion Hawes is the most uninspired; his allegorical methods are of the crudest; but he is not entirely without his poetical moments. His Passetyme of Pleasure probably influenced the allegory of Spenser.

=6. Alexander Barclay (1476–1552)= might have been either a Scotsman or an Englishman for all that is known on the subject. He was a priest in Devonshire, and later withdrew to a monastery in Ely. His important poem, The Ship of Fools, a translation of a German work by Sebastian Brant, represents a newer type of allegory. The figures in the poem are not the usual wooden creatures representing the common vices and virtues, but they are sharply satirical portraits of the various kinds of foolish men. Sometimes Barclay adds personal touches to make the general satire more telling. Certayne Ecloges, another of Barclay’s works, is the earliest English collection of pastorals. It contains, among much grumbling over the times, quite attractive pictures of the country life of the day.

PROSE-WRITERS

=1. Reginald Pecock (1395–1460)= may have been born in Wales, and perhaps in 1395. He was educated at Oxford, and took orders, when he became prominent through his attacks upon the Lollards. In his arguments he went so far that he was convicted of heresy (1457), forced to make a public recantation, and deprived of his bishopric of Chichester. He died in obscurity about 1460.

His two works were The Repressor of Over-much Blaming the Clergy (1449) and The Book of Faith. In his dogma he strongly supported the ancient usages of the Church; and in the style of his argument he is downright and opinionative. His prose, often rugged and obscure, is marked by his preference for English words in place of those of Latin origin. His books are among the earliest of English controversial works, and thus they mark a victory over the once all-important Latin.

=2. William Caxton (1422–91)=, the first English printer, was born in Kent about the year 1422. He was apprenticed to a London mercer, and in his capacity of mercer went to Bruges to assist in the revival of English trade with the Continent. In Bruges, where he lived for thirty-three years, he started his translations from the French, and in that city he may have learned the infant art of printing. In 1476 he established himself in London as a printer. There he began to issue a series of books that laid the foundation of English printing. The first book printed in England was The Dictes and Sayengis of the Philosophers (1477). The main part of the volume was the work of Lord Rivers, but Caxton, as was his habit, revised it for the press.

In addition to printing many older texts, such as Chaucer and Malory, Caxton did some original work of great value. He translated and printed no fewer than twenty-one books, French texts, the most remarkable of which were the two earliest, The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye (1469) and The Game and Playe of Chesse (1474). Like King Alfred, he added to many of his books introductory remarks, some of great personal or general interest.

We give a brief extract from his preface to The Recuyell. Observe the rather clumsy sentences and the plain language.

When I remember that every man is bounden by the commandment and counsel of the wise man to eschew sloth and idleness, which is mother and nourisher of vices, and ought to put myself unto virtuous occupation and business, then I, having no great charge of occupation, following the said counsel, took a French book and read therein many strange and marvellous histories wherein I had great pleasure and delight, as well for the novelty of the same as for the fair language of French, which was in prose so well and compendiously set and written, which methought I understood the sentence and substance of every matter. And forsomuch as this book was new and late made and drawn into French, and never had seen it in our English tongue, I thought in myself it should be a good business to translate it into our English, to the end that it might be had as well in the realm of England as in other lands, and also for to pass therewith the time, and thus concluded in myself to begin this said work. And forthwith took pen and ink and began boldly to run forth as blind Bayard, in this present work which is named the Recuyell of the Trojan histories.

=3. John Fisher (1459–1535)= was born in Yorkshire about 1459, was educated at Cambridge, and entered the Church. In due course he became Bishop of Rochester. During the time of the Reformation he opposed Henry VIII’s desire to be acknowledged as the head of the English Church, and was imprisoned in the Tower (1531). While there he was made a cardinal by the Pope; and he was beheaded by the orders of Henry.

Fisher wrote much in Latin, and in English he is represented by a small collection of tracts and sermons and a longer treatise on the Psalms. Though they are of no great quantity, his prose works are in their nature of much importance. They are the first of the rhetorical-religious books that for several centuries were to be an outstanding feature of English prose. In addition, they show a decided advance in the direction of style. They are written in the style of the orator and are the result of the conscious effort of the stylist: the searching after the appropriate word (often apparent by the use of two or three words of like meaning), the frequent use of rhetorical figures of speech, and a rapid and flowing rhythm. In brief, in the style of Fisher we can observe the beginnings of an ornate style. It is still in the making, but it is the direct ancestor of the prose style of Jeremy Taylor and other divines of the same class.

