A Biblical and Theological Dictionary explanatory of the history, manners, and customs of the Jews, and neighbouring nations (part 11 of 11)

A Biblical and Theological Dictionary explanatory of the history, manners, and customs of the Jews, and neighbouring nations (part 11 of 11)

Many, indeed, relying on mere abstract arguments, deny free will, in the strict meaning of the term, altogether, and define the mental faculties of man according to their various fancies. But the existence and nature of our moral and rational powers are and ought to be, in true philosophy, the subject of mental observation, not the sport of hypothesis. Those who love metaphysical abstractions may people the worlds of their imagination with beings of whatsoever character they prefer; but the nature and capabilities of man, as he really is, must be determined not by speculation but by experience. It is true that this experience is the object of consciousness, not of the senses; and, accordingly, each man is, in some respect, the judge in his own case, and may, if he chooses, deny his own freedom and his power of self control, or of using those means which God hath appointed to lead to this result. But this is seldom done in ordinary life, except by those abandoned individuals who seek, in such a statement, an excuse for capricious or unprincipled conduct,--an excuse which is never admitted by the majority of reasoning persons, much less by the truly pious. The latter, indeed, will always be found attributing any thing good they achieve to the coöperating efficacy of superior assistance. But they will, with equal sincerity, blame themselves for what they have done amiss; or, in other words, acknowledge that they should and might have willed and acted otherwise; and this is exactly the practical question, the very turning point, on which the whole controversy hinges. The only competent judges in such a question, says Dr. R. H. Graves, are those who have made it the subject of mental observation, exertion, and pursuit; or, in other words, those who have sought after righteousness, under whatever dispensation, Acts x, 35; Romans ii, 7, 10. And surely the confessions, the prayers, the repentance, and the sacrifices, of the humble and pious of all ages show that they felt, not only that they were themselves to blame for their actions, and therefore that they might have done otherwise, that is, they had a free will, but that, to make this will operative in spiritual matters, they required an aid beyond the reach of mere human attainment. Some may fancy this statement inconsistent in itself; and I allow that it cannot satisfy the mere speculative supporters either of free will or its opponents. But to me it seems the testimony of conscience and experience, which, in natural religion, must, as I conceive, be preferred to abstract hypothesis. The inquiry is not how the mind may be, but how it is actually, constituted. This surely is a question of fact, not of conjecture, and must therefore be decided by an appeal to common sense and experience, not by random speculation. Again: even those who in theory contend for the doctrine of necessity, yet in all the affairs of life where their interests, comforts, or gratifications are concerned, both speak and act as if they disbelieved it, and as if they really imagined themselves capable of such self determination and self control, as to improve their talents, their opportunities, and their acquirements, and so to exercise a material influence on their worldly fortunes. But suppose the assertions of individuals, as to their consciousness in this particular, to disagree. It is then evident, that, the question being as to the nature of man in general, it must be determined by the voice of preponderating testimony. But how, it may be asked, are the suffrages to be collected? Since the judgment of each individual must in this scheme be considered as a separate fact, how is a sufficiently extensive induction to be made? In answer, it may be asserted, that in every civilized nation the induction has been already made, the suffrages have been taken, the case has been tried, and the decision is on record. And the verdict is the most impartial that can be looked for in such a case, because given without any reference to the controversy in dispute. All human laws, forbidding, condemning, and punishing vicious actions, are grounded on the acknowledged supposition that man is possessed of a self control, a self determining power, by which he could, both in will and in deed, have avoided the very actions for which he is condemned, and in the very circumstances in which he has committed them. Nor would it be easy to find a case where the criminal has deceived himself, or hoped to deceive his judges, by pleading that he laboured under a fatal necessity, which rendered his crimes unavoidable, and therefore excusable. The justice of all legislative enactments evidently and essentially depends on the principle, that the things prohibited can be avoided, or, in other words, might have been done otherwise than they were done; and this is the very turning point of the controversy. Accordingly, in whatever instances such freedom of will is not presupposed, (as in the cases of idiots and madmen,) the operation of such enactments is suspended. All nations, therefore, who consent to frame and abide by such laws, do thereby testify their deliberate and solemn assent to the truth of this principle, and, consequently, to the existence of free will in man; and do certify the sincerity of their conviction by staking upon it their properties, their liberties, and their lives. Numberless other instances might be adduced in which the practice of mankind implies their belief in this principle. And so conscious of this are the opponents of free will, that they generally deprecate appeals to common sense and experience, and resort to metaphysical arguments to examine what is in truth a matter of truth, not of conjecture; or, in other words, to determine, not what man is, but what they imagine he must be. In their reasonings they differ, as might have been expected, as much from each other as they do from truth and reality. But the experience of common sense and conscience will always decide, that no man can conscientiously make this excuse for his crimes, that he could not have willed or acted otherwise than he did. The existence of the above faculties in the human mind once acknowledged leads, by necessary inference, to the admission, that there exists in the great First Cause a power to create them. Not, indeed, that these faculties themselves exist in him in the same manner as in us, but the power of originating and producing them in all possible variety. We can indeed conclude, that having created all these in us, his nature must be so perfect that we cannot attribute to him any line of conduct inconsistent with whatever is excellent in the exercise of these faculties in ourselves. And therefore we cannot ascribe to him, as his special act, any thing we should perceive to be unworthy of any just or merciful, any wise or upright, being. But this furnishes no clue whatever to a knowledge of the real constitution of his nature, or of the manner in which his divine attributes exist together. In truth, we no more comprehend how he wills than how he acts, and therefore we have no better right to assert that he wills evil than that he does evil. Again: we as little understand how he knows as how he sees, and therefore might as well argue that all things exist in consequence of his beholding them, as that all events arise in consequence of his foreknowing them. In short, all that can be inferred by reason concerning the intrinsic nature of the invisible, unsearchable Deity, must be admitted by the candid inquirer to be no better than conjecture. And he who should hope from such doubtful support as his fancied insight into the unknown operations of the divine mind to suspend a system of irrespective decrees, embracing the moral government of the world, would but too much resemble him who should imagine the material globe adequately sustained if upheld by a chain whose highest links were wrapped in clouds and darkness. Thus our affirmative knowledge of the Deity, as derived from this part of our inquiry, consists in the certainty, (though his nature is unknown to us,) that he is the creative source of all that is great, glorious, and good in heaven or in earth; while we may negatively conclude, that his moral government shall, on the whole, be conducted in a manner not inconsistent with whatever is excellent in the exercise of power and wisdom, justice and mercy, goodness and truth. Nor is it a little important, as connected with the present inquiry, to keep in mind this distinction between our affirmative and negative knowledge in this matter. For it shows us that as, on the one side, we cannot pretend to such an insight into the nature and character of the divine knowledge as to deduce therefrom a system of eternal and irrespective decrees; so neither, on the other, can this system of moral government be ascribed to the Deity, because it would be manifestly unworthy, not merely of him who has created all moral excellence, but of any of those beings on whom he has conferred the most ordinary degrees of mercy and justice. The natural benefits or evils arising out of moral or immoral practices are, in fact, so many rewards or punishments, exhibiting the Being who has so constituted our nature as a moral governor. This part of his government may not be so clearly discernible in individual instances, because much of the happiness and unhappiness attending virtue and vice is mental and invisible. In the case of nations, however, considered merely as bodies politic, the internal sanction of an approving or reproaching conscience, of subdued or distracting passions, can have no existence; and therefore the external sanctions are more uniformly enforced. Hence, whoever carefully examines the dealings of Providence with the human race will admit, that national prosperity has ever kept pace with national wisdom and integrity; whereas, the greatest empires, when once corrupted, have soon become the prey of internal strife or foreign domination. Again: man is made for society, and cannot exist without it: consequently, all the regulations which are really conducive to the maintenance of civil policy and social order must be regarded as evident consequences of our nature, when enlightened to the rational pursuit of its own advantage; and therefore should be considered as intimations of a moral government, carried on through their intervention. In addition to which, it ought to be observed, that these laws may be regarded in another point of view,--as a most important class of moral phenomena; inasmuch as they virtually exhibit the most unexceptionable declarations of reason on this subject, because they are collected from the common consent of mankind, and therefore rendered, in a great measure, independent of the obliquities of individual intellect, the errors of private judgment, and the partial views of self interest, prejudice, or passion. But all the laws of civilized nations, both in their enactment and administration, not only presuppose certain notions concerning the freedom and accountableness of man, the merit and demerit of human actions, and the inseparable connection of virtue and vice with rewards and punishments, but greatly contribute to fix and perpetuate these notions. It is therefore evidently the intention of that part of the moral government with which we are acquainted, to impress these principles deeply on the human mind, and to induce the human race to regulate their conduct accordingly. The laws, then, of this moral government under which we find ourselves placed, and from which we cannot escape, correspond with and corroborate the conclusions deduced from the observation of mental phenomena. And from both we conclude that similar principles of government will be adopted, (so far, at least, as man is concerned,) in other worlds and in future ages; only more developed, and therefore more evidently free from its present apparent imperfections. Upon this account we look, in another life, for some such general disclosure and consummation of the ways and wisdom of Providence as shall vindicate, even in the minor details, the grand principles upon which, generally speaking, the government of God is at present obviously conducted. How this may be done, with many questions connected therewith, reason without revelation could, as I conceive, do little more than form plausible conjectures. Though now that it has pleased God in Christ to bring “life and immortality to light through the Gospel,” it is possible for reason to estimate the beauty and the mercy and the wisdom of the dispensation by which it has been effected.

WIND. The Hebrews, like us, acknowledge four principal winds, Ezek. xiii, 16–18: the east wind, the north wind, the south wind, and the west wind, or that from the Mediterranean sea. See WHIRLWIND.

WINDOWS. The method of building both in Barbary and the Levant seems to have continued the same from the earliest ages. All the windows open into private courts, if we except sometimes a latticed window or balcony toward the street. It is only during the celebration of some zeenah, or public festival, that these houses and their latticed windows are left open; for this being a time of great liberty, revelling, and extravagance, each family is ambitious of adorning both the inside and outside of their houses with the richest part of their furniture; while crowds of both sexes, dressed out in their best apparel, and laying aside all ceremony and restraint, go in and out where they please. The account we have, 2 Kings ix, 30, of Jezebel’s painting her face, tiring her head, and looking out at a window upon Jehu’s public entry into Jezreel, gives us a lively idea of an eastern lady at one of those solemnities.

WINE, יין, Gen. xix, 32, οινος, Matt. ix, 17, a liquor expressed from grapes. The art of refining wine upon the lees was known to the Jews. The particular process, as it is now practised in the island of Cyprus, is described in Mariti’s Travels. The wine is put immediately from the vat into large vases of potters’ ware, pointed at the bottom, till they are nearly full, when they are covered tight and buried. At the end of a year what is designed for sale is drawn into wooden casks. The dregs in the vases are put into wooden casks destined to receive wine, with as much of the liquor as is necessary to prevent them from becoming dry before use. Casks thus prepared are very valuable. When the wine a year old is put in, the dregs rise, and make it appear muddy, but afterward they subside and carry down all the other feculences. The dregs are so much valued that they are not sold with the wine in the vase, unless particularly mentioned.

The “new wine,” or “must,” is mentioned, Isa. xlix, 26; Joel i, 5; iii, 18; and Amos ix, 13, under the name עסים. The “mixed wine,” ממסד, Prov. xxiii, 30, and in Isaiah lxv, 11 rendered “drink-offering,” may mean wine made stronger and more inebriating by the addition of higher and more powerful ingredients, such as honey, spices, defrutum, or wine inspissated by boiling it down, myrrh, mandragora, and other strong drugs. Thus the drunkard is properly described as one that seeketh “mixed wine,” Prov. xxiii, 30, and is mighty to “mingle strong drink,” Isa. v, 22; and hence the psalmist took that highly poetical and sublime image of the cup of God’s wrath, called by Isaiah, li, 17, “the cup of trembling,” containing, as St. John expresses it, Rev. xiv, 10, pure wine made yet stronger by a mixture of powerful ingredients: “In the hand of Jehovah is a cup, and the wine is turbid; it is full of a mixed liquor, and he poureth out of it,” or rather, “he poureth it out of one vessel into another,” to mix it perfectly; “verily the dregs thereof,” the thickest sediment of the strong ingredients mingled with it, “all the ungodly of the earth shall wring them out, and drink them.” “Spiced wine,” Cant. viii, 2, was wine rendered more palatable and fragrant with aromatics. This was considered as a great delicacy. Spiced wines were not peculiar to the Jews; Hafiz speaks of wines “richly bitter, richly sweet.” The Romans lined their vessels, amphoræ, with odorous gums, to give the wine a warm bitter flavour: and the orientals now use the admixture of spices to give their wines a favourite relish. The “wine of Helbon,” Ezek. xxvii, 18, was an excellent kind of wine, known to the ancients by the name of chalibonium vinum. It was made at Damascus; the Persians had planted vineyards there on purpose, says Posidosius, quoted by Athenæus. This author says that the kings of Persia used no other wine. Hosea, xiv, 7, mentions the wine of Lebanon. The wines from the vineyards on that mount are even to this day in repute; but some think that this may mean a sweet-scented wine, or wine flavoured with fragrant gums.

WINE PRESS. The vintage in Syria commences about the middle of September, and continues till the middle of November. But grapes in Palestine, we are informed, were ripe sometimes even in June or July, which arose perhaps from a triple pruning, in which case there was also a third vintage. The first vintage was in August, the second in September, and the third in October. The grapes when not gathered were sometimes found on the vines until November and December. The Hebrews were required to leave gleanings for the poor, Lev. xix, 10. The season of vintage was a most joyful one, Judges ix, 27; Isaiah xvi, 10; Jer. xxv, 30; xlviii, 33. With shoutings on all sides, the grapes were plucked off and carried to the wine press, פורה, פארה, ληνὸς, which was in the vineyard, Isa. liii, 3; Zech. xiv, 10; Haggai ii, 16; Matt. xxi, 33; Rev. xiv, 19, 20. The presses consisted of two receptacles, which were either built of stones and covered with plaster, or hewn out of a large rock. The upper receptacle, called נת, as it is constructed at the present time in Persia, is nearly eight feet square and four feet high. Into this the grapes are thrown and trodden out by five men. The juice flows out into the lower receptacle, through a grated aperture, which is made in the side near the bottom of the upper one. The treading of the wine press was laborious, and not very favourable to cleanliness; the garments of the persons thus employed were stained with the red juice, and yet the employment was a joyful one. It was performed with singing, accompanied with musical instruments; and the treaders, as they jumped, exclaimed, הידד, Isa. xvi, 9, 10; Jer. xxv, 30; xlviii, 32, 33. Figuratively, vintage, gleaning, and treading the wine press, signified battles and great slaughters, Isa. xvii, 6; lxiii, 1–3; Jer. xlix, 9; Lam. i, 15. The must, as is customary in the east at the present day, was preserved in large firkins, which were buried in the earth. The wine cellars were not subterranean, but built upon the earth. When deposited in these, the firkins, as is done at the present time in Persia, were sometimes buried in the ground, and sometimes left standing upon it. Formerly, also, new wine or must was preserved in leathern bottles; and, lest they should be broken by fermentation, the people were very careful that the bottles should be new, Job xxxii, 19; Matt. ix, 17; Mark ii, 22. Sometimes the must was boiled and made into syrup, which is comprehended under the term דבש, although it is commonly rendered “honey,” Gen. xliii, 11; 2 Chron. xxxi, 5. Sometimes the grapes were dried in the sun and preserved in masses, which were called “bunches or clusters of raisins,” 1 Sam. xxv, 18; 2 Sam. xvi, 1; 1 Chron. xii, 40; Hosea iii, 1. From these dried grapes, when soaked in wine and pressed a second time, was manufactured sweet wine, which is also called new wine, γλεῦκος, Acts ii, 13.

WISDOM is put for that prudence and discretion which enables a man to perceive that which is fit to be done, according to the circumstances of time, place, persons, manners, and end of doing, Eccles. ii, 13, 14. It was this sort of wisdom that Solomon intreated of God with so much earnestness, and which God granted him with such divine liberality, 1 Kings iii, 9, 12, 28. It also signifies quickness of invention, and dexterity in the execution of several works, which require not so much strength of body, as industry, and labour of the mind. For example, God told Moses, Exod. xxxi, 3, that he had filled Bezaleel and Aholiab with wisdom, and understanding, and knowledge, to invent and perform several sorts of work for completing the tabernacle. It is used for craft, cunning, and stratagem, and that whether good or evil. Thus it is said by Moses, that Pharaoh dealt wisely with the Israelites, when he opposed them in Egypt, Exodus i, 10: it is observed of Jonadab, the friend of Ammon, and nephew of David, that he was very wise, that is, very subtle and crafty, 2 Sam. xiii, 3; and Job, v, 13, says, that God “taketh the wise in their own craftiness.” Wisdom means also doctrine, learning, and experience: “With the ancient is wisdom, and in length of days understanding,” Job xii, 12. It is put for true piety, or the fear of God, which is spiritual wisdom: “So teach us to number our days, that we may apply our hearts unto wisdom,” Psalm xc, 12; “The fear of the Lord that is wisdom,” Job xxvii, 28. Wisdom is put for the eternal Wisdom, the Word of God. It was by wisdom that God established the heavens, and founded the earth, Prov. iii, 19. How magnificently does Solomon describe the primeval birth of the eternal Son of God, under the character of Wisdom personified; to which so many references and allusions are to be found in the Old and New Testament! “The Lord possessed me in the beginning of his way, before his works of old. I was set up from everlasting, from the beginning, or ever the earth was. When there were no depths, I was brought forth; when there were no fountains abounding with water. Before the mountains were settled, before the hills was I brought forth,” Prov. viii, 22–25. The apocryphal book of Wisdom introduces, by a reference to this passage, the following admirable invocation, Wisdom ix, 9, 10:--

“O send forth wisdom, out of thy holy heavens, Even from the throne of thy glory; That being present she may labour with me, That I may know what is pleasing in thy sight!”

And our Lord assumes the title of Wisdom, Luke xi, 49; Matt. xxiii, 34; and declares that “wisdom shall be justified of all her children,” Matt. xi, 19; Luke vii, 35.