In the following passage observe the use of such doublets as “painful and laborious,” “rest and ease,” and “desire and love.” The rhythm is supple, there is a quick procession of phrases, and the vocabulary is copious and Latinized to a considerable extent.

What life is more painful and laborious of itself than is the life of hunters which, most early in the morning, break their sleep and rise when others do take their rest and ease, and in his labour he may use no plain highways and the soft grass, but he must tread upon the fallows, run over the hedges, and creep through the thick bushes, and cry all the long day upon his dogs, and so continue without meat or drink until the very night drive him home; these labours be unto him pleasant and joyous, for the desire and love that he hath to see the poor hare chased with dogs. Verily, verily, if he were compelled to take upon him such labours, and not for this cause, he would soon be weary of them, thinking them full tedious unto him; neither would he rise out of his bed so soon, nor fast so long, nor endure these other labours unless he had a very love therein. The Ways to Perfect Religion

=4. Hugh Latimer (1491–1555)= was born in Leicestershire, educated at Cambridge, and rose to be chaplain to Henry VIII and Bishop of Worcester. He resisted some of the reforms of Henry, was imprisoned in the Tower, and was released on the death of the King. At the accession of Mary he was once again thrown into jail, and was burned at Oxford.

Latimer’s English prose works consist of two volumes of sermons published in 1549. They are remarkable for their plain and dogmatic exposition, their graphical power, and their homely appeal. He is the first of the writers of plain style.

=5. Sir Thomas More (1478–1535)= was born in London, and was the son of a judge. He was educated in London, attached to the household of the Archbishop of Canterbury, and became a lawyer. A man of eager and aspiring mind, he fell under the influence of Erasmus, Colet, and other humanists of the period. For a time he sat in Parliament and saw State service. His advanced political views led to his imprisonment (1534), and he was beheaded in the following year.

Owing to their elegance and wit, his Latin works are of unusual importance. They include his Utopia, the description of his imaginary ideal state. This book was not translated into English until 1551, and so does not count as an English work of More’s. His English prose works include The Lyfe of John Picus, The Historie of Richard III, and a number of tracts and letters. He writes ably and clearly, but with no great distinction of manner. He is the first writer of the middle style.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY FORMS

=1. Poetry.= In this period we have to chronicle the appearance of the eclogue or pastoral in the work of Barclay (Ecloges) and in some shorter poems like Henryson’s Robene and Makyne. The pastoral, which in classical times had been practiced by Virgil and Theocritus, became a common form of poetical exercise in Italy, France, and Spain before, in the sixteenth century, it appeared in England. It was marked by a set of conventional shepherds and shepherdesses, possessing such names as Colin, Phyllis, and Phœbe; by stock scenes introducing sheep, meadows, and flowers; and it was often made the medium for philosophical and political theories. As yet the golden age of the pastoral had not made its appearance in England, but the beginning of the vogue was apparent.

A glance at the poems mentioned in this chapter will reveal the importance of the allegory. In this period it grew and hardened into a mechanical and soulless device, for the poets lacked sufficient poetical fire to give it life. The allegory, as we can see in Dunbar’s Golden Targe and Lydgate’s Temple of Glass, usually opened with a garden and a dream, conventionalized to an absurd degree, and it continued with the introduction of the Goddess of Love, the Virtues and Vices, and similar stock personations. The allegory, however, in spite of its enormous elaboration, was not at the end of its popularity, and, as we shall see in the next chapter, it was to add another great poet to its list of devotees.

The development of the ballad and carol continued, with highly satisfactory results. These poems began to acquire polish and expertness, for the early rudeness was becoming a thing of the past. To this period probably belong the lovely carol to the Virgin Mary beginning “I sing of a maiden,” and the ballads connected with Robin Hood, Fair Rosamund, and many others.

=2. Prose.= There were no outstanding achievements in prose, but facts all helped to reveal the waning influence of Latin and the increasing importance given to English. English prose appeared in theological works, as in those of Fisher; and =Cranmer (1489–1556)= gave it a new field in his notable English Prayer Book. Historical prose was represented by The Chronicle of England of =Capgrave (1393–1464)=, who wrote in a businesslike fashion; a species of philosophical prose appeared in The Governance of England of =Fortescue (1394–1476)=, and in The Boke named the Governour of =Eylot (1490–1546)=, a kind of educational work; The Castle of Health, also by the last author, was a medical work. The great race of Elizabethan translators is well begun by =Lord Berners (1467–1533)=, who translated Froissart with freedom and no mean skill; and, lastly, the English Bible was taking shape.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH BIBLE

The work on the English Bible began as early as the eighth century, when Bede translated a portion of the Gospel of St. John into Old English prose. The work was ardently continued during the Old English period--for example, in the Lindisfarne Gospels (about 700) and the prose of Ælfric (about 1000). During the Anglo-Norman period, owing to the influence of French and Latin, English translation did not flourish; but efforts were made, especially in the Psalms and the Pauline epistles. Translation was systematically undertaken by =Wyclif (1320–84)=, under whose direction two complete versions were carried through about 1384 and 1388. How much actual translation Wyclif accomplished will never be known, but his was the leading spirit, and to him falls the glory of being the leader in the great work. To the second of the Wycliffian versions is sometimes given the name of =John Purvey=, the Lollard leader who succeeded Wyclif. The two versions are simple and unpretentious renderings, the second being much more finished than the first.

After Wyclif translation flagged till the Reformation bent men’s minds anew to the task. The greatest of all the translators was =William Tyndale (1485–1536)=, who did much to give the Bible its modern shape. Tyndale suffered a good deal of persecution owing to his hardihood, and was driven abroad, where much of his translation was accomplished, and where it was first printed. It was at Cologne that the first English Bible appeared in print. A feature of Tyndale’s translation was its direct reliance upon the Hebrew and Greek originals, and not upon the Latin renderings of them. Of these Latin texts the stock version was the Vulgate, upon which Wyclif to a large extent relied.

=Miles Coverdale (1488–1568)= carried on the work of Tyndale. Though he lacked the latter’s scholarship, he had an exquisite taste for phrase and rhythm, and many of the most beautiful Biblical expressions are of his workmanship.

Translations now came apace. None of them, however, was much improvement upon Tyndale’s. In 1537 appeared the finely printed version of “Thomas Matthew,” who was said to be =John Rogers=, a friend of Coverdale. The Great Bible, the first of the authorized versions, was executed by a commission of translators, working under the command of Henry VIII. It was based on Matthew’s Bible. Another notable translation was the Calvinistic Geneva Bible (1560). This book received the popular name of “Breeches Bible,” owing to its rendering of Genesis iii, 7: “They sewed fig leaves together, and made themselves breeches.” In the reign of Elizabeth was issued the Bishops’ Bible (1568), a magnificent folio, which was translated by a committee of bishops and learned men. It was intended to be a counterblast to the growing popularity of the Breeches Bible.

With these we are close upon the great Authorized Version (1611), which we shall mention in the next chapter, where also we shall briefly discuss the influence and the literary qualities of this translation. A few representative passages from the early translations will be found in the exercises attached to this chapter.

=3. The Drama.= As we have arrived on the threshold of the great Elizabethan drama, it is here convenient to sketch the growth of the dramatic form of literature.

(a) THE ORIGINS. (1) Classical. By the fourth or fifth century the Latin drama had become degraded almost past recognition. It left the merest traces in the mimes, who were professional strolling players common to all Europe during the Dark Ages. Their performances seem to have been poor and ribald enough, and they left little trace upon English drama.

(2) Popular Elements. At the great festivities, such as those at Easter and Yule, there were popular shows that included a large amount of acting and speaking. These plays, rude and childish probably, were survivals of ancient pagan beliefs and contained many scraps of folk-lore. There were nature-myths, such as that representing the expulsion of winter, in which a figure representing summer was slain and then revived. In England these mummings, as they were called, developed into elaborate sword-play, into morris-dancing (partly of foreign origin), and into dramatic versions of the feats of Robin Hood and St. George. These plays, which were commonly acted at the feast of Corpus Christi, were the occasion of fun and license, particularly at the election of the “Abbot of Unreason,” with his attendants, the hobby-horse and the clown.

(3) Ecclesiastical Elements. In early times the Church was the chief supporter of the popular drama. The Church service, including the Mass itself, contains dramatic elements. In the course of time, in order to make the Church services more intelligible and attractive, there grew up a habit of exhibiting “living pictures” illustrating Gospel stories, especially those connected with Easter. As early as the fifth century we have mention of such primitive dramatic entertainments, which were accompanied by the singing of hymns. Such was the origin of the mystery.