WISDOM, BOOK OF, an apocryphal book of Scripture, so called on account of the wise maxims contained in it. This book has been commonly ascribed to Solomon, either because the author imitated that king’s manner of writing, or because he sometimes speaks in his name. But it is certain Solomon was not the author of it; for it was not written in Hebrew, nor was it inserted in the Jewish canon, nor is the style like that of Solomon; and therefore St. Jerom observes justly that it smells strong of the Grecian eloquence; that it is composed with art and method, after the manner of the Greek philosophers, very different from that noble simplicity so full of life and energy to be found in the Hebrew books. It has been ascribed by many of the ancients to Philo.

WOLF, זאב, in Arabic, zeeb, Gen. xlix, 27; Isa. xi, 6; lxv, 25; Jer. v, 6; Ezek. xxii, 27; Zeph. iii, 3; Hab. i, 8; λύκος, Matt. vii, 15; x, 16; Luke x, 3; John x, 12; Acts xx, 29; Eccles. xiii, 17. M. Majus derives it from the Arabic word zaab or daaba, “to frighten;” and hence, perhaps, the German word dieb, “a thief.” The wolf is a fierce, strong, cunning, mischievous, and carnivorous quadruped; externally and internally so nearly resembling the dog, that they seem modelled alike, yet have a perfect antipathy to each other. The Scripture observes of the wolf, that it lives upon rapine; is violent, bloody, cruel, voracious, and greedy; goes abroad by night to seek its prey, and is a great enemy to flocks of sheep. Indeed, this animal is fierce without cause, kills without remorse, and by its indiscriminate slaughter seems to satisfy its malignity rather than its hunger. The wolf is weaker than the lion or the bear, and less courageous than the leopard; but he scarcely yields to them in cruelty and rapaciousness. His ravenous temper prompts him to destructive and sanguinary depredations; and these are perpetrated principally in the night. This circumstance is expressly mentioned in several passages of Scripture. “The great men have altogether broken the yoke and burst the bonds; wherefore, a lion out of the forest shall slay them, and a wolf of the evenings shall spoil them,” Jer. v, 6. The rapacious and cruel conduct of the princes of Israel is compared by Ezekiel, xxii, 27, to the mischievous inroads of the same animal: “Her princes in the midst thereof are like wolves ravening the prey, to shed blood, to destroy lives, to get dishonest gain;” and Zephaniah, iii, 3, says, “Her princes within her are roaring lions, her judges are evening wolves: they gnaw not the bones till the morrow.” Instead of protecting the innocent and restraining the evil doer, or punishing him according to the demerit of his crimes, they delight in violence and oppression, in blood and rapine; and so insatiable is their cupidity, that, like the evening wolf, they destroy more than they are able to possess. The dispositions of the wolf to attack the weaker animals, especially those which are under the protection of man, is alluded to by our Saviour in the parable of the hireling shepherd: “The wolf catcheth them, and scattereth the flock,” Matt. vii, 15. And the Apostle Paul, in his address to the elders of Ephesus, gives the name of this insidious and cruel animal to the false teachers who disturbed the peace and perverted the faith of their people: “I know this, that after my departing shall grievous wolves enter in among you, not sparing the flock,” Acts xx, 29.

WORD. Sometimes the Scripture ascribes to the word of God certain supernatural effects, and often represents it as animated and active: “He sent his word and healed them,” Psalm cvii, 20. It also signifies what is written in the sacred books of the Old and New Testament, Luke xi, 28; James i, 22; the divine law which teaches and commands good things, and forbids evil, Psalm cxix, 101; and is used to express every promise of God, Psalm cxix, 25, &c, and prophecy or vision, Isaiah, ii, 1. This term is likewise consecrated and appropriated to signify the only Son of the Father, the uncreated Wisdom, the second Person of the most holy Trinity, equal to and consubstantial with the Father. St. John the evangelist, more expressly than any other, has opened to us the mystery of the Word of God, when he tells us, “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. The same was in the beginning with God. All things were made by him, and without him was not any thing made that was made,” John i, 1–3. The Chaldee paraphrasts, the most ancient Jewish writers extant, generally make use of the word memra, which signifies “the Word,” in those places where Moses puts the name Jehovah. They say, for example, that it was the Memra, or the Word, which created the world, which appeared to Moses on Mount Sinai, which gave him the law, which spoke to him face to face, which brought Israel out of Egypt, which marched before the people, and which wrought all those miracles that are recorded in Exodus. It was the same Word that appeared to Abraham in the plain of Mamre, that was seen of Jacob at Bethel, to whom Jacob made his vow, and acknowledged as God, saying, “If God will be with me, and will keep me in this way that I go, then shall the Lord be my God,” Gen. xxviii, 20, 21. The manner in which St. John commences his Gospel is strikingly different from the introductions to the histories of Christ by the other evangelists; and no less striking and peculiar is the title under which he announces him--“the Word.” It has therefore been a subject of much inquiry and discussion, from whence this evangelist drew the use of this appellation, and what reasons led him, as though intending to solicit particular attention, to place it at the very head of his Gospel. That it was for the purpose of establishing an express opinion, as to the personal character of him it is used to designate, is made more than probable from the predominant character of the whole Gospel, which is more copiously doctrinal, and contains a record more full of what Jesus “said” than the others. As to the source from which the term Logos was drawn by the Apostle, some have held it to be taken from the Jewish Scriptures; others, from the Chaldee paraphrases; others, from Philo and the Hellenizing Jews. The most natural conclusion certainly appears to be, that, as St. John was a plain, “unlearned” man, chiefly conversant in the Holy Scriptures, he derived this term from the sacred books of his own nation, in which the Hebrew phrase, Dabar Jehovah, “the Word of Jehovah,” frequently occurs in passages which must be understood to speak of a personal Word, and which phrase is rendered Λόγος Κυρίου [the word of the Lord] by the Septuagint interpreters. Certainly, there is not the least evidence in his writings, or in his traditional history, that he ever acquainted himself with Philo or with Plato; and none, therefore, that he borrowed the term from them, or used it in any sense approaching to or suggested by these refinements:--in the writings of St. Paul there are allusions to poets and philosophers; in those of St. John, none, except to the rising sects afterward known under the appellation of Gnostics. The Hebrew Scriptures contain frequent intimations of a distinction of Persons in the Godhead; one of these Divine Persons is called Jehovah; and, though manifestly represented as existing distinct from the Father, is yet arrayed with attributes of divinity, and was acknowledged by the ancient Jews to be, in the highest sense, “their God,” the God with whom, through all their history, they chiefly “had to do.” This Divine Person is proved to have been spoken of by the prophets as the future Christ; the evangelists and Apostles represent Jesus as that Divine Person of the prophets; and if, in the writings of the Old Testament, he is also called the Word, the application of this term to our Lord is naturally accounted for. It will then appear to be a theological, not a philosophic appellation, and one which, previously even to the time of the Apostle, had been stamped with the authority of inspiration.

Celebrated as this title of the Logos was in the Jewish theology, it is not, however, the appellation by which the Spirit of inspiration has chosen that our Saviour should be principally designated. It occurs but a very few times, and principally and emphatically in the introduction to St. John’s Gospel. A cogent reason can be given why this Apostle adopts it; and we are not without a probable reason why, in the New Testament, the title “Son of God” should have been preferred, which is a frequent title of the Logos in the writings also of Philo. Originating from the spiritual principle of connection, between the first and the second Being in the Godhead; marking this, by a spiritual idea of connection; and considering it to be as close and as necessary as the Word is to the energetic mind of God, which cannot bury its intellectual energies in silence, but must put them forth in speech; it is too spiritual in itself, to be addressed to the faith of the multitude. If with so full a reference to our bodily ideas, and so positive a filiation of the second Being to the first, we have seen the attempts of Arian criticism endeavouring to resolve the doctrine into the mere dust of a figure; how much more ready would it have been to do so, if we had only such a spiritual denomination as this for the second! This would certainly have been considered by it as too unsubstantial for distinct personality, and therefore too evanescent for equal divinity. One of the first teachers of this system was Cerinthus. We have not any particular account of all the branches of his system; and it is possible that we may ascribe to him some of those tenets by which later sects of Gnostics were discriminated. But we have authority for saying, that the general principle of the Gnostic scheme was openly taught by Cerinthus before the publication of the Gospel of St. John. The authority is that of Irenæus, a bishop who lived in the second century, who in his youth had heard Polycarp, the disciple of the Apostle John, and who retained the discourses of Polycarp in his memory till his death. There are yet extant of the works of Irenæus, five books which he wrote against heresies, one of the most authentic and valuable monuments of theological erudition. In one place of that work he says, that Cerinthus taught in Asia that the world was not made by the Supreme God, but by a certain power very separate and far removed from the Sovereign of the universe, and ignorant of his nature. In another place, he says that John the Apostle wished, by his Gospel, to extirpate the error which had been spread among men by Cerinthus; and Jerom, who lived in the fourth century, says that St. John wrote his Gospel, at the desire of the bishops of Asia, against Cerinthus and other heretics, and chiefly against the doctrines of the Ebionites, then springing up, who said that Christ did not exist before he was born of Mary.

“It appears,” says Dr. Hill, “to have been the tradition of the Christian church, that St. John, who lived to a great age, and who resided at Ephesus, in Proconsular Asia, was moved by the growth of the Gnostic heresies, and by the solicitations of the Christian teachers, to bear his testimony to the truth in writing, and particularly to recollect those discourses and actions of our Lord, which might furnish the clearest refutation of the persons who denied his preëxistence. This tradition is a key to a great part of his Gospel. Matthew, Mark, and Luke had given a detail of those actions of Jesus which are the evidences of his divine mission; of those events in his life upon earth which are most interesting to the human race; and of those moral discourses in which the wisdom, the grace, and the sanctity of the Teacher shine with united lustre. Their whole narration implies that Jesus was more than man. But as it is distinguished by a beautiful simplicity, which adds very much to their credit as historians, they have not, with the exception of a few incidental expressions, formally stated the conclusion that Jesus was more than man; but have left the Christian world to draw it for themselves from the facts narrated, or to receive it by the teaching and the writings of the Apostles. St. John, who was preserved by God to see this conclusion, which had been drawn by the great body of Christians, and had been established in the epistles, denied by different heretics, brings forward, in the form of a history of Jesus, a view of his exalted character, and draws our attention particularly to the truth of that which had been denied. When you come to analyze the Gospel of St. John, you will find that the first eighteen verses contain the positions laid down by the Apostle, in order to meet the errors of Cerinthus; that these positions, which are merely affirmed in the introduction, are proved in the progress of the Gospel, by the testimony of John the Baptist, and by the words and the actions of our Lord; and that after the proof is concluded by the declaration of Thomas, who, upon being convinced that Jesus had risen, said to him, ‘My Lord, and my God,’ St. John sums up the amount of his Gospel in these few words: ‘These are written that ye might believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God;’ that is, that Jesus and the Christ are not distinct persons, and that Jesus Christ is the Son of God. The Apostle does not condescend to mention the name of Cerinthus, because that would have preserved, as long as the world lasts, the memory of a name which might otherwise be forgotten. But, although there is dignity and propriety in omitting the mention of his name, it was necessary, in laying down the positions that were to meet his errors, to adopt some of his words, because the Christians of those days would not so readily have applied the doctrine of the Apostle to the refutation of those heresies which Cerinthus was spreading among them, if they had not found in the exposition of that doctrine some of the terms in which the heresy was delivered; and as the chief of these terms, Logos, which Cerinthus applied to an inferior spirit, was equivalent to a phrase in common use among the Jews, ‘the Word of Jehovah,’ and was probably borrowed from thence, John by his use of Logos rescues it from the degraded use of Cerinthus, and restores it to a sense corresponding to the dignity of the Jewish phrase.”

The Logos was no fanciful term, merely invented by St. John, pro re natâ, [according to circumstances,] or even suggested by the Holy Spirit, as a suitable title for a prophet by whom God chose to reveal himself or his Word. It was a term diversely understood in the world before St. John began his Gospel. Is it possible, therefore, that he should have used the term without some express allusion to these prevailing opinions? Had he contradicted them all, it would, of course, have been a plain proof, that they were all equally fabulous and fanciful; but by adopting the term, he certainly meant to show, that the error did not consist in believing that there was a Logos, or Word of God, but in thinking amiss of it. We might, indeed, have wondered much had he decidedly adopted the Platonic or Gnostic notions, in preference to the Jewish; but that he should harmonize with the latter, is by no means surprising; first, because he was a Jew himself; and, secondly, because Christianity was plainly to be shown to be connected with, and, as it were, regularly to have sprung out of, Judaism. It is certainly, then, in the highest degree consistent with all we could reasonably expect, to find St. John and others of the sacred writers expressing themselves in terms not only familiar to the Jews under the old covenant, but, in such as might tend, by a perfect revelation of the truth, to give instruction to all parties; correcting the errors of the Platonic and oriental systems, and confirming, in the clearest manner, the hopes and expectations of the Jews.

While the reasons for the use of this term by St. John are obvious, the argument from it is irresistible; for, first, the Logos of the evangelist is a person, not an attribute, as many Socinians have said, who have, therefore, sometimes chosen to render it wisdom. For if it be an attribute, it were a mere truism to say, that “it was in the beginning with God;” because God could never be without his attributes. The Apostle also declares, that the Logos was the Light; but that John Baptist was not the light. Here is a kind of parallel supposed, and it presumes, also, that it was possible that the same character might be erroneously ascribed to both. Between person and person this may, undoubtedly, be the case; but what species of parallel can exist between man and an attribute? Nor will the difficulty be obviated by suggesting, that wisdom here means not the attribute itself, but him whom that attribute inspired, the man Jesus Christ, because the name of our Saviour has not yet been mentioned; because that rule of interpretation must be inadmissible, which at one time would explain the term Logos by an attribute, at another by a man, as best suits the convenience of hypothesis; and because, if it be, in this instance, conceived to indicate our Saviour, it must follow, that our Saviour created the world, (which the Unitarians will by no means admit,) for the Logos, who was that which John the Baptist was not, the true Light, is expressly declared to have made the world. Again: the Logos was made flesh, that is, became man; but in what possible sense could an attribute become man? The Logos is “the only begotten of the Father;” but it would be uncouth to say of any attribute, that it is begotten; and, if that were passed over, it would follow, from this notion, either that God has only one attribute, or that wisdom is not his only begotten attribute. Farther: St. John uses terms decisively personal, as that he is God, not divine as an attribute, but God personally; not that he was in God, which would properly have been said of an attribute, but with God, which he could only say of a person; that “all things were made by him;” that he was “in the world;” that “he came to his own;” that he was “in the bosom of the Father;” and that “he hath declared the Father.” The absurdity of representing the Logos of St. John as an attribute seems, at length, to have been perceived by the Socinians themselves, and their new version accordingly regards it as a personal term.

If the Logos be a person, then is he Divine; for, first, eternity is ascribed to him: “In the beginning was the Word.” The Unitarian comment is, “from the beginning of his ministry,” or “the commencement of the Gospel dispensation;” which makes St. John use another trifling truism, and solemnly tell his readers, that our Saviour, when he began his ministry, was in existence! “in the beginning of his ministry the Word was!” It is true, that ἀρχὴ, “the beginning,” is used for the beginning of Christ’s ministry, when he says that the Apostles had been with him from the beginning; and it may be used for the beginning of any thing whatever. It is a term which must be determined in its meaning by the context; and the question, therefore, is, how the connection here determines it. Almost immediately it is added, “All things were made by him;” which can only mean the creation of universal nature. He, then, who made all things was prior to all created things; he was when they began to be, and before they began to be; and, if he existed before all created things, he was not himself created, and was, therefore, eternal. Secondly, he is expressly called God; and, thirdly, he is as explicitly said to be the Creator of all things. The two last particulars have often been largely established, and nothing need be added, except, as another proof that the Scriptures can only be fairly explained by the doctrine of a distinction of divine Persons in the Godhead, the declaration of St. John may be adduced, that “the Word was with God, and the Word was God.” What hypothesis but this goes a single step to explain this wonderful language? Arianism, which allows the preëxistence of Christ with God, accords with the first clause, but contradicts the second. Sabellianism, which reduces the personal to an official, and therefore a temporal, distinction, accords with the second clause, but contradicts the first; for Christ, according to this theory, was not with God in the beginning, that is in eternity. Socinianism contradicts both clauses; for on that scheme Christ was neither with God in the beginning, nor was he God. “The faith of God’s elect” agrees with both clauses, and by both it is established: “The Word was with God, and the Word was God.” See UNITARIANS.

WORM, the general name in Scripture for little creeping insects. Several kinds are spoken of: 1. Those that breed in putrefied bodies, רמה, Exod. xvi, 20, 24; Job vii, 5; xvii, 14; xxi, 26; xxiv, 20; xxv, 6; Isa. xiv, 11; σκώληξ, Ecclus. vii, 17; x, 11; 1 Mac. ii, 62; 2 Mac. ix, 9; Judith xvi, 17; Mark ix, 44, 46, 48; Acts xii, 23. 2. That which eats woollen garments, סס, Isa. li, 8; σὴς, Matt. vi, 19, 20; Luke xii, 33. 3. That which, perforating the leaves and bark of trees, causes the little excrescences called kermes, whence is made a crimson dye, תולע, Deut. xxviii, 39; Job xxv, 6; Psalm xxii, 6; Isa. xiv, 11; xii, 14; lxvi, 24; Exod. xvi, 20; Jonah iv, 7. 4. The worm destructive of the vines, referred to in Deut. xxviii, 39; which was the pyralis vitanæ, or pyralis fasciana, of Forskal, the vine weevil, a small insect extremely hurtful to the vines.

WORMWOOD, לענה, Deut. xxix, 18; Prov. v, 4; Jer. ix, 15; xxiii, 15; Lam. iii, 15, 19; Amos v, 7; vi, 12; ἄψινθον, Rev. viii, 11. In the Septuagint the original word is variously rendered, and generally by terms expressive of its figurative sense, for what is offensive, odious, or deleterious; but in the Syriac and Arabic versions, and in the Latin Vulgate, it is rendered “wormwood;” and this is adopted by Celsius, who names it the absinthium santonicum Judaicum, [bitter wormwood of Judea.] From the passages of Scripture, however, where this plant is mentioned, something more than the bitterness of its qualities seems to be intimated, and effects are attributed to it greater than can be produced by the wormwood of Europe. The Chaldee paraphrase gives it even the character of “the wormwood of death.” It may therefore mean a plant allied, perhaps, to the absinthium in appearance and in taste, but possessing more nauseous, hurtful, and formidable properties.

WORSHIP. The Scriptural obligation of public worship is partly founded upon example, and partly upon precept; so that no person who admits that authority, can question this great duty without manifest and criminal inconsistency. The institution of public worship under the law, and the practice of synagogue worship among the Jews, from at least the time of Ezra, cannot be questioned; both of which were sanctioned by the practice of our Lord and his Apostles. The preceptive authority for our regular attendance upon public worship, is either inferential or direct. The command to publish the Gospel includes the obligation of assembling to hear it; the name by which a Christian society is designated in Scripture is a church; which signifies an assembly for the transaction of business; and, in the case of a Christian assembly, that business must necessarily be spiritual, and include the sacred exercises of prayer, praise, and hearing the Scriptures. But we have more direct precepts, although the practice was obviously continued from Judaism, and was therefore consuetudinary. Some of the epistles of St. Paul are commanded to be read in the churches. The singing of psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs is enjoined as an act of solemn worship to the Lord; and St. Paul cautions the Hebrews that they “forsake not the assembling of themselves together.” The practice of the primitive age is also manifest from the epistles of St. Paul. The Lord’s Supper was celebrated by the body of believers collectively; and this Apostle prescribes to the Corinthians regulations for the exercises of prayer and prophesyings, “when they came together in the church,”--the assembly. The statedness and order of these holy offices in the primitive church, appear also from the apostolical epistle of St. Clement: “We ought also, looking into the depths of the divine knowledge, to do all things in order, whatsoever the Lord hath commanded to be done. We ought to make our oblations, and perform our holy offices, at their appointed seasons; for these he hath commanded to be done, not irregularly or by chance, but at determinate times and hours; as he hath likewise ordained by his supreme will, where, and by what persons, they shall be performed; that so all things being done according to his pleasure, may be acceptable in his sight.” This passage is remarkable for urging a divine authority for the public services of the church, by which St. Clement, no doubt, means the authority of the inspired directions of the Apostles. The ends of the institution of public worship are of such obvious importance, that it must ever be considered as one of the most condescending and gracious dispensations of God to man. By this his church confesses his name before the world; by this the public teaching of his word is associated with acts calculated to affect the mind with that solemnity which is the best preparation for hearing it to edification. It is thus that the ignorant and the vicious are collected together, and instructed and warned; the invitations of mercy are published to the guilty, and the sorrowful and afflicted are comforted. In these assemblies God, by his Holy Spirit, diffuses his vital and sanctifying influence, and takes the devout into a fellowship with himself, from which they derive strength to do and to suffer his will in the various scenes of life, while he there affords them a foretaste of the deep and hallowed pleasures which are reserved for them at his right hand for evermore. Prayers and intercessions are offered for national and public interests; and while the benefit of these exercises descends upon a country, all are kept sensible of the dependence of every public and personal interest upon God. Praise calls forth the grateful emotions, and gives cheerfulness to piety; and that instruction in righteousness which is so perpetually repeated, diffuses the principles of morality and religion throughout society; enlightens and gives activity to conscience; raises the standard of morals; attaches shame to vice, and praise to virtue; and thus exerts a powerfully purifying influence upon mankind. Laws thus receive a force, which, in other circumstances, they could not acquire, even were they enacted in as great perfection; and the administration of justice is aided by the strongest possible obligation and sanction being given to legal oaths. The domestic relations are rendered more strong and interesting by the very habit of the attendance of families upon the sacred services of the sanctuary of the Lord; and the rich and the poor meeting together, and standing on the same common ground as sinners before God, equally dependent upon him, and equally suing for his mercy, has a powerful, though often an insensible, influence in humbling the pride which is nourished by superior rank, and in raising the lower classes above abjectness of spirit, without injuring their humility. Piety, benevolence, and patriotism are equally dependent for their purity and vigour upon the regular and devout worship of God in the simplicity of the Christian dispensation.

The following is an abridgment of Dr. Neander’s account of the mode of conducting public worship among the primitive Christians, which, though questionable on some points, is upon the whole just and interesting:--Since the religion of the New Testament did not admit of any peculiar outward priesthood, similar to that of the Old, the same outward kind of worship, dependent on certain places, times, and outward actions and demeanours, would also have no place in its composition. The kingdom of God, the temple of the Lord, were to be present, not in this or that place, but in every place where Christ himself is active in the Spirit, and where through him the worship of God in spirit and in truth is established. Every Christian in particular, and every church in general, were to represent a spiritual temple of the Lord; the true worship of God was to be only in the inward heart, and the whole life proceeding from such inward disposition, sanctified by faith, was to be a continued spiritual service; this is the great fundamental idea of the Gospel, which prevails throughout the New Testament, by which the whole outward appearance of religion was to assume a different form, and all that once was carnal was to be converted into spiritual, and ennobled. This notion came forward most strongly in the original inward life of the first Christians, particularly when contrasted with Judaism, and still more so when contrasted with Heathenism; a contrast which taught the Christians to avoid all pomp that caught the eye, and all multiplication of means of devotion addressed to the senses, while it made them hold fast the simple, spiritual character of the Christian worship of God. It was this which always struck the Heathen so much in the Christian worship; namely, that nothing was found among them of the outward pomp of all other religions; no temples, no altars, no images. This reproach was made to the Christians by Celsus, and answered thus by Origen: “In the highest sense the temple and image of God are in the human nature of Christ; and hence, also, in all the faithful, who are animated by the Spirit of Christ,--living images! with which no statue of Jove by Phidias is fit to be compared.” Christianity impelled men frequently to seek for the stillness of the inward sanctuary, and here to pour forth their heart to God, who dwells in such temples; but then the flames of love were also lighted in their hearts, which sought communion in order to strengthen each other mutually, and to unite themselves into one holy flame which pointed toward heaven. The communion of prayer and devotion was thought a source of sanctification, inasmuch as men knew that the Lord was present by his Spirit among those who were gathered together in his name; but then they were far from ascribing any peculiar sacredness and sanctity to the place of assembly. Such an idea would appear to partake of Heathenism; and men were at first in less danger of being seduced into such an idea, because the first general places of assembly of the Christians were only common rooms in private houses, just according as it happened that any member of the church had sufficient accommodation for the purpose. Thus Gaius of Corinth, Rom. xvi, is called the host of the church, because the church was in the habit of assembling in a room of his house. Origen says, “The place where believers come together to pray has something agreeable and useful about it;” but then he only says this in respect to that spiritual communion. Man, we must avow, is very easily led to fall away from the worship of God in spirit and in truth, and to connect the religion of the Spirit with outward and earthly things; as the Apostle says, “Having begun in the Spirit, to wish to end in the flesh.” Watchfulness on this point was constantly needed, lest the Jewish or the Heathen notions should here intrude themselves on those of the Gospel, which was likely enough to happen as soon as the Old and the New Testament notions of the priesthood had been confused. Even in the time of Clemens of Alexandria he found himself obliged to combat the notion, which allowed the essentials of a Christian life to be of one kind in, and of another out of, the church. “The disciples of Christ,” he says, “must form the whole course of their life and conduct on the model which they assume in the churches, for the sake of propriety; they must be such, and not merely seem so; as mild, as pious, and as charitable. But now, I know not how it is, they change their habits and their manners with the change of place, as the polypus, they say, changes its colour, and becomes like the rock on which it hangs. They lay aside the spiritual habit which they had assumed in the church, as soon as they have left the church, and assimilate themselves to the multitude among whom they live. I should rather say, that they convict themselves of hypocrisy, and show what they really are in their inward nature, by laying aside the mask of piety which they had assumed; and while they honour the word of God, they leave it behind them in the place where they heard it.”

The Christian places of assembly were, at first, in the rooms of private houses; it may perhaps be the case, that in large towns, where the number of Christians was soon considerable, and no member of the church had any room in his house sufficient to contain all his brethren, or in places where men did not fear any prejudicial consequences from large assemblies, the church divided itself into different sections, according to the habitations of its members, of which each section held its assemblies in one particular chamber of the house of some wealthy member of the church; or, perhaps, while it was usual to unite on Sundays in one general assembly, yet each individual part of the church met together daily in the rooms which lay the most convenient to it. Perhaps the passages in St. Paul’s epistles, which speak of churches in the houses of particular persons, are thus to be understood. The answer of Justin Martyr to the question of the prefect, “Where do you assemble?” exactly corresponds to the genuine Christian spirit on this point. This answer was, “Where each one can and will. You believe, no doubt, that we all meet together in one place; but it is not so, for the God of the Christians is not shut up in a room, but, being invisible, he fills both heaven and earth, and is honoured every where by the faithful.” Justin adds, that when he came to Rome, he was accustomed to dwell in one particular spot, and that those Christians who were instructed by him, and wished to hear his discourses, assembled at his house. He had not visited any other congregations of the church. The arrangements which the peculiarities of the Christian worship required, were gradually made in these places of assembly, such as an elevated seat for the purpose of reading the Scriptures and preaching, a table for the distribution of the sacrament, to which as early as the time of Tertullian the name of altar, ara or altare, was given, and perhaps not without some mixture of the unevangelical Old Testament notion of a sacrifice; or at least this idea might easily attach itself to this name. When the churches increased, and their circumstances improved, there were, during the course of the third century, already separate church buildings for the Christians, as the name θρησκεύσιμοι τοπόι, [religious places,] of the Christians occurs in the edict of Gallienus. In the time of the external prosperity of the church, during the reign of Diocletian, many handsome churches arose in the great towns. The use of images was originally quite foreign to the Christian worship and churches, and it remained so during this whole period. The intermixture of art and religion, and the use of images for the latter, appeared to the first Christians a Heathenish practice. As in Heathenism the divine becomes desecrated and tarnished by intermixture with the natural; and as men have often paid homage to the beauties of nature, with injury to the cause of holiness, the first warmth of Christian zeal, which opposed the idolatry of nature, so common to Heathenism, and sought to maintain the divine in all its purity and elevation, was inclined rather to set holiness in the strongest contrast with what is beautiful by nature, than to endeavour to grace it by lending it a beautiful form. Men were more inclined in general to carry into extremes the idea of the appearance of the Divinity in the form of a servant, which suited the oppressed condition of the church in these centuries than to throw it into the back ground, and overwhelm it under the predominance of their æsthetic dispositions, and their love of art. This is peculiarly shown by the general belief of the early church, that Christ had clothed his inward divine glory in a mean outward form, which was in direct contradiction to it; a conclusion which was drawn from interpreting the prophecy of the Messiah in Isa. liii, 2, too literally. Thus, Clemens of Alexandria warns the Christians, from the example of Christ, not to attribute too much value to outward beauty: “The Lord himself was mean in outward form; and who is better than the Lord? But he revealed himself not in the beauty of the body, perceptible to our senses, but in the true beauty of the soul as well as of the body; the beauty of the soul consisting in benevolence, and that of the body in immortality!” Fathers of entirely opposite habits of mind, the adherents of two different systems of conceiving divine things, were nevertheless united on this point by their common opposition to the mixture of the natural and the divine in Heathenism, and by the endeavour to maintain the devotion to God, in spirit and in truth, pure and undefiled. Clemens of Alexandria is as little favourable as Tertullian to the use of images. Heathens, who, like Alexander Severus, saw something divine in Christ’s personal form, and sects which mixed Heathenism and Christianity together, were the first who made use of images of Christ; as, for instance, the Gnostic sect of the followers of Carpocratian, who put his image beside those of Plato and Aristotle. The use of religious images among the Christians did not proceed from their ecclesiastical but from their domestic life. In the intercourse of daily life, the Christians saw themselves every where surrounded by objects of Heathen mythology, or by such as shocked their moral and Christian feelings. Similar objects adorned the walls of chambers, the drinking vessels, and the signet rings, (on which the Heathen had constantly idolatrous images,) to which, whenever they pleased, they could address their devotions; and the Christians naturally felt themselves obliged to replace these objects, which wounded their moral and religious feelings, with others more suited to those feelings. Therefore, they gladly put the likeness of a shepherd carrying a lamb upon his shoulders, on their cups, as a symbol of the Redeemer, who saves the sinners that return to him, according to the parable in the Gospel. And Clemens of Alexandria says, in reference to the signet rings of the Christians, “Let our signet rings consist of a dove,” the emblem of the Holy Ghost, “or a fish, or a ship sailing toward heaven,” the emblem of the Christian church, or of individual Christian souls, “or a lyre,” the emblem of Christian joy, “or an anchor,” the emblem of Christian hope; “and he who is a fisherman, let him remember the Apostle, and the children who were dragged out from the water; for those men ought not to engrave idolatrous forms, to whom the use of them is forbidden; those can engrave no sword and no bow, who seek for peace; the friends of temperance cannot engrave drinking cups.” And yet, perhaps, religious images made their way from domestic life into the churches as early as the end of the third century, and the walls of the churches were painted in the same way. The council of Elvira set itself against this innovation as an abuse, for it made the following order: “Objects of reverence and worship shall not be painted on the walls.” It is probable that the visible representation of the cross found its way very early into domestic and ecclesiastical life. This token was remarkably common among them; it was used to consecrate their rising and their going to bed, their going out and their coming in, and all the actions of daily life; it was the sign which Christians made involuntarily whenever any thing of a fearful nature surprised them. This was a mode of expressing, by means perceptible to the senses, the purely Christian idea, that all the actions of Christians, as well as the whole course of their life, must be sanctified by faith in the crucified Jesus, and by dependence upon him; and that this faith is the most powerful means of conquering all evil, and preserving oneself against it. But here also, again, men were too apt to confuse the idea and the token which represented it; and they attributed the effects of faith in the crucified Redeemer to the outward sign, to which they ascribed a supernatural, sanctifying, and preservative power; an error of which we find traces as early as the third century.