(b) THE MYSTERY-PLAY. The mystery was the dramatic representation of some important Biblical theme, such as the Nativity or the Resurrection. There were stock characters, set speeches (usually in doggerel verse), and a rudimentary plot supplied by the Biblical narrative. The mystery was in existence as early as the tenth century. Priests took part in the plays, though it is not certain that they wrote them; and the performances took place in the vicinity of some church. This feature proved so attractive that the mystery developed quite elaborate forms. The mystery-play proper centered around the Crucifixion and the Resurrection, but other themes that grew into favor were those of the Fall, Noah, Daniel, and Lazarus.

We add a brief passage from an ancient Cornish mystery. The reader should observe the set speeches of uniform length, the simple style, and the rhymeless stanzas.

Mary Magdalene. Oh! let us hasten at once, For the stone is raised From the tomb. Lord, how will it be this night, If I know not where goes The head of royalty?

Mary, Mother of James. And too long we have stayed, My Lord has gone his way Out of the tomb, surely. Alas! my heart is sick; I know not indeed if I shall see him, Who is very God.

Mary Salome. I know truly, and I believe it, That he is risen up In this day. How long will it be to us now, That we find not our Lord? Alas! woe! woe!

[They sing.

The Dirge

Alas! mourning I sing, mourning I call, Our Lord is dead that bought us all. The Three Maries

(c) THE MIRACLE-PLAY. From the well-developed mystery-play it was but a step to the miracle-play. In such plays the theme passed from the Scriptural story to that of the lives of the saints. The plots were much more varied, the characters nearer to human experience, and the style rather more urbane.

(d) THE MORALITY-PLAY registered a further advance. In such plays virtues and vices were presented on the stage as allegorical creations, often of much liveliness. Abstractions such as Justice, Mercy, Gluttony, and Vice were among the commonest characters. An important feature of this class of play is the development of characterization. It is almost crude; but it is often strongly marked and strongly contrasted, with broad farcical elements. The favorite comic character was Vice, whose chief duty was to tease the Devil.

Everyman (about 1490), perhaps the best of the morality-plays, is represented by the brief extract here given. The characters are simply but effectively drawn, and the play does not lack a noble pathos.

Everyman. O all thing faileth, save God alone; Beauty, Strength, and Discretion; For when Death bloweth his blast, They all run from me full fast.

Five-Wits. Everyman, my leave now of thee I take; I will follow the other, for here I thee forsake.

Everyman. Alas! then may I wail and weep, For I took you for my best friend.

Five-Wits. I will no longer thee keep; Now farewell, and there an end.

Everyman. O Jesu, help, all hath forsaken me!

Good-Deeds. Nay, Everyman, I will bide with thee, I will not forsake thee indeed; Thou shalt find me a good friend at need.

Everyman. Gramercy, Good-Deeds; now may I true friends see; They have forsaken me every one; I loved them better than my Good-Deeds alone. Knowledge, will ye forsake me also?

Knowledge. Yea, Everyman, when ye to death do go: But not for no manner of danger.

Everyman. Gramercy, Knowledge, with all my heart.

(e) THE PLAY-CYCLES. As the plays developed, so did the demands upon the stagecraft of the performers. At first the priests were equal to it. Quite elaborate erections were used. In the very early productions a popular setting was an erection in three stories. The top represented heaven, with the heavenly inhabitants, the “middel erde” was in the center, and lowest of all were the flames of hell, tenanted by cheerfully disposed devils. In the course of time the acting passed from the priests into the hands of the craftsmen, the students, and the schoolboys. The merchants’ guilds, in particular, were the most consistent supporters of the drama.

A curious feature was the fashion in which the plays ran in cycles or groups, each of which became associated with some town. The earliest is the Chester play-cycle (1268–76), comprising twenty-four plays; others are the York, with forty-nine; the Townley, with thirty-two, acted at the fairs at Widkirk; and the Coventry, of which only one play survives. Each member of the play-series was connected in theme with the others, and the complete cycle illustrated Bible history in all its stages.

Each company of the guild, say the Barbers or the Wax-chandlers, took a unit of the series. Each unit was short, corresponding to an act of the modern drama. They were composed in a great variety of meters, from doggerel to complicated lyrical stanzas.

Each company having selected and rehearsed its play, the entire apparatus was enclosed in a huge vehicle called the pageant. The body of the vehicle was enclosed, and served as the dressing-and property-room; the top was an open-air stage. On the day of the festival, which at York and Coventry was Corpus Christi, the whole contrivance was pulled about the town, and performances were given at certain fixed points, of which the abbey was the chief. In A Midsummer Night’s Dream Shakespeare has caricatured many features of these artisans’ dramatic performances.