We now pass from the consideration of the places of public worship, to that of the seasons of worship, and the festivals of the early Christians. It is here shown again, that the Gospel, as it remodelled the former conceptions of the priesthood, of worship in general, and of holy places, also entirely changed the then views of sacred seasons. And here again, also, the character of the theocracy of the New Testament revealed itself, a theocracy spiritualized, ennobled, and freed from its outward garb of sense, and from the limits which bounded its generalization. The Jewish laws relating to their festivals were not merely abrogated by the Gospel, in such a manner as to transfer these festivals to different seasons; but they were entirely abolished, as far as fixing religious worship to particular times is concerned. St. Paul expressly declares all sanctifying of certain seasons, as far as men deduced this from the divine command, to be Jewish and unevangelical, and to be like returning to the slavery of the law, and to captivity to outward precepts. Such was the opinion of the early church. At first the churches assembled every day; as, for instance, the first church of Jerusalem, which assembled daily for prayer in common, and for the public consideration of the divine word, for the common celebration of the Lord’s Supper and the agapæ, as well as to maintain the connection between the common head of the spiritual body of the church and themselves, and between one another as members of this body. Traces of this are also found in later times in the daily assembling of the churches for the purpose of hearing the Scriptures read, and of celebrating the communion. Although, in order to meet the wants of human nature generally, consisting as it does of sense as well as soul, and those of a large body of Christians in particular, who were only in a state of education, and were to be brought up to the ripeness of Christian manhood, men soon selected definite times [beside the authorized Christian Sabbath, the first day of the week] for religious admonitions, and to consecrate them to a fuller occupation with religious things, as well as to public devotion, with the intention, that the influence of these definite times should animate and sanctify the rest of their lives, and that Christians who withdrew themselves from the distractions of business on these days, and collected their hearts before God in the stillness of solitude, as well as in public devotion, might make these seasons of service to the other parts of their life; yet this was in itself, and of itself, nothing unevangelical. It was only a dropping down from the purely spiritual point of view, on which even the Christian, as he still carries about two natures in himself, cannot always maintain himself, to the carnal; a dropping down which became constantly more necessary, the more the fire of the first animation and the warmth of the first love of the Christians died away. It was no more unevangelic than the gradual limitation of the exercise of many rights, belonging to the common priesthood of all Christians, to a certain class in the church, which circumstances rendered necessary. But just as the unevangelic made its appearance, men supposed certain days distinguished from others, and hallowed by divine right, when they introduced a distinction between holy and common days into the life of the Christian, and in this distinction forgot his calling to sanctify all days alike. When the Montanists wished to introduce and make imperative new fasts, which were fixed to certain days, the Epistle to the Galatians was very properly brought to oppose them; but Tertullian, who stood on the boundary between the original pure evangelic times and those when the intermixture of Jewish and Christian notions first took place, confuses here the views of the two religions, because he makes the evangelical to consist, not in a wholly different method of considering festivals altogether, but in the celebration of different particular festivals; and he makes the Judaizing, which the Apostle condemns, to consist only in the observation of the Jewish instead of the peculiarly Christian festivals. The weekly and the yearly festivals originally arose from the self-same fundamental idea, which was the centre point of the whole Christian life; the idea of imitating Christ, the crucified and the risen; to follow him in his death, by appropriating to ourselves, in penitence and faith, the effects of his death, by dying to ourselves and to the world; to follow him in his resurrection, by rising again with him, by faith in him and by his power, to a new and holy life, devoted to God, which, beginning here below in the seed, is matured in heaven. Hence the festival of joy was the festival of the resurrection; and the preparation for it, the remembrance of the sufferings of Christ, with mortification and crucifixion of the flesh, was the day of fasting and penitence. Thus in the week the Sunday was the joyful festival; and the preparation for it was a day of penitence and prayer, consecrated to remembrance of the sufferings of Christ and the preparations for them, and this was celebrated on the Friday; and thus also the yearly festivals were to celebrate the resurrection of Christ, and the operations of the Redeemer after he had risen again; the preparation for this day was in commemoration of the sufferings and fastings of our Saviour. Allusion is made to Sunday under the character of a festival, as a symbol of a new life, consecrated to the Lord in opposition to the old Sabbath, in the epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians: “If they who were brought up under the Old Testament have attained to a new hope, and no longer keep [Jewish] Sabbaths holy, but have consecrated their life to the day of the Lord, on which also our life rose up in him, how shall we be able to live without him?” Sunday was distinguished as a day of joy by the circumstances, that men did not fast upon it, and that they prayed standing up and not kneeling, as Christ had raised up fallen man to heaven again through his resurrection. And farther: two other days in the week, Friday and Wednesday, particularly the former, were consecrated to the remembrance of the sufferings of Christ, and of the circumstances preparatory to them; congregations were held on them, and a fast till three o’clock in the afternoon, but nothing was positively appointed concerning them; in respect to joining in these solemnities every one consulted his own convenience or inclination. Such fasts, joined with prayer, were considered as the watches of the milites Christi [soldiers of Christ] on their post by the Christians, who compared their calling to a warfare, the militia Christi, and they were stationes, and the days on which they took place were called dies stationum, [day of their stations.] The churches, which were a graft of a Christian on a Jewish spirit, although they received the Sunday, retained also that of the Sabbath; and from them the custom spread abroad in the oriental church, of distinguishing this day, as well as the Sunday, by not fasting and by praying in an erect posture; in the western churches, particularly the Roman, where opposition to Judaism was the prevailing tendency, this very opposition produced the custom of celebrating the Saturday in particular as a fast day. This difference in customs would of course be striking, where members of the oriental church spent their Sabbath day in the western church. It was only too soon that men lost sight of the principle of the apostolic church, which retained the unity of faith and spirit in the bond of love, but allowed all kinds of difference in external things; and then they began to require uniformity in these things. The first yearly festivals of the Christians proceeded from similar views; and at first the contrast which had in early times the most powerful influence on the developement as well of the churchly life, as of the doctrines of Christianity, is peculiarly prominent; I mean the contrast between the Jewish churches and those of the Gentile converts. The former retained all the Jewish festivals as well as the whole ceremonial law; although by degrees they introduced into them a Christian meaning which spontaneously offered itself. On the contrary, there was probably no yearly festival at all, from the beginning, among the Heathen converts; for no trace of any thing of the sort is found in the whole of the New Testament. The passover of the Old Testament was easily ennobled and converted to a passover which suited the New Testament, by merely substituting the idea of deliverance from spiritual bondage, that is, from the slavery of sin, for that of deliverance from earthly bondage. The paschal lamb was a type of Christ, by whom that deliverance was wrought. These representations went on the supposition, that Christ had partaken his last meal with his disciples, as a proper passover, at the very time that the Jews were celebrating theirs. This passover was, therefore, always celebrated on the night between the fourteenth and fifteenth of the Jewish month Nisan, as a remembrance at the same time of the last supper of Christ. This was the fundamental notion of the whole Jewish Christian passover, on which all the rest was built. The day following this passover was consecrated to the remembrance of the sufferings of Christ, and the third day from it to the remembrance of his resurrection. On the contrary, in the greater number of Heathen churches, as soon as men began to celebrate yearly festivals, (a time which cannot be determined very precisely,) they followed the method observed in the weekly festivals. They appointed one Sunday in the year for the festival of the resurrection, and one Friday as a day of penitence and fasting preparatory to this Sunday, in remembrance of the sufferings of Christ; and they gradually lengthened this time of penitence and fasting, as a preparation for that high and joyful festival. In these churches they were more inclined to take up a kind of antithetical turn against the Jewish festivals, than to graft Christian ones upon them. It was far from their notions to think of observing a yearly passover with the Jews. The following was the view which they took of the matter: “Every typical feast has lost its true meaning by the realization of that which is typified; in the sacrifice of Christ, the Lord’s Supper, as the new covenant, has taken the place of that of the old covenant.” This difference of outward customs between the Jewish Christian churches and the churches allied to them on the one hand, and the Heathen Christian churches founded by St. Paul on the other, existed at first without its being supposed that external things of this nature were of importance enough to lead to a controversy. A fast formed the introduction to the passover; and this was the only fast formally established by the church. The necessity of this fast was deduced from Matthew ix, 15; but it was by a carnal interpretation of the passage, and an application of it quite contrary to its real sense. For it does not relate to the time of Christ’s suffering, but to the time when he should be with his disciples no more. As long as they enjoyed his society they were to give themselves up to joy, and to be disturbed in it by no forced asceticism. But a time of sorrow was to follow this time of joy, although only for a season, after which a time of higher and imperishable joy, in invisible communion with him, was to follow, John xvi, 22. The duration of this fast, however, was not determined; the imitation of the temptation of our Lord for forty days introduced the custom of fasting forty hours in some places, which afterward was extended to forty days; and thus the fast of forty days, the quadrigesimal fast, arose. The festival of pentecost, Whitsuntide, was closely connected with that of the resurrection; and this was dedicated to commemorating the first visible effects of the operations of the glorified Christ upon human nature, now also ennobled by him, the lively proofs of his resurrection and reception into glory; and therefore Origen joins the festivals of the resurrection and of pentecost together as one whole. The means of transition from an Old Testament festival to one befitting the New Testament, were here near at hand. The first fruits of harvest in the kingdom of nature; the first fruits of harvest in the kingdom of grace; the law of the letter from Mount Sinai--the law of the Spirit from the heavenly Jerusalem. This festival originally embraced the whole season of fifty days from Easter, and was celebrated like a Sunday, that is to say, no fasts were kept during the whole of it, and men prayed standing, and not kneeling; and perhaps also in some places assemblies of the church were held, and the communion was celebrated every day. Afterward, two peculiar points of time, the ascension of Christ and the effusion of the Holy Spirit, were selected from this whole interval. These were the only festivals generally celebrated at that time, as the passage cited from Origen proves. The fundamental notion of the whole Christian life, which referred every thing to the suffering, the resurrection, and the glorification of Christ, as well as the adherence, or, on the other hand, the opposition, to the Jewish celebration of festivals, were the cause that these were the only general festivals. The notion of a birth-day festival was far from the ideas of the Christians of this period in general; they looked upon the second birth as the true birth of men. The case must have been somewhat different with the birth of the Redeemer; human nature was to be sanctified by him from its first developement; but then this last notion could not at first come so prominently forward among the early Christians, because so many of them were first converted to Christianity when well advanced in years, after some decisive excitement of their life; but then it may have entered generally into domestic life, though at first gradually. Nevertheless, we find in this period apparently one trace of Christmas as a festival. Its history is intimately connected with the history of a kindred festival; the festival of the manifestation of Jesus in his character of Messiah, his consecration to the office of Messiah by the baptism of John, and the beginning of his public ministry as the Messiah, which was afterward called Epiphany, the ἑυρτη τῶν ἐπιφανίων, or τῆς ἐπιφανείας τοῦ Χριϛοῦ, [the festival of Epiphany, or of the appearance of Christ.] We find in later times that these festivals extended themselves in opposite directions, that of Christmas spreading from west to east, and the other from east to west. Clemens of Alexandria merely relates, that the Gnostic sect of the Basilidians celebrated the festival of the Epiphany at Alexandria in his time. We can hardly suppose that this sect invented the festival, although they may have had some dogmatical reason for celebrating it; for it is highly improbable that the catholic church should have afterward received a festival from the Gnostics; and these Gnostics most probably received it from the Jewish Christian churches in Palestine or Syria. For this time of our Saviour’s life would appear the most important to the notions of the Jewish Christians; and the Gnostics would afterward explain it according to their own ideas.

The character of a spiritual worship of God distinguished the Christian worship from that of other religions, which consisted in symbolical pageantry and lifeless ceremonies. As a general elevation of spirit and sanctification of heart was the object of every thing in this religion, instruction and edification, through a common study of the divine word, and through prayer in common, were the leading features in the Christian worship. And in this respect it might in its form adhere to the arrangements made about the congregations in the Jewish synagogues, in which also the element of a spiritual religious worship was the prevailing ingredient. As the reading of portions of the Old Testament had formed the ground work of religious instruction in the Jewish synagogues, this custom also passed into the Christian congregations. First the Old Testament, and especially the prophetic parts of it, were read as things that pointed to the Messiah; then followed the Gospels, and after that the epistles of the Apostles. The reading of the Scriptures was of still greater consequence then, because it was desirable that every Christian should be acquainted with them; and yet, by reason of the rarity and dearness of manuscripts, and the poverty of a great proportion of the Christians, or perhaps also because all were not able to read, the Bible itself could not be put into the hands of all. Frequent hearing was therefore with many to supply the place of their own reading. The Scriptures were therefore read in the language which all could understand, and that was, in most parts of the Roman empire, the Greek or the Latin. In very early times different translations of the Bible into Latin were in existence; as every one who knew a little of Greek, found it needful to have his own Bible in his own mother tongue. In places where the Greek or the Latin language was understood only by a part of the church, that is to say, by the educated classes, while the rest understood only their native language, as was the case in many Egyptian and Syrian towns, church interpreters were appointed, as in the Jewish synagogues, and they immediately translated what had been read into the language of the country, so that it might be intelligible to all. After the reading of the Scripture there followed, as there had previously in the Jewish synagogues, short, and at first very simple, addresses in familiar language, the momentary effusions of the heart, which contained an explanation and application of what had just been read. Justin Martyr expresses himself thus on the subject: “After the reading of the Scriptures, the president instructs the people in a discourse, and incites them to the imitation of these good examples.” Among the Greeks, where the taste was more rhetorical, the sermon from the very earliest times was of a more lengthened kind, and formed a very important part of the service. Singing also passed from the Jewish service into that of the Christian church. St. Paul exhorts the early churches to sing spiritual songs. What was used for this purpose were partly the Psalms of the Old Testament, and partly songs composed with this very object, especially songs of praise and thanks to God and Christ; and these, we know, Pliny found to be customary among the Christians. In the controversies with the Unitarians, about the end of the second century, and the beginning of the third, the hymns, in which from early times Christ had been honoured as a God, were appealed to. The power of church singing over the heart was soon recognized; and hence those who wished to propagate any peculiar opinions, like Bardasanes, or Paul of Samosata, endeavoured to spread them by means of hymns. In compliance with the infirmities of human nature, composed as it is of sense and spirit, the divine Founder of the church, beside his word, ordained two outward signs, as symbols of the invisible communion which existed between him, the Head of the spiritual body, and the faithful, its members; and also of the connection of these members, as with him, so also with one another. These were visible means to represent the invisible, heavenly benefits to be bestowed on the members of this body through him; and while man received in faith the sign presented to his senses, the enjoyment of that heavenly communion and those heavenly advantages was to gladden his inward heart. As nothing in all Christianity and in the whole Christian life stands isolated, but all forms one whole, proceeding from one centre, therefore, also, that which this outward sign represented must be something which should continue through the whole of the inward Christian life, something which, spreading itself forth from this one moment over the whole Christian life, should be capable of being especially excited again and promoted in return, by the influence of isolated moments. Thus, baptism was to be the sign of a first entrance into communion with the Redeemer, and with the church, the first appropriation of those advantages which Christ has bestowed on man, namely, of the forgiveness of sins and the inward union of life, which proceeds from it, as well as of the participation in a sanctifying divine Spirit of life. And the Lord’s Supper was to be the sign of a constant continuance in this communion, in the appropriation and enjoyment of these advantages; and thus were represented the essentials of the whole inward Christian life, in its earliest rise and its continued progress. The whole peculiar spirit of Christianity was particularly stamped in the mode in which these external things were administered; and the mode of their administration in return exerted a powerful influence on the whole nature of the Christian worship. The connection of the moments, represented by these signs, with the whole Christian life, the connection of inward and divine things with the outward act was present to the lively Christian feelings of the first Christians.

WRITING. In regard to alphabetic writing, all the ancient writers attribute the invention of it to some very early age, and some country of the east; but they do not pretend to designate precisely either the time or the place. They say, farther, that Cadmus introduced letters from Phenicia into Greece, if we may credit the Parisian Chronicle, B. C. 1519, that is, forty-five years after the death of Moses. Anticlides asserts, and attempts to prove, that letters were invented in Egypt fifteen years before Phoroneus, the most ancient king of Greece; that is, four hundred and nine years after the deluge, and in the one hundred and seventeenth year of Abraham. On this it may be remarked that they might have been introduced into Egypt at this time, but they had been previously invented by the Phenicians. Epigenes, who, in the estimation of Pliny, is weighty authority, informs us that observations, made upon the heavenly bodies for seven hundred and twenty years at Babylon, were written down upon baked tiles; but Berosus and Critodemus, also referred to by Pliny, make the number of years four hundred and eighty. Pliny from these statements draws the conclusion that the use of letters, as he expresses it, must have been eternal, that is, beyond all records. Simplicius, who lived in the fifth century, states, on the authority of Porphyry, an acute historian, that Callisthenes, the companion of Alexander, found at Babylon a record of observations on the heavenly bodies for one thousand nine hundred and three years. Of course the record must have been begun B. C. 2234, that is, the eighty-ninth year of Abraham. This statement receives some confirmation from the fact that the month of March is called Adar in the Chaldaic dialect; and at the time mentioned, namely, the eighty-ninth year of Abraham, the sun, during the whole month of March, was in the sign of the zodiac called Aries, or the Ram. The word Adar means the same with Aries. But, as letters would be unquestionably first used for the purposes of general intercourse, they must have been known long before they were employed to transmit the motions of the stars. Of this we have an evidence in the bill of sale, which, as we have reason to suppose from the expressions used in Gen. xxiii, 20, was given to Abraham by the sons of Heth. Hence it is not at all wonderful that books and writings are spoken of in the time of Moses, as if well known, Exodus xvii, 14; xxiv, 4; xxviii, 9–11; xxxii, 32; xxxiv, 27, 28; Numbers xxxiii, 2; Deut. xxvii, 8. Nor is it a matter of surprise that long before his time there had been public scribes, who kept written genealogies: they were called by the Hebrews שוטרים, Exod. v, 14; Deut. xx, 5–9. Even in the time of Jacob, seals, upon which names are engraved in the east, were in use, Gen. xxxviii, 18; xii, 42; which is another probable testimony to the great antiquity of letters.

Letters, which had thus become known at the earliest period, were communicated by means of the Phenician merchants and colonies, and subsequently by Egyptian emigrants, through all the east and the west. A strong evidence of this is to be found in the different alphabets themselves, which betray by their resemblance a common origin. That the posterity of the Hebrew patriarchs preserved a knowledge of alphabetical writing during their abode in Egypt, where essentially the same alphabet was in use, is evident from the fact, that the Hebrews while remaining there always had public genealogists. The law, also, was ordered to be inscribed on stones; a fact which implies a knowledge of alphabetical writing. The writing thus engraven upon stones is designated by its appropriate name, namely, חרות, Exodus xxxii, 16, 32. Not a few of the Hebrews might be unable to read and write, Judges viii, 14; but those who were capable of writing wrote for others, when necessary. Such persons were commonly priests, who, as they do to this day in the east, bear an inkhorn in their girdle, Ezek. x, 2, 3, 11. In the inkhorn were the materials for writing, and a knife for sharpening the pen, Jer. xxxvi, 23. The rich and noble had scribes of their own, and readers also; whence there is more frequent mention made of hearing than of reading, 1 Kings iv, 3; 2 Kings xii, 10; Isa. xxix, 18; Jer. xxxvi, 4; Rom. ii, 13; James v, 11; Rev. i, 3. The scribes took youth under their care, who learned from them the art of writing. Some of the scribes seem to have held public schools for instruction; some of which, under the care of Samuel and other prophets, became in time quite illustrious, and were called the schools of the prophets, 1 Sam. xix, 16, &c; 2 Kings ii, 3, 5; iv, 38; vi, 1. The disciples in these schools were not children or boys, but young men, who inhabited separate edifices, as is the case in the Persian academies. They were taught music and singing, and without doubt writing also, the Mosaic law and poetry. They were denominated, in reference to their instructers, the sons of the prophets; teachers and prophets being sometimes called fathers. After the captivity there were schools for instruction either near the synagogues or in them.

The materials and instruments of writing were, 1. The leaves of trees. 2. The bark of trees, from which, in the process of time, a sort of paper was manufactured. 3. A table of wood, πίναξ, לוח, Deut. ix, 9; Ezek. xxxvii, 5; Luke i, 63. In the east, these tables were not covered with wax as they were in the west; or at any rate very rarely so. 4. Linen was first used for the object in question at Rome. Linen books are mentioned by Livy. Cotton cloth also, which was used for the bandages of Egyptian mummies, and inscribed with hieroglyphics, was one of the materials for writing upon. 5. The paper made from the reed papyrus, which, as Pliny has shown, was used before the Trojan war. 6. The skins of various animals; but they were poorly prepared for the purpose, until some improved methods of manufacture were invented at Pergamus, during the reign of Eumenes, about B. C. 300. Hence the skins of animals, prepared for writing, are called in Latin pergamena, in English parchment, to this day, from the city Pergamus. They are sometimes denominated in Greek, μεμβράνα, 2 Tim. iv, 13. 7. Tables of lead, עפרת, Job xix, 24. 8. Tables of brass, δέλτοι χαλκαὶ. Of all the materials, brass was considered among the most durable, and was employed for those inscriptions which were designed to last the longest, 1 Macc. viii, 22; xiv, 20–27. 9. Stones or rocks, upon which public laws, &c, were written. Sometimes the letters engraved were filled up with lime, Exod. xxiv, 12; xxxi, 18; xxxii, 19; xxxiv, 1; Deut. xxvii, 1–9; Joshua viii, 32; Job xix, 24. 10. Tiles. The inscriptions were made upon the tiles first, and afterward they were baked in the fire. They are yet to be found in the ruins of Babylon; others of later origin are to be found in many countries in the east. 11. The sand of the earth, in which the children in India to this day learn the art of writing, and in which Archimedes himself delineated his mathematical figures, John viii, 1–8. If in Ezekiel iii, 1, and in Revelation x, 9, we are informed that books were eaten, we must remember that the descriptions are figurative, and that they were eaten in vision; and consequently we are not at liberty to draw the conclusion from these passages, that any substance was used as materials for writing upon, which was at the same time used for food. The representations alluded to are symbolic, introduced to denote a communication or revelation from God.

As to the instruments used in writing, when it was necessary to write upon hard materials, as tables of stone and brass, the style was made of iron, and sometimes tipped with diamond, Jer. xvii. 1. The letters were formed upon tablets of wood, (when they were covered with wax,) with a style sharpened at one end, broad and smooth at the other; by means of which the letters, when badly written, might be rubbed out and the wax smoothed down. 2. Wax, however, was but rarely used for the purpose of covering writing tables in warm regions. When this was not the case, the letters were painted on the wood with black tincture or ink. 3. On linen, cotton cloth, paper, skins, and parchment, the letters were painted with a very small brush, afterward with a reed, which was split. The orientals use this elegant instrument to the present day instead of a pen. Ink, called דיו, is spoken of in Num. v, 23, as well known and common, Jer. xxxvi, 18, and was prepared in various ways, which are related by Pliny. The most simple, and consequently the most ancient, method of preparation was a mixture of water with coals broken to pieces, or with soot, with an addition of gum. The ancients used other tinctures also; particularly, if we may credit Cicero and Persius, the ink extracted from the cuttle fish, although their assertion is in opposition to Pliny. The Hebrews went so far as to write their sacred books in gold, as we may learn from Josephus compared with Pliny.

Hieroglyphics, that is, sacred sculptures or engravings, received that appellation, because it was once, and indeed till very lately, thought, that they were used only to express, in a manner hidden from the vulgar, what was exclusively religious; and which it was thought proper to conceal from all but the learned. The fact, however, is, that the hieroglyphic was a kind of picture writing, which passed through various modifications, and was applied alike to sacred and to civil purposes; to the emblazonment of the attributes of idols, the exploits of warriors, and the events of illustrious history. Rudiments of the same art have been found among almost all savages. Among the semi-civilized Mexicans history was pictorial: and in Ceylon and Continental India the same vehicle of instruction is made use of on the walls of their temples, to convey moral lessons, or to indicate the character and exploits of their deities. In Egypt, however, the art was carried into a more perfect system, and was more ostensibly set before the public eye on the massive and almost eternal monuments which cover the country. There, too, it ascends to ages of the world with which the Scriptures have made us familiar, and stands associated with royal dynasties, and vicissitudes of conquest, more intimately blended with that stream of civil history, along the margin of which European education conducts us. These mystic characters have acquired an adventitious interest also, from the circumstance that the key to them was for so many ages lost. This knowledge perished among that people themselves, the records of whose kings and conquests lay hid under the inexplicable symbol, or the fanciful representation of letters and sounds which were still familiar to the lips of those to whom the signs had become wholly unmeaning. Age after age they were gazed at by the curious; conjectures respecting their nature and use were offered by the learned, some absurd and some approaching the truth, but all failing to throw light upon a mystery, which at length was surrendered, by common consent, to the receptacle of lost and irrecoverable knowledge. Whether the hieroglyphics were symbols only, or words, or picturesque alphabetical characters, or expressed the popular tongue, or one known only to the priests, were questions answered at random by the prompt and dogmatic; and even the more modest and probable solutions of the cautious had so little collateral evidence to support them, that they led to no result. As to their intent, one thought that they involved the mysteries of magic; another, that they were a form of the Chinese language; a third, that they veiled the doctrines of the true patriarchal religion; a fourth, that they enveloped the dogmatic arcana of the Egyptian priesthood. The great point, however, to be determined was, whether the hieroglyphics were the signs of a language; that is, of the sounds of any language; and, if so, whether the language was now known, or knowable, from books still extant. Each of these points was of equal importance; for in vain would it have been ascertained that these signs represented the sounds of a tongue once spoken, if that tongue had perished from the earth. Clement of Alexandria, who lived about the end of the second century, asserted that the Egyptians had three modes of writing,--the epistolographic, or common characters; the hieratic, or sacerdotal, employed chiefly by the priesthood in writing books; and the hieroglyphic, used on public monuments. The symbolical he again distributes into imitative, which represent the plain figure of an object, as a circle to express the sun, and a half circle the moon; tropical,--which have recourse to analogy for the representation of the object; and enigmatical,--as “a serpent, to signify the oblique course of the stars.” This writer could not so accurately have expressed the truth of the case, unless he had known much more than he has written; and we may presume, that if he had been more liberal in his communications, the present age would not have had the honour of throwing open the gate to this branch of ancient learning. The notion which has generally prevailed, that by whatever rule the hieroglyphics were composed, they were invented by the Egyptian priests to conceal their wisdom from the vulgar, was combated by Bishop Warburton, with his usual acuteness. According to him, the first kind of hieroglyphics were mere pictures; because the most natural way of communicating our conceptions by marks or figures was, to trace out the images of things. But the hieroglyphics invented by the Egyptians were an improvement on this rude and inconvenient essay toward writing; for they contrived to make them both pictures and characters. He proceeds to other observations, which have lost their interest in consequence of the recent discoveries; but he argues conclusively, that hieroglyphics could not, in a vast number of cases, have been resorted to for purposes of secrecy, since they were employed to record openly and plainly their laws, history, and all kinds of civil matters. This, as a general view, has been proved to be correct; but still no key to the reading of these characters was found. The figures of deities might, in many instances, be deciphered by their attributes; other symbols were not difficult to explain, as they spoke a universal language. Thus two hands, one holding a bow, and another a shield, suggested a battle; an eye and a sceptre, a monarch of intelligence and vigilance; a ship and a pilot, the governor of a state if associated with a man, the ruler of the universe if associated with a deity. A lion was a natural emblem of strength and courage; a bullock, of agriculture; a horse, of liberty; a sphynx, of subtlety. But still those hieroglyphics were in the greatest number which appeared to represent letters; and many might prove, at the same time, both emblematic and alphabetical. Approaches to the truth of the case had been, indeed, made. Warburton, from an attentive perusal of what Clemens Alexandrinus had said on the subject, had, in fact, concluded, in a way highly creditable to his acuteness, that hieroglyphics were a real written language, applicable to the purposes of history and common life, as well as to those of religion; and that, among the different sorts of hieroglyphics, the Egyptians possessed those which were used phonetically, or alphabetically, as letters; but, till recently, the means of following out this ingenious and correct conjecture were wanting to the learned. The first effectual step was taken by M. Quattermere, who proved, in his work Sur la Langue et Littérature de l’Egypte, [Concerning the Language and Literature of Egypt,] that the Coptic, a language of easy attainment, at least to a considerable extent, was the language of the ancient Egyptians. The second favouring circumstance of modern times was, the publication of the researches made as to the monuments of Egypt by the literary men and artists who accompanied the French expedition to that country. Previous to this, the specimens which had been brought to Europe were few, and the impressions and the fac similes of them incorrect. Some, too, were imitations, and others spurious. In the works published in France after this expedition, the representations of Egyptian monuments were numerous; and the inscriptions were given with perfect exactness and fidelity. Still, however, those would have remained as unintelligible as the originals but for the discovery of the Rosetta stone, now among the Egyptian antiquities in the gallery of the British museum. This stone was dug up by the French, near Rosetta, and contained an inscription in three sets of characters: one in hieroglyphics; a second in a sort of running hand, called enchorial, that is, in the common characters of the country; and a third in Greek. The latter appearing, from the disposition of the whole, to be a translation of the enchorial inscription, as that was of the hieroglyphic, the importance of this stone was at once seen by the French savans; but by the fortune of war, it was taken, with other valuables, by the British troops, and was sent to this country. The Antiquarian Society had it immediately engraved; and the fac similes, which were circulated through Europe attracted great attention. Dr. Young has, however, the honour of being the discoverer of the nature and use of the hieroglyphical inscription. M. de Sacy, and more especially Mr. Ackerblad, a Danish gentleman, made some progress in identifying the sense of several parts of the second inscription, or that in demotic or enchorial characters, but made no progress in the hieroglyphics; and it was left for British industry to convert to permanent profit a monument which had been a useless, though a glorious, monument of British valour. The inscription upon this celebrated stone proved to be a decree of the Egyptian priests, solemnly assembled in the temple, to record upon a monument, as a public expression of their gratitude, all the events of the reign of Ptolemy Epiphanes; his liberality to the temples and to the gods; his success against his rebellious subjects; his clemency toward some of the traitors; his measures against the fatal consequences of excessive inundations of the Nile; and his munificence toward the college of the priests, by remitting the arrears of several years’ payment of taxes. It was an important circumstance, that the whole concludes by ordering that this decree “shall be engraved on a hard stone in sacred characters, in common characters, and in Greek.” By this it was ascertained that the second and third inscriptions were translations of the first; and that the second inscription was in the common character of the country. It was this that led Ackerblad to the investigation of the enchorial text, in order to discover its alphabet; in which he partially succeeded. His labours were, however, for some time unnoticed; but in 1814, Dr. Young published, in the Archæologia, an improvement on the alphabet of Ackerblad, and a translation of the Egyptian inscription. Difficulties of no ordinary kind, beside those arising from the mutilated state of the stone, presented themselves to all who had applied to make out even the second, or enchorial inscription.

“The method,” says the Marquis Spineto, “pursued by our learned men in this Herculean task of deciphering the Rosetta stone, deserves to be noticed; it may serve to give you a proper idea of the infinite labour to which they have been obliged to submit; a labour which at first seemed calculated to deter the most indefatigable scholar. Figure to yourself, for a moment, the fashion introduced of writing the English language with the omission of most of its vowels, and then suppose our alphabet to be entirely lost or forgotten, a new mode of writing introduced, letters totally different from those we use, and then conceive what our labour would be, if, after the lapse of fifteen hundred years, when the English language, by the operation of ages, and the intercourse with foreigners, was much altered from what it now is, we should be required, by the help of a Greek translation, to decipher a bill of parliament written in this old, forgotten, and persecuted alphabet, in every word of which we should find, and even this not always, the regular number of consonants, but most of the vowels left out. And yet this is precisely what our learned antiquarians have been obliged to do. The Egyptians, like most of the orientals, left out many of the vowels in writing. The enchorial, or demotic alphabet, which they used, has been laid aside since the second or third century of our era. From that time to this, that is, for nearly sixteen hundred years, the Coptic alphabet has been used; and yet in this Coptic language, and in these very enchorial or demotic characters, was engraved on the Rosetta stone the inscription which they have deciphered.”

The steps of this interesting process are given by Dr. Young, in the Supplement to the Encyclopædia Britannica. The substance is as follows: “As the demotic characters showed something like the shape of letters, it was shrewdly suspected that they might have been used as an alphabet. By comparing, therefore, its different parts with each other, and with the Greek, it was observed that the two groups in the fourth and seventeenth lines of the Greek inscription, in which Alexander and Alexandria occur, corresponded with two other groups in the second and the tenth line of the demotic inscription. These two groups, therefore, were considered as representing these two names, and thus not less than seven characters, or letters, were ascertained. Again: it was observed that a small group of character occurs very often in almost every line. At first it was supposed that this group was either a termination, or some very common particle; and after some words had been identified, it was found to mean the conjunction and. It was then observed, that the next remarkable collection of characters was repeated twenty-nine or thirty times in the enchorial inscription; and nothing found to occur so often in the Greek, except the word king, which with its compounds, is repeated about thirty-seven times. A fourth assemblage of characters was found fourteen times in the enchorial inscription, agreeing sufficiently well in frequency with the name of Ptolemy, which occurs eleven times in the Greek, and generally in passages corresponding to those of the enchorial text, in their relative situation; and, by a similar comparison, the name of Egypt was identified. Having thus obtained a sufficient number of common points of subdivision, the next step was to write the Greek text over the enchorial, in such a manner that the passages ascertained should coincide as nearly as possible; taking, however, a proper care to observe that the lines of the demotic or enchorial inscription are written from right to left, while those of the Greek run in a contrary direction from left to right. At first sight this difficulty seemed very great; but it was conquered by proper attention and practice; because, after some trouble, the division of the several words and phrases plainly indicated the direction in which they were to be read. Thus it was obvious that the intermediate parts of each inscription stood then very near to the corresponding passages of the other.”

By means of the process above mentioned, Ackerblad, De Sacy, and Dr. Young, among whom a correspondence had been carried on, obtained a sort of alphabet from the enchorial characters, which might aid them in future researches. This result was published by Dr. Young in 1814. The examination of another stone at Menoup, containing an inscription in enchorial and in Greek characters, enabled Dr. Young to confirm the accuracy of former discoveries, and to add several new characters to the enchorial or demotic alphabet. Dr. Young next turned his attention to the hieroglyphics; and, though not with equal success, yet so as to demonstrate that they were phonetic or alphabetical, and to spell several proper names. The difficulty here, indeed, was how to begin; but his success opened a certain way to future progress; and it was upon Dr. Young’s discovery that Champollion afterward engrafted his system, and was enabled to carry his researches into Egyptian antiquities and Egyptian hieroglyphics, to an extent which is now deeply engaging the attention of the literary world.

Two practical ends appear to have been answered already by the deciphering of the mystic monuments of Egypt. The first is, that the inscriptions which have been read by Champollion, afford assistance in settling some questions of ancient chronology; the other is, that important collateral proof has been afforded of the historical accuracy of the Old Testament, and the antiquity of its books. It is presumptive in favour of the genuineness and antiquity of the writings of Moses, that such proper Egyptian names as are found in no other ancient writings beside his own, such as On, and Rameses, and Potipherah, and Asenath, should now be read in hieroglyphic characters on monuments still standing in the same country. But the confirmatory evidence goes still farther. In one inscription the names of two of the Pharaohs, Osorgon and Scheschonk, are exhibited. Of the characters which compose this legend some are phonetic, some figurative, and some symbolic. The whole reading in Coptic, is, “Ouab an Amon-re soten annenoute Osorchon pri (or pre) ce or ci an ouab an Amon-re Souten Scheschonk-re Soten Nebto, (Amonmai Osorchon,)” &c. The meaning of which is, “The pure by Amon-re, king of the gods, Osorchon deceased, son of the pure, by Amon-re, king of the gods, Scheschonk deceased, son of king of the world, (beloved by Amon-re, Osorchon,) imparting life, like the sun, for ever.” This Osorchon seems to have been the Zarah, or Zarach, the king of Ethiopia, recorded in the Second Book of Chronicles, who, with a host of a thousand thousand and three hundred chariots, came to make war against Asa, the grandson of Jeroboam, and was defeated at Mareshah. Although the Greek historians have never mentioned either the name or exploits of Osorchon, this fact is attested by an hieroglyphical manuscript, published by Denon. It is a funeral legend, loaded with figures, on and round which there are several hieroglyphical inscriptions. With respect to the other Pharaoh, Champollion, speaking of the temple of Karnac, says, “In this marvellous place I saw the portraits of most of the ancient Pharaohs, known by their great actions. They are real portraits, represented a hundred times on the basso-relievos of the outer and inner walls. Each of them has his peculiar physiognomy, different from that of his predecessors and successors. Thus, in colossal representations, the sculpture of which is lively, grand, and heroic, more perfect than can be believed in Europe, we see the Pharaoh Mandouei combating the nations hostile to Egypt, and returning triumphant to his country. Farther on, the campaigns of Rhamses Sesostris; elsewhere Sesonchis, or Shishak, dragging to the feet of the Theban Trinity, Ammon, Mouth, and Khous, the chiefs of thirty conquered nations, among which is found, written in letters at full length, the word Joudahamalek, that is, the kingdom of the Jews, or the kingdom of Judah. This is a commentary on the fourteenth chapter of the First Book of Kings, which relates the arrival of Shishak at Jerusalem, and his success there. Thus the identity between the Egyptian Sheschonk, the Sesonchis of Manetho, and the Sesac, or Schischak of the Bible, is confirmed in the most satisfactory manner.”

YEAR. The Hebrews had always years, of twelve months each. But at the beginning, and in the time of Moses, these were solar years, of twelve months; each having thirty days, except the twelfth which had thirty-five. We see, by the reckoning that Moses gives us of the days of the deluge, Gen. vii, that the Hebrew year consisted of three hundred and sixty-five days. It is supposed that they had an intercalary month at the end of one hundred and twenty years; at which time the beginning of their year would be out of its place full thirty days. But it must be owned, that no mention is made in Scripture of the thirteenth month, or of any intercalation. It is not improbable that Moses retained the order of the Egyptian year, since he himself came out of Egypt, was born in that country, had been instructed and brought up there, and since the people of Israel, whose chief he was, had been for a long time accustomed to this kind of year. But the Egyptian year was solar, and consisted of twelve months of thirty days each, and that for a very long time before. After the time of Alexander the Great, and the reign of the Grecians in Asia, the Jews reckoned by lunar months, chiefly in what related to religion, and the order of the festivals. St. John, in his Revelation, xi, 2, 3; xii, 6, 14; xiii, 5, assigns but twelve hundred and sixty days to three years and a half, and consequently just thirty days to every month, and just three hundred and sixty days to every year. Maimonides tells us, that the years of the Jews were solar, and their months lunar. Since the completing of the Talmud, they have made use of years that are purely lunar, having alternately a full month of thirty days, and then a defective month of twenty-nine days. And to accommodate this lunar year to the course of the sun, at the end of three years they intercalate a whole month after Adar; which intercalated month they call Ve-adar, or the second Adar.