(f) THE INTERLUDE. The last predecessor of the drama proper was the interlude, which flourished about the middle of the sixteenth century. It had several distinguishing points: it was a short play that introduced real characters, usually of humble rank, such as citizens and friars; there was an absence of allegorical figures; there was much broad farcical humor, often coarse; and there were set scenes, a new feature in the English drama. It will be observed that the interlude was a great advance upon the morality-play. =John Heywood=, who lived in the latter half of the sixteenth century, was the most gifted writer of the interlude. The four P’s is one of his best. It is composed in doggerel verse, and describes a lying-match between a Pedlar, a Palmer, a Pardoner, and a Potycary. His Johan Johan has much sharp wit and many clever sayings.

(g) THE EARLIEST DRAMAS. Our earliest dramas began to appear about 1550. Their immediate cause was the renewed study of the classical drama, especially the plays of Seneca (3 B.C.-A.D. 65), whose mannerisms were easily imitated by dramatic apprentices. The classical drama gave English drama its five acts, its set scenes, and many other features.

(1) Tragedies. The first tragedies had the Senecan stiffness of style, the conventional characters and plot, though in some cases they adopted the “dumb show,” an English feature. Gorboduc (1562), afterward called Ferrex and Porrex, written by Norton and Lord Buckhurst, was probably the earliest, and was acted at the Christmas revels of the Inner Temple. The meter was a wooden type of regular blank verse. Other plays of a similar character were Appius and Virginia (1563), of anonymous authorship; the Historie of Horestes (1567), also anonymous; Jocasta (1566); and Preston’s Cambises, King of Percia (1570). Hughes’s Misfortunes of King Arthur (1587) broke away from the classical theme, but, like the others, it was a servile imitation of classical models. Many of the plays, however, preserved a peculiarly English feature in the retention of the comic Vice.

(2) Histories. Along with the alien classical tragedy arose a healthier native breed of historical plays. These plays, the predecessors of the historical plays of Shakespeare, were dramatized forms of the early chronicles, and combined both tragic and comic elements. This union of tragedy and comedy was alien to the classical drama, and was the chief glory of the Elizabethan stage. Early historical plays were The Famous Victories of Henry the Fifth (before 1588), a mixture of rude verse and prose; The Troublesome Raigne of King John (before 1591); and The Chronicle History of King Leir (1594).

(3) Comedies. Though the comedies drew much upon Latin comedians, such as Plautus, and upon Italian models also, they were to a great extent the growth of the English mumming element. They were composed usually in mixed verse and prose, the humor was of a primitive character, but the best of them had verve and high good-humor, and they were distinguished by some worthy songs and ditties. Ralph Roister Doister (1551), by =Nicholas Udall=, is the earliest extant comedy. Its author was the headmaster of Eton, and the play seems to have been composed as a variant upon the Latin dramas that were the stock-in-trade of the schoolboy actors then common. Another comedy was Gammer Gurton’s Needle (1575), the authorship of which is in dispute. The plot is slight, but the humor, though the reverse of delicate, is abundant, and the play gives interesting glimpses of contemporary English life.

We add a small scene from an early comedy. It shows the doggerel verse and the uninspired style--the homely natural speech of the time.

CHRISTIAN CUSTANCE MARGERIE MUMBLECRUST

C. Custance. Who took thee this letter, Margerie Mumblecrust?

M. Mumble. A lusty gay bachelor took it me of trust, And if ye seek to him he will love your doing.

C. Custance. Yea, but where learned he that manner of wooing?

M. Mumble. If to sue to him, you will any pains take, He will have you to his wife (he saith) for my sake.

C. Custance. Some wise gentleman, belike. I am bespoken: And I thought verily this had been some token From my dear spouse Gawin Goodluck, whom when him please, God luckily send home to both our hearts’ ease.

M. Mumble. A joyly man it is, I wot well by report, And would have you to him for marriage resort; Best open the writing, and see what it does speak.

C. Custance. At this time, nurse, I will neither read ne break.

M. Mumble. He promised to give you a whole peck of gold.

C. Custance. Perchance, lack of a pint when it shall be all told.

M. Mumble. I would take a gay rich husband, and I were you.

C. Custance. In good sooth, Madge, e’en so would I, if I were thou. But no more of this fond talk now, let us go in, And see thou no more move me folly to begin. Nor bring me no more letters for no man’s pleasure, But thou know from whom.

M. Mumble. I warrant ye shall be sure. Ralph Roister Doister

Summary. We can thus see the material that lay to the hand of Shakespeare and his fellows. It was almost of uniform development and of ancient and diverse origin; it was frequently coarse and childish, but its material was abundant and vital. The time was at hand, and so was the genius of the master to give this vast body a shape and impulse. Almost in a day, after centuries of slow ripening, the harvest came, with a wealth and excellence of fruition that is one of the marvels of our literature.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY STYLE

=1. Poetry.= In English poetry there was a marked decadence in style. In the works of Lydgate, Skelton, and Hawes the meters often became mere doggerel; there was little trace of real poetical imagination and phrasing; and the actual vocabulary is not striking. Compared with that of Chaucer, their work seems childish and inept. Many reasons have been advanced to explain this rapid collapse. The most obvious one is the sheer lack of talent: there is nobody to carry on the Chaucerian tradition with any great credit. Another cause is probably the rapid decay of the use of the final e, which in the meter of Chaucer was an item of much moment. Pronunciation of English was rapidly changing, and the new race of poets had not the requisite skill to modify the old meter to suit the new age. In Scottish poetry there is much activity. To a large extent the Scottish poets were content to imitate the mannerisms of Chaucer. In one respect, indeed, they carried his descriptive-allegorical method too far, and made their poems lifeless. Such were the less successful poems of Dunbar (The Golden Targe), and of Gawain Douglas (The Palice of Honour). On the other hand, peculiar Scottish features were not lacking: a breezy and sometimes vulgar humor, bred, perhaps, of the ruder folk and the bleaker air; a robust independence and common sense; a note of passion and pathos; and a sense of the picturesque both in nature and in man. We find such features illustrated, wholly or in part, in such poems as Lyndsay’s Satyre of the Thrie Estatis, in Dunbar’s Lament for the Makaris, and at the close of Henryson’s Testament of Cresseid.

=2. Prose.= The development of prose style was marked by a number of small improvements which in the aggregate represented no small advance. Unlike the poetry of the time, prose suffered from no retrogression. There was a perceptible increase in skill, due to increased practice; there was a growing perception of the beauties of rhythm and cadence; and, in the purely formal sense, there was the appearance of the prose paragraph. Above all, the chief prose styles--the ornate, the middle, and the plain--are appearing faintly but perceptibly. With their arrival the rapid development of English prose is assured.

EXERCISES

1. The following prose passages are early examples of ornate, middle, and simple styles. Analyze them carefully with respect to their sentence-construction, vocabulary, and rhythm, and show how each deserves its name.

(1) Forasmuch as this honourable audience now is here assembled to prosecute the funeral observances and ceremonies about this most noble prince late our king and sovereign, king Henry the seventh. And all be it I know well mine unworthiness and inabilities to this so great a matter, yet for my most bounden duty, and for his gracious favour and singular benefits exhibit unto me in this life, I would now after his death right affectuously some thing say, whereby your charities the rather might have his soul recommended. And to that purpose I will entreat the first psalm of the dirige, which psalm was written of the holy king and prophet king David, comforting him after his great falls and trespasses against Almighty God and read in the church in the funeral obsequies of every Christian person when that he dieth. FISHER, Funeral Sermon on Henry VII

(2) Maistres Alyce, in my most hartywise, I commend me to you. And whereas I am enfourmed by my son Heron of the losse of my barnes and our neighbours’ also with all the corn that was therein; albeit (saving God’s pleasure), it is gret pitie of so much good corne lost; yet sith it hath liked hym to sende us such a chaunce, we must and are bounden, not only to be content, but also to be glad of his visitacion. He sente us all that we have loste, and sith he hath by such a chaunce taken it away againe, his pleasure be fulfilled! Let us never grudge thereat, but take it in good worth and hartely thank him as well for adversitie as for prosperitie. MORE, Letter to his Wife

(3) Now-a-dayes the judges be afraid to heare a poore man against the rich, insomuch they will either pronounce against him, or so drive off the poore man’s sute, that he shall not be able to go thorow with it. The greatest man in a realme cannot so hurt a judge as the poore widdow; such a shrewd turne she can do him. And with what armour, I pray you? She can bring the judge’s skinne over his eares, and never lay hands upon him. And how is that? “The teares of the poore fall downe upon their cheekes, and go up to heaven,” and cry for vengeance before God, the judge of widdowes, the father of widdowes and orphanes. Poore people be oppressed even by lawes. Wo worth to them that make evill lawes against the poore! LATIMER, Sermons

2. Point out in what respects the style and sentiment of each of the following extracts represent its age and nationality. Write a critique on the passages taken together: point out their common features.