The beginning of the year was various among different nations: the ancient Chaldeans, Babylonians, Medes, Persians, Armenians, and Syrians, began their year about the vernal equinox; and the Chinese in the east, and Latins and Romans in the west, originally followed the same usage. The Egyptians, and from them the Jews, began their civil year about the autumnal equinox. The Athenians and Greeks in general began theirs about the summer solstice; and the Chinese, and the Romans after Numa’s correction, about the winter solstice. At which of these the primeval year, instituted at the creation, began, has been long contested among astronomers and chronologers. Philo, Eusebius, Cyril, Augustine, Abulfaragi, Kepler, Capellus, Simpson, Lange, and Jackson, contend for the vernal equinox; and Josephus, Scaliger, Petavius, Usher, Bedford, Kennedy, &c, for the autumnal. The weight of ancient authorities, and also of argument, seems to preponderate in favour of the former opinion. 1. All the ancient nations, except the Egyptians, began their civil year about the vernal equinox: but the deviation of the Egyptians from the general usage may easily be accounted for, from a local circumstance peculiar to their country; namely, that the annual inundation of the Nile rises to its greatest height at the autumnal equinox. 2. Josephus, the only ancient authority of any weight on the other side seems to be inconsistent with himself, in supposing that the deluge began in the second civil month, Dius, or Marheshvan, rather than in the second sacred month; because Moses, throughout the Pentateuch, uniformly adopts the sacred year; and fixes its first month by an indelible and unequivocal character, calling it Abib, as ushering in the season of green corn. And as Josephus calls the second month elsewhere Artemisius, or Iar, in conformity with Scripture, there is no reason why he should deviate from the same usage in the case of the deluge. 3. To the authority of Josephus, we may oppose that of the great Jewish antiquary, Philo, in the generation before him; who thus accounts for the institution of the sacred year by Moses:--“This month, Abib, being the seventh in number and order according to the sun’s course, or civil year, reckoned from the autumnal equinox, is virtually the first, and is therefore called ‘the first month’ in the sacred books. And the reason, I think, is this: because the vernal equinox is the image and representative of the original epoch of the creation of the world. Thereby God notified the spring, in which all things bloom and blossom, to be an annual memorial of the world’s creation. Wherefore this month is properly called the first in the law, as being the image of the first original month, stamped upon it, as it were, by that archetypal seal.” 4. The first sacrifice on record seems to decide the question. The time of the sacrifice of Cain and Abel appears to have been spring; when Cain, who was a “tiller of the ground,” brought the first fruits of his tillage, or a sheaf of new corn; and Abel, who was “a feeder of sheep,” “the firstlings of his flock,” lambs: and this was done “at the end of days,” or “at the end of the year;” which is the correct meaning of the phrase מקץ ימם, and not the indefinite expression, “in process of time,” Gen. iv, 3. It is a remarkable proof of the accuracy of Moses, and a confirmation of this expression, that he expresses the end of the civil year, or “ingathering of the harvest,” by different phrases, בצאת השנה, “at the going out of the year,” Exod. xxiii, 16; and תקופת השנה, “at the revolution of the year,” Exod. xxxiv, 22; as those phrases may more critically be rendered. But, in process of time, it was found that the primeval year of three hundred and sixty days was shorter than the tropical year; and the first discovery was, that it was deficient five entire days, which therefore it was necessary to intercalate, in order to keep up the correspondence of the civil year to the stated seasons of the principal festivals. How early this discovery and intercalation was made, is nowhere recorded. It might have been known and practised before the deluge. The apocryphal book of Enoch, which probably was as old as the Septuagint translation of the Pentateuch, stated that “the archangel Ariel, president of the stars, discovered the nature of the month and of the year to Enoch, in the one hundred and sixty-fifth year of his age, and A. M. 1286.” And it is remarkable, that Enoch’s age at his translation, three hundred and sixty-five years, expressed the number of entire days in a tropical year. This knowledge might have been handed down to Noah and his descendants; and that it was early communicated indeed to the primitive Egyptians, Chaldeans, and Chinese, we learn from ancient tradition.

This article would be rendered too prolix were we to notice the various inventions of eminent men in different ages to rectify the calendar by adjusting the difference between lunar and tropical years; which at length was effected by Gregory XIII. in 1583. This Gregorian, or reformed Julian year, was not adopted in England until A. D. 1751, when, the deficiency from the time of the council of Nice then amounting to eleven days, this number was struck out of the month of September, by act of parliament; and the third day was counted the fourteenth, in that year of confusion. The next year, A. D. 1752, was the first of the new style. Russia is the only country in Europe which retains the old style.

The civil year of the Hebrews has always begun at autumn, at the month they now call Tisri, which answers to our September, and sometimes enters into October, according as the lunations happen. But their sacred years, by which the festivals, assemblies, and all other religious acts, were regulated, begin in the spring, at the month Nisan, which answers to March, and sometimes takes up a part of April, according to the course of the moon. See MONTHS.

Nothing is more equivocal among the ancients, than the term year. It always has been, and still is, a source of disputes among the learned, whether on account of its duration, its beginning, or its end. Some people heretofore made their year consist only of one month, others of four, others of six, others of ten, and others of twelve. Some have divided one of our years into two, and have made one year of winter, another of summer. The beginning of the year was fixed sometimes at autumn, sometimes at the spring, and sometimes at midwinter. Some people have used lunar months, others solar. Even the days have been differently divided: some people beginning them at evening, others at morning, others at noon, and others at midnight. With some the hours were equal, both in winter and summer; with others, they were unequal. They counted twelve hours to the day, and as many to the night. In summer the hours of the day were longer than those of the night; but, on the contrary, in winter the hours of the night were longer than those of the day.

While the Jews continued in the land of Canaan, the beginnings of their months and years were not settled by any astronomical rules or calculations, but by the phasis, or actual appearance of the new moon. When they saw the new moon, they began the month. Persons were therefore appointed to watch on the tops of the mountain for the first appearance of the moon after the change. As soon as they saw it, they informed the sanhedrim, and public notice was given by lighting beacons throughout the land; though after they had been often deceived by the Samaritans, who kindled false fires, they used, say the Mishnical rabbins, to proclaim its appearance by sending messengers. Yet as they had no months longer than thirty days, if they did not see the new moon the night following the thirtieth day, they concluded the appearance was obstructed by the clouds, and, without watching any longer, made the next day the first of the following month. But after the Jews became dispersed through all nations, where they had no opportunity of being informed of the first appearance of the new moon, as they formerly had, they were forced to make use of astronomical calculations and cycles for fixing the beginning of their months and years. The first cycle they made use of for this purpose was of eighty-four years. But that being discovered to be faulty, they came afterward into the use of Meto’s cycle of nineteen years, which was established by the authority of Rabbi Hillel Hannasi, or prince of the sanhedrim, about A. D. 360. This they still use, and say it is to be observed till the coming of the Messiah. In the compass of this cycle there are twelve common years, consisting of twelve months, and seven intercalary years, consisting of thirteen months. We find the Jews and their ancestors computing their years from different eras, in different parts of the Old Testament; as from the birth of the patriarchs, for instance, of Noah, Gen. vii, 11; viii, 13; afterward from their exit out of Egypt, Num. xxxiii, 38; 1 Kings vi, 1; then from the building of Solomon’s temple, 2 Chron. viii, 1; and from the reigns of the kings of Judah and Israel. In latter times the Babylonish captivity furnished them with a new epocha, from whence they computed their years, Ezek. xxxiii, 21; xl, 1. But since the times of the Talmudical rabbins, they have constantly used the era of the creation.

There is not a more prolific source of confusion and embarrassment in ancient chronology, than the substitution of the cardinal numbers, one, two, three, for the ordinals, first, second, third, &c, which frequently occurs in the sacred and profane historians. Thus Noah was six hundred years old when the deluge began, Gen. vii, 6; and presently after, in his six hundredth year: confounding complete and current years. And the dispute whether A. D. 1800, or A. D. 1801, was the first of the nineteenth century, should be decided in favour of the latter; the former being in reality the last of the eighteenth century; which is usually, but improperly, called the year one thousand eight hundred, complete; whereas it is really the one thousandth, eight hundredth; as in Latin we say, Anno Domini millesimo octingentesimo. There is also another and a prevailing error, arising from mistranslation of the current phrases, μεθ’ ἡμέρας ὀκτὼ, μετὰ τρεῖς ἡμέρας, &c, usually rendered, “after eight days,” “after three days,” &c; but which ought to be rendered “eight days after,” “three days after,” as in other places, μετὰ τινὰς ἡμέρας, μετ’ οὐ πολλὰς ἡμέρας, which are correctly rendered “some days after,” “not many days after,” in our English Bible, Acts xv, 36; Luke xv, 13, the extreme days being included. Such phrases seem to be elliptical, and the ellipsis is supplied, Luke ix, 28, speaking of our Lord’s transfiguration, μετὰ τοὺς λόγους τούτους, ὡσεὶ ἡμέραι ὀκτὼ: “After these sayings, about eight days,” or rather about the eighth day, counted inclusively; for in the parallel passages, Matt. xvii, 1, Mark ix, 2, there are only “six days,” counted exclusively, or omitting the extremes. Thus, circumcision is prescribed, Gen. xvii, 11, when the child is “eight days old;” but in Lev. xii, 3, “on the eighth day.” And Jesus accordingly was circumcised, ὅτε ἐπλήσθησαν ἡμέραι ὀκτὼ, “when eight days were accomplished,” Luke ii, 21; whereas John the Baptist, τῇ ογδοῃ ἡμέρᾳ, “on the eighth day.” The last, which was the constant usage, explains the meaning of the former. This critically reconciles our Lord’s resurrection, μετὰ τρεῖς ἡμέρας, “three days after,” according to Matt. xxvii, 63; Mark viii, 31; with his resurrection, τῇ τρίτη hήμερᾳ, “on the third day,” according to Matt. xvi, 21; Luke ix, 22; and according to fact: for our Lord was crucified on Good Friday, about the third hour; and he arose before sunrise, πρωΐ, “early,” on Sunday; so that the interval, though extending through three calendar days current, did not in reality amount to two entire days, or forty-eight hours. This phraseology is frequent among the most correct classic writers. Some learned commentators, Beza, Grotius, Campbell, Newcome, render such phrases, “within eight days,” “within three days;” which certainly conveys the meaning, but not the literal translation, of the preposition μετὰ, “after.” In memory of the primeval week of creation, revived among the Jews, after their departure from Egypt, their principal festivals, the passover, pentecost, and tabernacles, lasted a week each. They had weeks of seven years a piece, at the term of which was the sabbatical year; as also weeks of seven times seven years, that were terminated by the year of jubilee; and finally weeks of seven days. And it is remarkable that, from the earliest times, sacrifices were offered by sevens. Thus, in the patriarch Job’s days, “seven bullocks and seven rams were offered up for a burnt offering” of atonement, by the divine command, Job xiii, 8. The Chaldean diviner, Balaam, built seven altars, and prepared seven bullocks and seven rams, Num. xxiii, 1. And the Cumæan sibyl, who came from Chaldea, or Babylonia, gives the same directions to Æneas, that Balaam did to Balak:

_Nunc grege de intacto septem mactare juvencos Præstiterit, totidem lectas, de more, bidentes._

“Seven bullocks, yet unyoked, for Phœbus choose, And for Diana seven unspotted ewes.” DRYDEN.

And when the ark was brought home by David, the Levites offered seven bullocks and seven rams, 1 Chronicles xv, 26. And hence we may account for the peculiar sanctity of the seventh day, among the older Heathen writers, even after the institution of the Sabbath fell into disuse, and was lost among them.

THE FALLOW OR SABBATIC YEAR. Agricultural labour among the Jews ceased every seventh year. Nothing was sown and nothing reaped; the vines and the olives were not pruned; there was no vintage and no gathering of fruits, even of what grew wild; but whatever spontaneous productions there were, were left to the poor, the traveller, and the wild beast, Lev. xxv, 1–7; Deut. xv, 1–10. The object of this regulation seems to have been, among others, to let the ground recover its strength, and to teach the Hebrews to be provident of their income and to look out for the future. It is true, that extraordinary fruitfulness was promised on the sixth year, but in such a way as not to exclude care and foresight, Lev. xxv, 20–24. We are not to suppose, however, that the Hebrews spent the seventh year in absolute idleness: they could fish, hunt, take care of their bees and flocks, repair their buildings and furniture, manufacture cloths of wool, linen, and of the hair of goats and camels, and carry on commerce. Finally, they were obliged to remain longer in the tabernacle or temple this year, during which the whole Mosaic law was read, in order to be instructed in religious and moral duties, and the history of their nation, and the wonderful works and blessings of God, Deut. xxxi, 10–13. This seventh year’s rest, as Moses predicted, Lev. xxvi, 34, 35, was for a long time neglected, 2 Chron. xxxvi, 21; after the captivity it was more scrupulously observed.

As a period of seven days was every week completed by the Sabbath, so was a period of seven years completed by the sabbatic year. It seems to have been the design of this institution, to afford a longer opportunity than would otherwise have been enjoyed for impressing on the memory the great truth, that God the Creator is alone to be worshipped. The commencement of this year was on the first day of the seventh month Tishri, or October. During the continuance of the feast of tabernacles this year, the law was to be publicly read for eight days together, either in the tabernacle or temple, Deut. xxxi, 10–13. Debts, on account of there being no income from the soil, were not collected, Deut. xv, 1, 2; they were not, however, cancelled, as was imagined by the Talmudists, for we find in Deut. xv, 9, that the Hebrews are admonished not to deny money to the poor on account of the approach of the sabbatical year, during which it could not be exacted; but nothing farther than this can be educed from that passage. Nor were servants manumitted on this year, but on the seventh year of their service, Exodus xxi, 2; Deut. xv, 12; Jer. xxxiv, 14.

THE YEAR OF JUBILEE followed seven sabbatic years; it was on the fiftieth year, Lev. xxv, 8–11. To this statement agree the Jews generally, their rabbins, and the Caraites; and say farther, that the argument of those who maintain that it was on the forty-ninth, for the reason that the omission to till the ground for two years in succession, namely, the forty-ninth and fiftieth, would produce a famine, is not to be attended to. It is not to be attended to, simply because these years of rest being known long beforehand, the people would of course lay up provision for them. It may be remarked farther in reference to this point, that certain trees produced their fruits spontaneously, particularly the fig and sycamore, which yield half the year round, and that those fruits could be preserved for some months; which explains at once how a considerable number of the people might have obtained no inconsiderable portion of their support. The return of the year of jubilee was announced on the tenth day of the seventh month, or Tishri, October, being the day of propitiation or atonement, by the sound of trumpet, Lev. xxv, 8–13; xxvii, 24; Num. xxxvi, 4; Isa. lxi, 1, 2. Beside the regulations which obtained on the sabbatic year, there were others which concerned the year of jubilee exclusively: 1. All the servants of Hebrew origin on the year of jubilee obtained their freedom, Lev. xxv, 39–46; Jer. xxxiv, 7, &c. 2. All the fields throughout the country, and the houses in the cities and villages of the Levites and priests which had been sold on the preceding years, were returned on the year of jubilee to the sellers, with the exception of those which had been consecrated to God, and had not been redeemed before the return of the said year, Lev. xxv, 10, 13–17, 24–28; xxvii, 16–21. 3. Debtors, for the most part, pledged or mortgaged their lands to the creditor, and left it to his use till the time of payment, so that it was in effect sold to the creditor, and was, accordingly, restored to the debtor on the year of jubilee. In other words, the debts for which land was pledged were cancelled; the same as those of persons who had recovered their freedom after having been sold into slavery, on account of not being able to pay. Hence it usually happened in the later periods of Jewish history, as we learn from Josephus, that, at the return of jubilee, there was a general cancelling of debts.

ZABII, or ZABÆANS, or ZABIANS, or SABIANS. The Sabians mentioned in Scripture were evidently a nation, or perhaps a wandering horde, such as fell upon Job’s cattle, Job i, 15; men of stature, Isa. xiv, 14; a people afar off, Joel iii, 8. But we speak here of the Zabians as a sect, probably the first corrupters of the patriarchal religion; and so called, as is believed, from tsabiim, the “hosts,” that is, of heaven; namely, the sun, moon, and stars, to whom they rendered worship; first immediately, and afterward through the medium of images; this particularly distinguished them from the magi, whose idolatry was confined to the solar orb, and its earthly representative, the fire. If the above derivation be right, the Zabians were originally Chaldeans, though afterward the same sect arose in Arabia. Their study of the heavenly bodies led them, not only to astronomy, but to astrology, its degenerate daughter, which was for many ages the favourite pursuit of the oriental nations.