(1) Now there was made, fast by the tower’s wall A garden fair; and in the corners set An herbere[74] green, with wandis long and small Railed about, and so with treis set Was all the place, and hawthorn hedges knet That lyf[75] was none walking there forbye That might within scarce any wight espy.

And therewith cast I doun mine eye again Where as I saw walking under the tower Full secretly, now comen her to pleyne[76] The fairest or the freshest younge flower That e’er I saw methought before that hour For which sudden abate[77] anon astart The blood of all my body to my heart. JAMES I OF SCOTLAND, The Kingis Quhair

(2) Thus I, Colin Clout, As I go about, And wandering as I walk, I hear the people talk: Men say for silver and gold Mitres are bought and sold. There shall no clergy oppose A mitre nor a crose, But a full purse-- A straw for God’s curse! What are they the worse? For a simoniac Is but a hermoniac, And no more ye may make Of simony men say But a child’s play; Over this the foresaid lay Report how the pope may A holy anchorite call Out of a stony wall. SKELETON, Colin Clout

(3) He came all so still Where his mother was, As dew in April That falleth on the grass.

He came all so still To his mother’s bower, As dew in April That falleth on the flower.

He came all so still Where his mother lay, As dew in April That falleth on the spray.

Mother and maiden, Was never none like she! Well may such a lady, God’s mother to be! ANONYMOUS

(4) My father was sae waik of bluid and bane That he deit,[78] wherefore my mother made greate mane; Then she deit within ane day or two, And there began my poverty and wo. Our gude grey meir was baitand[79] on the field, And our land’s laird took her for his heryield.[80] The vicar took the best cow by the heid Incontinent, when my father was deid. And when the vicar heard tell how that my mother Was deid, fra hand, he took till him the other. LYNDSAY, Satyre of the Thrie Estatis

3. The following series of translations of Matthew iii, 1–4, illustrates the development of Biblical style. Write a short comment upon them, comparing them and pointing out the development.

(a) (1) In þo dayes come Ihone baptist prechand in desert of þe Iewry, & seyand, (2) Do [gh]e penaunce; forwhy þe kyngdome of heuyne sal come negh. (3) Þis is he of whome it was seide be Isay þe prophete, sayand, Þe voice of þe cryand in þe desert, redye [gh]e þe way of God, right make [gh]e þe lityl wayes of him.’ (4) & Ihone his kleþing of þe hoerys of camels, & a gyrdyl of a skyn about his lendys; & his mete was þe locust & hony of þe wode. ANONYMOUS, 1300

(b) (1) In thilke days came Ioon Baptist, prechynge in the desert of Iude, sayinge, (2) Do [gh]e penaunce, for the kyngdom of heuens shal nei[gh] (or cume ni[gh]e). (3) Forsothe this is he of whome it is said by Ysaye the prophet, A voice of a cryinge in desert, Make [gh]e redy the wayes of the Lord; make [gh]e ri[gh]tful the pathes of hym. (4) Forsothe that ilk Ioon hadde cloth of the heeris of cameylis, and a girdil of skyn aboute his leendis; sothely his mete weren locustis, and hony of the wode. WYCLIF, First Version, 1384

(c) (1) In tho daies Ioon Baptist cam, and prechide in the desert of Iudee, and seide, (2) Do [gh]e penaunce, for the kyngdom of heuenes shal nei[gh]e. (3) For this is he, of whom it is seid bi Ysaie, the prophete, seyinge, A vois of a crier in desert, Make [gh]e redi the weies of the Lord; make [gh]e ri[gh]t the pathis of hym. (4) And this Ioon hadde clothing of camels heeris, and a girdil of skynne aboute his leendis; and his mete was honysoukis and hony of the wode. WYCLIF, Second Version, 1388

(d) In those dayes Ihon the baptyser cam and preached in the wyldernes of Iury, saynge, Repent, the kyngedom of heven ys at hond. Thys ys he of whom it ys spoken be the prophet Isay, whych sayth; the voice of a cryer in wyldernes, prepaire ye the lordes waye, and make hys pathes strayght. Thys Ihon had hys garment of camelles heere, and a gyrdyll of a skynne about hys loynes. Hys meate was locustes and wyldhe ony. TYNDALE, 1526