The following account is abridged from Dr. Townley’s “Essays;”--The Zabii, or Zabians, were a sect of idolaters who flourished in the early ages of the world, considerable in their numbers, and extensive in their influence. The denomination of Zabii, given to these idolaters, appears to have been derived from the Hebrew צבא, a host; with reference to the צכא השמים or, host of heaven, which they worshipped; though others have derived it from the Arabic tsaba “to apostatize,” “to turn from one religion to another;” or from צביים, or the Arabic Tsabin, “Chaldeans,” or “inhabitants of the east.” Lactantius considers Ham, the son of Noah, as the first seceder from the true religion after the flood; and supposes Egypt, which was peopled by his descendants, to have been the country in which Zabaism, or the worship of the stars, first prevailed. That the worship of the heavenly bodies prevailed in the east at a very early period, is certain from the words of Job, who thus exculpates himself from the charge of idolatry: “If I beheld the sun when it shined, or the moon walking in brightness, and my heart hath been secretly enticed, or my mouth hath kissed my hand; this also were an iniquity to be punished by the judge: for I should have denied the God that is above,” Job xxii, 26–28. It would appear that the idolatrous opinions of the Zabii originated with the posterity of Ham, at a very early period after the flood, in Egypt or Chaldea; but spread so rapidly and extensively, that in a very short time nearly the whole of the descendants of Noah were infected with their pestiferous sentiments and practices. Maimonides says, “This people,” that is, the Zabii, “had filled the whole world.” Their first and principal adoration was directed to the host of heaven, or the stars. They were ignicolæ, or “worshippers of fire.” The city of Ur, in Chaldea, seems to have had its name from the inhabitants being devoted to the worship of fire. They dedicated images to the sun and the other celestial orbs, supposing that, by a formal consecration of them to those luminaries, a divine virtue was infused into them, by which they acquired the faculty of understanding, and the power of conferring prophecy and other gifts upon their worshippers. These images were formed of various metals, according to the particular star to which any of them was dedicated. They also regarded certain trees as being appropriated to particular stars, and, when idolatrously dedicated, as being possessed of very singular virtues. From these opinions sprang the adoption of astrology by them, in all its various forms. They maintained the doctrine of the eternity of the world. “All the Zabii,” says Maimonides, “believe in the eternity of the world; for, according to them, the heavens are God.” Holding the eternity of the world, they easily became Pre-Adamites, affirming that Adam was not the first man. They also fabled concerning him, that he was the apostle of the moon, and the author of several works on husbandry. Of Noah, they taught, that he was a husbandman, and was imprisoned for dissenting from their opinions. They add, that Seth was another of those who forsook the worship of the moon. They held agriculture in the highest estimation, regarding it as intimately connected with the worship of the heavenly bodies. On this account, it was deemed criminal, by the major part of them, to slay or feed upon cattle. Goats were also reputed to be sacred animals, because the demons whom they worshipped were said to appear in the woods and deserts in the forms of goats or of satyrs. Of their superstitious practices, some were dangerous, as the sacrifices of lions, tigers, and other wild beasts. Certain of their rites were cruel, as the passing of their children through the fire, and branding themselves also with fire. Some of their practices were loathsome and disgustful; such as eating blood, believing it to be the food of demons, &c. Others were frivolous and tedious; as offering bats and mice to the sun, various and frequent ablutions, lustrations, &c. Some of them were obscene and beastly, as the rites practised on engrafting a tree, or to obtain rain. Many of the rites were magical. These Maimonides divides into three kinds:--“The first is that which respects plants, animals, and metals. The second consists in the limitation and determination of the times in which certain works ought to be performed. The third consists in human gestures and actions, as leaping, clapping the hands, shouting, laughing, lying down, or stretching at full length upon the ground, burning particular things, raising a smoke, and, lastly, repeating certain intelligible or unintelligible words. Some things cannot be completed without the use of all these rites.” It is generally acknowledged that some traces of Zabianism are still to be found both among the Hindoos and Chinese in the east, and the Mexicans and other nations in the south. The Guebres, or Parsees, who inhabit Persia, and are scattered through various parts of Hindostan, are the acknowledged worshippers of fire, or the supreme Deity under that symbol. “That the Persians,” says Hyde, “were formerly Sabians or Zabii, is rendered probable by Ibn Phacreddin Angjou, a Persian, who, in his book ‘Pharhangh Gjihanghiri,’ treating of the Persians descended from Shem, says in the preface, ‘Their religion, at that time, was Zabianism; but at length they became magi, and built fire temples.’ And the author of the book ‘Mu’gjizat Pharsi,’ adopts the same opinion: ‘In ancient times, the Persians were of the Zabian religion, worshipping the stars, until the time of Gushtasp, son of Lohrasp.’ For then Zoroaster reformed their religion.” The modern Sabians, who inhabit the country round about Mount Libanus, believe the unity of God, but pay an adoration to the stars, or the angels and intelligences which they suppose reside in them, and govern the world under the supreme Deity. They are obliged to pray three times a day, and they fast three times a year. They offer many sacrifices, but eat no part of them; and abstain from beans, garlic, and some other pulse and vegetables. They greatly respect the temple of Mecca and the pyramids of Egypt, fancying these last to be the sepulchres of Seth, and of Enoch and Sabi, his two sons, whom they look on as the first propagators of their religion. At these structures, they sacrifice a cock and a black calf, and offer up incense. Their principal pilgrimage, however, is to Haran, the supposed birth place of Abraham. Such is the account of this sect given by Sale, D’Herbelot, and Hyde.

ZACCHEUS, chief of the publicans; that is, farmer general of the revenues, Luke xix, 1, &c. This is all that is known concerning this person. See PUBLICANS and SYCAMORE.

ZADOK, son of Ahitub, high priest of the Jews, of the race of Eleazar. At the death of Ahimelech, or Abiathar, he came to the pontificate, A. M. 2944. For some time there were two high priests in Israel, 2 Sam. viii, 17; xv, 24, &c; xix, 11, 12; 1 Kings i, 8, &c. After the death of David, 1 Kings ii, 35, Solomon excluded Abiathar from the high priesthood, because he espoused the party of Adonijah, and made Zadok high priest alone.

ZAMZUMMIM, or ZUZIM, a gigantic race of people, who, together with the Rephaim and Emim, men of like stature, occupied, in the time of Abraham, the country east of Jordan and the Dead Sea, where they were routed by Chedorlaomer, and from which they were afterward expelled by the Ammonites, Deut. ii, 20, 21. These, together with the Anakim, another family of giants, were all evidently of a race foreign to the original inhabitants of the countries where they were found; they were probably tribes of invading Cushites. The Vulgate and the Septuagint say, they were conquered with the Rephaim in Ashteroth-Karnaim. The Chaldee interpreters have taken Zuzim in the sense of an appellative, for stout and valiant men; and the Septuagint have rendered the word Zuzim, ἔθνη ἰσχυρὰ, robust nations. We meet with the word Zuzim only in Gen. xiv, 5.

ZEAL. The original word, in its primary signification, means heat; such as the heat of boiling water. When it is figuratively applied to the mind, it means any warm emotion or affection. Sometimes it is taken for envy: so we render it, Acts v, 17, where we read, “The high priest, and all that were with him, were filled with envy,” ἐπλήσθησαν ζήλου: although it might as well be rendered, “were filled with zeal.” Sometimes it is taken for anger and indignation; sometimes, for vehement desire. And when any of our passions are strongly moved on a religious account, whether for any thing good, or against any thing which we conceive to be evil, this we term religious zeal. But it is not all that is called religious zeal which is worthy of that name. It is not properly religious or Christian zeal, if it be not joined with charity. A fine writer (Bishop Sprat) carries the matter farther still. “It has been affirmed,” says he, “no zeal is right, which is not charitable, but is mostly so. Charity, or love, is not only one ingredient, but the chief ingredient, in its composition.” May we not go farther still? May we not say, that true zeal is not mostly charitable, but wholly so? that is, if we take charity, in St. Paul’s sense, for love; the love of God and our neighbour. For it is a certain truth, although little understood in the world, that Christian zeal is all love. It is nothing else. The love of God and man fills up its whole nature. Yet it is not every degree of that love to which this appellation is given. There may be some love, a small degree of it, where there is no zeal. But it is, properly, love in a higher degree. It is fervent love. True Christian zeal is no other than the flame of love. This is the nature, the inmost essence of it. Phinehas is commended for having expressed much zeal against those wicked persons that violated the law of the Lord, Num. xxv, 11, 13; and in Psalm lxix, 9, the psalmist says, “The zeal of thine house hath eaten me up;” my earnest desire to have all things duly ordered about thy worship, and my just displeasure and indignation at all abuses in it, have wasted my natural moisture and vital spirits.

ZEBOIM, one of the four cities of the Pentapolis, consumed by fire from heaven, Gen. xiv, 2; xix, 24. Eusebius and St. Jerom speak of Zeboim as of a city remaining in their time, upon the western shores of the Dead Sea. Consequently, after the time of Lot this city must have been rebuilt near the place where it had stood before. Mention is made of the valley of Zeboim, 1 Sam. xiii, 18, and of a city of the same name in the tribe of Benjamin, Neh. xi, 34.

ZEBULUN, the sixth son of Jacob and Leah, Gen. xxx, 20. He was born in Mesopotamia, about A. M. 2256. His sons were Sered, Elon, and Jahleel, Gen. xlvi, 14. Moses acquaints us with no particulars of his life; but Jacob, in his last blessing, said of Zebulun, “Zebulun shall dwell at the haven of the sea; and he shall be for a haven of ships; and his border shall be unto Zidon,” Gen. xlix, 13. His portion extended along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, one end of it bordering on this sea, and the other on the sea of Tiberias, Joshua xix, 10, &c. In the last words of Moses, he joins Zebulun and Issachar together, saying, “Rejoice Zebulun, in thy going out, and Issachar in thy tents. They shall call the people unto the mountain, there shall they offer sacrifices of righteousness. For they shall suck of the abundance of the seas, and of treasures hid in the sand,” Deut. xxxiii, 18; meaning, that these two tribes being at the greatest distance north, should come together to the temple at Jerusalem, to the holy mountain, and should bring with them such of the other tribes as dwelt in their way; and that being situated on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, they should apply themselves to trade and navigation, and to the melting of metals and glass, denoted by those words, “treasures hid in the sand.” The river Belus, whose sand was very fit for making glass, was in this tribe. When the tribe of Zebulun left Egypt, it had for its chief Eliab the son of Elon, and comprehended fifty-seven thousand four hundred men able to bear arms, Num. i, 9–30. In another review thirty-nine years afterward, this tribe amounted to sixty thousand five hundred men of age to bear arms, Num. xxvi, 26, 27. The tribes of Zebulun and Naphtali distinguished themselves in the war of Barak and Deborah against Sisera, the general of the armies of Jabin, Judges iv, 5, 6, 10; v, 14, 18. It is thought these tribes were the first carried into captivity beyond the Euphrates by Pul and Tiglath Pileser, kings of Assyria, 1 Chron. v, 26. They had also the advantage of hearing and seeing Jesus Christ in their country, oftener and longer than any other of the twelve tribes, Isa. ix, 1; Matthew iv, 13, 15.

ZECHARIAH, king of Israel, 2 Kings xiv, 29. He succeeded his father Jeroboam II. A. M. 3220. He reigned but six months, and was murdered.

2. ZECHARIAH, son of Jehoiada, high priest of the Jews; probably the same as Azariah, 1 Chron. vi, 10, 11. He was put to death by the order of Joash, A. M. 3164, 2 Chron. xxiv, 20–22. Some think this is the Zacharias mentioned Matt. xxiii, 35.

3. ZECHARIAH, the eleventh of the twelve lesser prophets, was the son of Barachiah, and the grandson of Iddo. He was born during the captivity, and came to Jerusalem when the Jews were permitted by Cyrus to return to their own country. He began to prophesy two months later than Haggai, and continued to exercise his office about two years. Like his contemporary Haggai, Zechariah begins with exhorting the Jews to proceed in the rebuilding of the temple; he promises them the aid and protection of God, and assures them of the speedy increase and prosperity of Jerusalem; he then emblematically describes the four great empires, and foretels the glory of the Christian church when Jews and Gentiles shall be united under their great High Priest and Governor, Jesus Christ, of whom Joshua the high priest, and Zerubbabel the governor, were types; he predicts many particulars relative to our Saviour and his kingdom, and to the future condition of the Jews. Many moral instructions and admonitions are interspersed throughout the work. Several learned men have been of opinion that the last six chapters were not written by Zechariah; but whoever wrote them, their inspired authority is established by their being quoted in three of the Gospels, Matt. xxvi, 31; Mark xiv, 27; John xix, 37. The style of Zechariah is so remarkably similar to that of Jeremiah, that the Jews were accustomed to observe, that the spirit of Jeremiah had passed into him. By far the greater part of this book is prosaic; but toward the conclusion there are some poetical passages which are highly ornamented. The diction is in general perspicuous, and the transitions to the different subjects are easily discerned.

ZEDEKIAH, or MATTANIAH, was the last king of Judah before the captivity of Babylon. He was the son of Josiah, and uncle to Jehoiachin his predecessor, 2 Kings xxiv, 17, 19. When Nebuchadnezzar took Jerusalem, he carried Jehoiachin to Babylon, with his wives, children, officers, and the best artificers in Judea, and put in his place his uncle Mattaniah, whose name he changed into Zedekiah, and made him promise, with an oath, that he would continue in fidelity to him, A. M. 3405, 2 Chron. xxxvi, 13; Ezek. xvii, 12, 14, 18. He was twenty-one years old when he began to reign at Jerusalem, and he reigned there eleven years. He did evil in the sight of the Lord, committing the same crimes as Jehoiakim, 2 Kings xxiv, 18–20; 2 Chron. xxxvi, 11–13; and regarded not the menaces of the Prophet Jeremiah, from the Lord; but hardened his heart. The princes of the people, and the inhabitants of Jerusalem, imitated his impiety, and abandoned themselves to all the abominations of the Gentiles. In the first year of his reign, Zedekiah sent to Babylon Elasah, the son of Shaphan, and Gemariah, the son of Hilkiah, probably to carry his tribute to Nebuchadnezzar. By these messengers Jeremiah sent a letter to the captives at Babylon, Jer. xxix, 1–23. Four years afterward, either Zedekiah went thither himself, or at least he sent thither; for the Hebrew text may admit either of these interpretations, Jer. li, 59; Baruch i, 1; Jer. xxxii, 12. The chief design of this deputation was to entreat Nebuchadnezzar to return the sacred vessels of the temple, Baruch i, 8. In the ninth year of his reign, he revolted against Nebuchadnezzar, 2 Kings xxv. It was a sabbatical year, in which the people should set their slaves at liberty, according to the law, Exod. xxi, 2; Deut. xv, 1, 2, 12; Jer. xxxiv, 8–10. Then King Nebuchadnezzar marched his army against Zedekiah, and took all the fortified places of his kingdom, except Lachish, Azekah, and Jerusalem. He sat down before the last-mentioned city on the tenth day of the tenth month of the holy year, which answers to our January. Some time afterward, Pharaoh Hophrah, king of Egypt, marched to assist Zedekiah, Jer. xxxvii, 3–5, 10. Nebuchadnezzar left Jerusalem, and went to meet him, defeated him, and obliged him to return into Egypt; after which he resumed the siege of Jerusalem. In the mean while, the people of Jerusalem, as if freed from the fear of Nebuchadnezzar, retook the slaves whom they had set at liberty, which drew upon them great reproaches and threatenings from Jeremiah, xxxiv, 11, 22. During the siege Zedekiah often consulted Jeremiah, who advised him to surrender, and pronounced the greatest woes against him if he should persist in his rebellion, Jer. xxxvii, 3, 10; xxi. But this unfortunate prince had neither patience to hear, nor resolution to follow, good counsels. In the eleventh year of Zedekiah, on the ninth day of the fourth month, (July,) Jerusalem was taken, 2 Kings xxv, 2–4; Jer. xxxix, 2, 3; lii, 5–7. Zedekiah and his people endeavoured to escape by favour of the night; but the Chaldean troops pursuing them, they were overtaken in the plains of Jericho. He was seized and carried to Nebuchadnezzar, then at Riblah, a city of Syria. The king of Chaldea, reproaching him with his perfidy, caused all his children to be slain before his face, and his eyes to be put out; then loading him with chains of brass, he ordered him to be sent to Babylon, 2 Kings xxv, 4–7; Jer. xxxii, 4–7; lii, 4–11. Thus were accomplished two prophecies which seemed contradictory: one of Jeremiah, who said that Zedekiah should see and yet not see, Nebuchadnezzar with his eyes, Jer. xxxii, 4, 5; xxxiv, 3; and the other of Ezek. xii, 13, which intimated that he should not see Babylon, though he should die there. The year of his death is not known. Jeremiah had assured him that he should die in peace; that his body should be burned, as those of the kings of Judah usually were; and that they should mourn for him, saying, “Ah, lord!” Jer. xxxiv, 4, 5.

ZEPHANIAH was the son of Cushi, and was probably of a noble family of the tribe of Simeon. He prophesied in the reign of Josiah, about B. C. 630. He denounces the judgments of God against the idolatry and sins of his countrymen, and exhorts them to repentance; he predicts the punishment of the Philistines, Moabites, Ammonites, and Ethiopians, and foretels the destruction of Nineveh; he again inveighs against the corruptions of Jerusalem, and with his threats mixes promises of future favour and prosperity to his people; whose recall from their dispersion shall glorify the name of God throughout the world. The style of Zephaniah is poetical; but it is not distinguished by any peculiar elegance or beauty, though generally animated and impressive.

ZERUBBABEL, or ZEROBABEL, was son of Salathiel, of the royal race of David. St. Matthew, i, 12, and 1 Chron. iii, 17, 19, make Jeconiah king of Judah to be father to Salathiel; but they do not agree as to the father of Zerubbabel. The Chronicles say Pedaiah was father of Zerubbabel; but St. Matthew, St. Luke, Ezra, and Haggai, constantly make Salathiel his father. We must therefore take the name of son in the sense of grandson, and say that Salathiel having educated Zerubbabel, he was always afterward looked upon as his father. Some think that Zerubbabel had also the name of Sheshbazzar, and that he has this name in Ezra i, 8. Zerubbabel returned to Jerusalem long before the reign of Darius, son of Hystaspes. He returned at the beginning of the reign of Cyrus, A. M. 3468, fifteen years before Darius. Cyrus committed to his care the sacred vessels of the temple with which he returned to Jerusalem, Ezra i, 11. He is always named first, as being the chief of the Jews that returned to their own country, Ezra ii, 2; iii, 8; v, 2; he laid the foundations of the temple, Ezra iii, 8, 9; Zech. iv, 9, &c; and restored the worship of the Lord, and the usual sacrifices. When the Samaritans offered to assist in rebuilding the temple, Zerubbabel and the principal men of Judah refused them this honour, since Cyrus had granted his commission to the Jews only, Ezra iv, 2, 3.

ZIKLAG, a city of the Philistines, first assigned to the tribe of Judah, and afterward to that of Simeon, Joshua xv, 31; xix, 5; but it does not appear that the Philistines were ever driven out; as, when David fled into their country from Saul, Achish gave the city to him, 1 Sam. xxvii, 5, 6. It was afterward burned by the Amalekites, 1 Sam. xxx, 1. But it appears to have been rebuilt, as the author of the First Book of Samuel, when relating its being given to David, adds, that it pertained to the kings of Judah in his time.

ZION. See SION.

ZUZIM. See ZAMZUMMIM.

AN ALPHABETICAL TABLE OF THE PROPER NAMES

IN

THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS;

WITH

THEIR PRONUNCIATION,

AND

THE CHIEF MEANING OR LEADING SIGNIFICATION OF EACH WORD IN ITS ORIGINAL LANGUAGE.