(e) In those dayes Ihon the Baptyst came and preached in the wildernes of Jury, saynge: Amende youre selues, the kyngdome of heuen is at honde. This is he, of whom it is spoken by the prophet Esay, which sayeth: The voyce of a cryer in the wyldernes, prepare the Lordes waye, and make his pathes straight. This Ihon had his garment of camels heer, and a lethren gerdell aboute his loynes. Hys meate was locustes and wylde hony. COVERDALE, 1536

(f) In those dayes came Iohn the Baptyst, preaching in the wyldernes of Iewry, saying, Repent of the life that is past, for the kyngdome of heauen is at hande, For thys is he, of whom the prophet Esay, spake, which sayeth, the voyce of a cryer in the wyldernes, prepare ye the waye of the lorde: make hys pathes strayght. This Iohn had hys garment of camels heer and a gyrdell of a skynne aboute hys loynes. His meate was locustes and wylde hony. The Great Bible, 1539

4. In the following series of extracts from the early plays comment upon the general standard of style, and point out any development that is apparent. Pay particular attention to the meter.

(1) (_From the Chester play-cycle, dating probably from the fourteenth century._)

Ham’s Wife. And I will go to gather slich[81] The ship for to clean and pitch; Anointed it must be, every stitch, Board, tree, and pin.

Japhet’s Wife. And I will gather chips here, To make a fire for you, in fear, And for to dight[82] your dinner, Against you come in.

[_Here they make signs as though they were working with divers instruments._

Noah. Now in the name of God I will begin, To make the ship that we shall in, That we be ready for to swim, At the coming of the flood, These boards I join together, To keep us safe from the weather, That we may roam both hither and thither, And safe be from this flood.... God. Noah, take thou thy company, And in the ship hie that you be, For none so righteous man to me Is now on earth living. The Deluge

(2) (From a sixteenth-century interlude.)

Bale [speaking as Epilogue]. The matters are such as we have uttered here, As ought not to slide from your memorial; For they have opened such comfortable gear, As is to the health of this kind universal, Graces of the Lord and promises liberal, Which he gives to man for every age, To knit him to Christ, and so clear him of bondage. BALE, God’s Promises

(3) (A historical play.)

For non other cawse God hath kyngs constytute And gevyn them the sword, but forto correct all vyce. I have attempted this thing to execute Uppon transgressers accordyng unto justyce; And be cawse I wyll not be parcyall in myn offyce For theft and murder to persones spirytuall, I have ageynst me the pristes and the bysshoppes all A lyke dysplesure in my fathers tyme ded fall, Forty yeres ago, for ponyshment of a clarke. No cun[`s]ell myght them to reformacyon call, In ther openyon they were so stordy and so starke, But ageynst ther prynce to the pope they dyd so barke, That here in Ynglond in every cyte and towne Excommunycacyons as thonder bolts came downe. BALE, Kynge Johan

(4) (From the earliest comedy.)

R. Roister. Now, nurse, take this same letter here to thy mistress, And as my trust is in thee, ply my business.

M. Mumble. It shall be done.

Mathew Merygreeke. Who made it?

R. Roister. I wrote it each whit.

M. Mery. Then needs it no mending.

R. Roister. No, no.

M. Mery. No, I know your wit, I warrant it well.

M. Mumble. It shall be delivered. But if ye speed, shall I be considered?

M. Mery. Whough! Dost thou doubt of that?

M. Mumble. What shall I have?

M. Mery. An hundred times more than thou canst devise to crave.

M. Mumble. Shall I have some new gear? for my old is all spent.

M. Mery. The worst kitchen-wench shall go in ladies’ raiment....

[Here they sing, and go out singing. UDALL, Ralph Roister Doister

5. Trace the influence of the Church upon the early English drama, and account for the decay of the Church influence.

6. Point out some of the effects of the Reformation that are apparent in the literature of the day.

7. In what respects is the period 1450–1550 a period of literary decadence, and in what respects does it show an advance?

8. Account for the sudden appearance of Scottish literature, and for its rapid rise to such a high standard.

9. In what respects was the Scottish literature of the time imitative, and in what respects was it original?

10. “As the Romance decays, the Drama develops.” Is this quite true? If so, can you account for the fact?

11. “The most original and powerful poetry of the fifteenth century was composed in popular form for the ear of the common people.” Discuss this statement with reference to the ballads, the carols, the songs, and the dramas of the time, as they compare with the other poetry of the day.

12. “It is doubtful if anyone in the fifteenth century thought of prose as a medium of artistic expression.” Comment upon this statement.