AARON, Ay´-ron, lofty, mountainous. ABAD´DON, the destroyer. ABAGTHA, Ab-ag´-tha, father of the wine press. ABANA, Ab-ay´-nah, stony. ABARIM, Ab´-a-rim, passages. AB´ARON, strength. AB´BA, father. AB´DA, a servant. AB´DI, my servant. ABDIEL, Ab´-de-el, a servant of God. AB´DON, a servant. ABED-NEGO, A-bed´-ne-go, servant of light. A´BEL, vanity, vapour, mourning. ABEL-BETH-MAACHAH, Ay´-bel-beth-ma-ay´-kah, mourning of the house of Maachah. A´BEL-MA´IM, the mourning of the waters. ABEL-MEHOLAH, Ay´-bel-me-ho´-lah, mourning of weakness, of sickness. ABEL-MIZRAIM, Ay´-bel-miz-ra´-im, the mourning of the Egyptians. A´BEL-SHIT´TIM, mourning of the thorns. A´BEZ, an egg, muddy. ABI, A´-be, my father. ABIAH, Ab-i´-ah, the Lord is my father. ABI´AHIL, the father of light or praise. ABI-ALBON, Ab-e-al´-bon, intelligent father. AB´IAM, the father of the sea. ABI-AS´APH, a gathering or consuming father. ABIATHAR, Ab-i´-a-thar, excellent father. A´BIB, green fruits, ears of corn. ABI´DAH, father of knowledge. ABI´DAN, father of judgment. ABIEL, Ab´-e-el, God my father. ABIEZER, Ab-e-e´-zer, father of help. ABI-EZRITE, Ab-e-ez´-rite. ABIGAIL, Ab´-e-gal, the joy of the father. ABI´-GIBEON, the father of the cup, father of Gibeon. ABIHAIL, Ab-e-hay´-il, the father of strength. ABI´HU, he is my father, or his father. ABI´HUD, the father of praise or confession. ABIJAH, Ab-i´-jah, the will of the Lord. ABI´JAM, father of the sea. ABILENE, Ab-e-le´-ne, the father of the apartment, or of mourning. ABIMAEL, Ab-be-may´-el, a father sent from God, my father comes from God. ABIMELECH, Ab-im´-me-lek, father of the king. ABINADAB, Ab-in´-na-dab, father of willingness, my father is a prince. ABINOAM, Ab-in´-no-am, father of beauty or comeliness, my father is beautiful. ABIRAM, Ab-i´-ram, a high father, father of fraud. ABISHAG, Ab´-be-shag, ignorance of the father. ABISHAI, Ab-bish´-a-i, the present of my father, the father of the sacrifice. ABISHALOM, Ab-bish´-a-lom, the father of peace, the recompence of the father. ABISHUA, Ab-bish´-u-a, father of salvation or of magnificence. ABISHUR, Ab´-be-shur, the father of the wall or of uprightness. ABITAL, Ab´-be-tal, the father of the dew. ABITUB, Ab´-be-tub, father of goodness. ABIUD, Ab´-be-ud, father of praise. AB´NER, father of light, the son of the father. A´BRAHAM, the father of a great multitude. A´BRAM, a high father, the father of elevation. AB´SALOM, father of peace. ACCAD, Ak´-ad, a pitcher, a sparkle. ACCHO, Ak´-ko, close, pressed together. ACELDAMA, A-kel´-da-mah, the field of blood. ACHAIA, A-kay´-yah, grief, trouble. ACHAICUS, A-kay´-e-kus, a native of Achaia. ACHAN, ACHAR, A´-kan, A´-kar, he that troubles and bruises. ACHBOR, Ak´-bor, a rat, bruising. ACHIM, A´-kim, preparing, confirming, revenging. ACHIR, A´-ker, the brother’s light. ACHISH, A´-kish, thus it is, how is this? ACHMETHA, Ak´-me-thah. ACHOR, A´-kor, trouble. ACHSAH, Ak´-sah, adorned, bursting of the veil. ACHSHAPH, Ak´-shaph, poison, tricks, one that breaks, the brim of any thing. ACHZIB, Ak´-zib, liar, one that runs. ADADAH, Ad´-a-dah, the testimony of the assembly. ADAH, Ay´-dah, an assembly. ADAIAH, Ad-a´-yah, the witness of the Lord. ADALIAH, Ad-a-ly´-ah, one that draws water, poverty, cloud, death. AD´AM, earthy, taken out of red earth. ADAMAH, Ad´-da-mah, red earth. ADAMI, Ad´-da-my, my man, red, earthy. A´DAR, high, eminent. ADBEEL, Ad´-be-el, a vapour, a cloud of God, a vexer of God. AD´DI, my witness, adorned, passage, prey. AD´DON, basis, foundation, the Lord. ADIEL, Ad´-i-el, the witness of the Lord. ADIN, Ad´-din, adorned, dainty. ADITHAIM, Ad-e-thay´-im, assemblies, testimonies. ADLAI, Ad-lay´-i, my witness, my ornament. AD´MAH, earthy, red earth. ADMATHA, Ad´-ma-thah, a cloud of death, a mortal vapour. AD´NAH, rest, testimony, eternal. ADONA´I, my Lord. ADONI-BEZEK, Ad´-o-ne-bee´-zek, the lightning of the Lord, the Lord of Bezek. ADONIJAH, Ad-o-ny´-jah, the Lord is my master. ADONIKAM, Ad-o-ny´-kam, the Lord is raised, my Lord hath raised me. ADONIRAM, Ad-o-ny´-ram, my Lord is most high, the Lord of might and elevation. ADONI-ZEDEK, Ad´-o-ne-zee´-dek, justice of the Lord. ADORAIM, Ad-o-ray´-im, strength or power of the sea. ADORAM, Ad-o´-ram, their beauty, their power, their praise. ADRAMMELECH, Ad-ram´-me-lek, the cloak or glory of the king. ADRAMYTTIUM, Ad-ra-mit´-te-um, the court of death. ADRIA, Ay´-dre-ah, the name of a city, which gives name to the Adriatic Sea, now the Gulf of Venice. A´DRIEL, the flock of God. ADULLAM, Ad-ul´-lam, their testimony, their prey, their ornament. ADUM´MIM, earthly or bloody things. Æ´NEAS, praised. AGABUS, Ag´-ga-bus, a locust, the feast of the father. AGAG, Ay´-gag, roof, floor. A´GAGITE, of the race of Agag. AGA´PÆ, love feasts. AGAR, see Hagar. AGI´E, a valley, deepness. AGRIPPA, A-grip´-pah, one who at his birth causes great pain. A´GUR, a stranger, gathering. A´HAB, the brother of the father. AHA´RAH, a sweet brother, an odoriferous meadow. AHAR´HEL, another host, another sorrow, the sleep of the brother. AHASBA´I, trusting in me, brother compassing. In Syriac, a brother of age. AHASUERUS, A-has-u-e´-rus, prince, chief. AHAVA, A-hay´-vah, essence, generation. A´HAZ, one that takes and possesses. AHAZIAH, A-ha-zy´-ah, possession, vision of the Lord. AHI, my brother, my brethren. AHIAH, A-hy´-ah, brother of the Lord. AHIAM, A-hy´am, brother of the mother, brother of the nation. AHIAN, A-hy´-an, brother of wine. AHIE´ZER, brother of assistance. AHI´HUD, brother of vanity, a brother of praise. AHIJAH, the same as Ahiah. AHIKAM, A-hy´-kam, a brother that raises up. AHI´LUD, a brother born. AHIM´AAZ, brother of the council. AHI´MAN, a brother prepared. AHIMELECH, A-him´-me-lek, my brother is a king. AHIMOTH, A´-he-moth, brother of death. AHIN´ADAB, a willing brother, a brother of a vow, brother of the prince. AHINOAM, A-hin´-no-am, the beauty and comeliness of the brother. AHI´O, his brother, his brethren. AHIOR. See Achior. AHIRA, A-hy´-rah, brother of iniquity or of the shepherd. AHIRAM, A-hy´-ram, brother of craft, protection. AHISAMACH, A-his´-sa-mak, brother of strength or of support. AHISHABAR, A-his´-sa-bar, brother of the morning or dew, brother of blackness. AHI´SHAR, brother of a prince. AHITHOPHEL, A-hit´-to-fel, brother of ruin or folly. AHI´TUB, brother of goodness. AH´LAB, which is of milk, is fat. AH´LAI, beseeching, sorrowing, beginning, brother to me. AHO´AH, a thistle, a thorn, a fish hook, brotherhood. AHO´HI, a living brother, my thistle or thorn. AHO´LAH, his tabernacle, his tent. AHOLIAB, A-ho´-le-ab, the tent or tabernacle of the father. AHOLIBAH, A-ho´-le-bah, my tent and my tabernacle in her. AHOLIBAMAH, A-ho´-le-bay´-mah, my tabernacle is exalted. AHRAN. See Charan. AHU´MAR, a meadow of waters, brother of waters. AHU´ZAM, their taking possession, vision. AHUZ´ZAH, possession, apprehension, vision. AI, or HAI, Ay´-i, mass, heap. AI´AH, a raven, a vulture, alas, where is it? AI´ATH, an hour. AI´N, an eye, a fountain. AIOTH, the same as Ai. AJALON, Ad´-ja-lon, a chain, strength, a stag. AK´KUB, the print of the foot where any creature hath gone, supplantation. ALAMMELECH, Al-am´-me-lek, God is king. AL´CIMUS, strong, of strength. AL´EMETH, a hiding, youth, worlds, upon the dead. AL´EMIS, strength. ALEXAN´DER, one that assists men, one that turns away evil. ALEXANDRIA, Al-ex-an´-dre-a, the city of Alexander. ALLELUIA, Al-le-lu´-yah, praise the Lord. A´LIAN, high. AL´LON, an oak. ALLON-BACHUTH, Al´-lon-bak´-kuth, the oak of weeping. ALMO´DAD, measure of God. AL´MON, hidden. AL´MON-DIB´LATHAIM, a hiding, a heap of fig trees. ALPHA, Al´-fah, the first letter of the Greek alphabet, marked A. ALPHEUS, Al-fe´-us, a thousand, chief. A´MAD, a people of witness, people everlasting. AM´ALEK, a people that licks up or uses ill. AMAL´EKITES, people descended from Amalek. A´MAM, mother, fear of them, people. AMANA, Am-ay´-nah, integrity and truth. AMARIAH, Am-a-ry´-ah, the Lord says, the excellency of the Lord. AMASA, Am-ay´-sah, a forgiving people, the burden of the people. AMAZIAH, Am-a-zy´-ah, the strength of the Lord. A´MI. See Amam. AM´MAH, my people. AMMI, the same as Ammah. AMMIHUD, Am´-me-hud, people of praise. AMMINADAB, Am-min´-na-dab, prince of the people, a people that vows. AMMISHADDAI, Am-me-shad´-day-i, the people of the Almighty. AM´MON, the son of my people. AM´MONITES, a people descended from Benammi, son of Lot. AM´NON, faithful and true, foster father. AMON, Ay´-mon, faithful, true. AM´ORITE, bitter, a rebel, a babbler. AMOS, Ay´-mos, loading, weighty. AMOZ, Ay´-moz, strong, robust. AMPHIPOLIS, Am-fip´-po-lis, a city encompassed by the sea. AMPLIAS, Am´-ple-as, large, extensive. AM´RAM, an exalted people, handfuls of corn. AMRAPHEL, Am´-ra-fel, one that speaks of hidden things or of ruin. AM´ZI, strong, mighty. A´NAB, a grape, a knot. ANAH, Ay´-nah, one who answers or sings, poor, afflicted. ANAK, Ay´-nak, a collar, an ornament. ANAKIMS, An´-ak-ims. See Anak. ANAMMELECH, An-am´-me-lek, answer, song of the king. A´NAN, a cloud, a prophecy. ANANIAS, An-a-ny´-as, the cloud of the Lord. ANATHOTH, An´-a-thoth, answer, affliction. ANDREW, An´drue, a stout and strong man. ANDRONICUS, An-dron´-ne-kus, a man excelling others. ANER, Ay´-ner, answer, song, affliction. AN´NA, gracious, merciful. AN´NAS, one that answers, that afflicts. AN´TICHRIST, an adversary to Christ. ANTIOCH, An´-te-ok, instead of a chariot. AN´TIPAS, against all. ANTIPATRIS, An-te-pay´-tris, against his own father. APELLES, A-pel´-lees, to exclude, to separate. APHEK, Ay´-fek, a stream, vigour. APOLLONIA, Ap-po-lo´-ne-ah, perdition. APOL´LOS, one that destroys and lays waste. APOLLYON, A-pol´-le-on, one that exterminates or destroys. APPHIA, Af´-e-ah, that is fruitful. APPII-FORUM, Ap´-pe-i-fo´-rum, a town so called from Appius Claudius, whose statue was erected there. AQUILA, Ak´-we-lah, an eagle. AR, awaking, uncovering. ARA´BIA, evening, a place wild and desert; mixtures, because this country was inhabited by different kinds of people. ARA´BIAN, an inhabitant of Arabia. A´RAD, a wild ass, a dragon. A´RAM, magnificence, one that deceives. ARARAT, Ar´-ra-rat, the curse of trembling. ARAUNAH, A-raw´-nah, ark, song, curse. AR´BA, the city of the four. ARCHELAUS, Ar-ke´-lay-us, the prince of the people. ARCHIPPUS, Ar-kip´-pus, governor of horses. ARCTURUS, Ark-tew´-rus, a gathering together. ARD, one that commands. ARELI, Ar-e´-lie, the light or vision of God. AREOPAGITE, A-re-op´-a-gyte, belonging to the council called Areopagus. AREOPAGUS, A-re-op´-a-gus, the hill of Mars; a place where the magistrates of Athens held their supreme council; from ἀρεῖος, “of Mars,” and ϖάγος, “a hill.” ARETAS, A-re´-tas, one that is agreeable or virtuous. AR´GOB, a turf of earth, curse of the well. ARIEL, Ay´-re-el, the altar, light, lion of God. ARIMATHEA, Ar-re-ma-the´-ah, a lion dead to the Lord. Ramath, or Ramah, a city where Samuel dwelt. ARIOCH, Ar´-e-ok, long, your drunkenness, your lion. ARISTARCHUS, A-ris-tar´-kus, the best prince. ARISTOBULUS, A-ris-tob´-bu-lus, a good counsellor. ARMAGEDDON, Ar-ma-ged´-don, the mountain of Megiddo, of the gospel, of fruits. ARMENIA, Ar-me´-ne-ah, a province which is supposed to take its name from Aram. AR´NON, rejoicing, their ark. AR´OER, heath, tamarisk, the nakedness of the skin or of the enemy. AR´PAD, the light of redemption, that lies down. ARPHAXAD, Ar-fak´s-ad, one that heals or releases. ARTAXERXES, Ar-taks-erk´s-es, in Hebrew, Artachsasta, the silence of light. ARTEMAS, Ar´-te-mas, whole, sound. ASA, Ay´-sah, physician, cure. ASAHEL, As´-a-el, the work or creature of God. ASAIAH, As´-a-i-ah, the Lord hath wrought. ASAPH, Ay´-saf, one that assembles together. ASENATH, As´-e-nath, peril, misfortune. A´SHAN, vapour, smoke. ASH´DOD, inclination, a wild open place. ASH´ER, blessedness. AS´HIEL, the work of God. ASHIMA, Ash´-e-mah, crime, position, fire of the sea. ASHKENAZ, Ash´-ke-naz, a fire that distils or spreads. ASHTAROTH, Ash´-ta-roth, flocks, riches. ASH´UR, one that is happy. ASH´VATH, making vestments. ASIA, Ay´-she-a, muddy, boggy. AS´KELON, weight, balance, fire of infamy. ASNAP´PER, unhappiness, fruitless. ASSIR, prisoner, fettered. AS´SOS, approaching. ASSYRIA, As-sir´-re-a. ASSYRIAN, As-sir´-re-an. ASYNCRITUS, A-sin´-kre-tus, incomparable. A´TAD, a thorn. ATA´ROTH, crowns, counsel of making full. ATHALIAH, Ath-a-ly´-ah, the time of the Lord. ATHENIANS, Ath-ee´-ne-ans, inhabitants of Athens. ATH´ENS, so called from Athene, Minerva. ATTALIA, At-ta-ly´-ah, that increases or sends. A´VEN, iniquity, force, riches. AUGUS´TUS, increased, majestic. AZARIAH, Az-a-ry´-ah, assistance, he that hears the Lord. AZEKAH, Az-ee´-kah, strength of walls. AZ´GAD, a strong army, a gang of robbers. AZNOTH-TABOR, Az´-noth-tay´-bor, the ears of Tabor, of choice, purity, contrition. AZO´TUS, the same as Ashdod. A´ZUR, he that assists, that is assisted.

BAAL, Bay´-al, he that rules and subdues. BAALAH, Bay´-al-ah, her idol, a spouse; the name of a city. BAAL-BERITH, Bay´-al-be´-rith, idol of the covenant. BAAL-GAD, Bay´-al-gad´, the idol of the troop, the Lord is master of the troop. BAAL-HAMON, Bay´-al-hay´-mon, one that rules a multitude, a populous place. BAAL-HAZER, Bay´-al-hay´-zer, lord of court, possessor of grace. BA´AL-HER´MON, the possessor of destruction, of a thing devoted to God. BA´ALI, my idol, or master. BA´ALIM, idols, masters. BA´ALIS, a rejoicing, proud lord. BAAL-MEON, Bay´-al-me´-on, the idol, the master of the house. BAAL-PEOR, Bay´-al-pe´-or, master of the opening. BAAL-PERAZIM, Bay´-al-per´-a-zim, master, or god of divisions. BAAL-SHALISHA, Bay´-al-shal´-e-shah, the third idol, the third husband. BAAL-TAMAR, Bay´-al-tay´-mar, master of the palm tree. BAAL-ZEBUB, Bay´-al-ze´-bub, the master of flies. BAAL-ZEPHON, Bay´-al-ze´-fon, the idol of the north, secret. BAANAH, Bay´-a-nah, in the answer, in affliction. BAA´RAH, a flame, purging. BAASHAH, Ba-ay´-shah, in the work, he that demands, who lays waste. BA´BEL, confusion, mixture. BABYLON, Bab´-be-lon. See Babel. BABYLONIANS, Bab-be-lo´-ne-ans. BABYLONISH, Bab-be-lo´-nish. BACA, Bay´-kah, mulberry tree. BAHURIM, Ba-hew´-rim, choice, warlike. BA´JITH, a house. BALAAM, Bay´-lam, the old age or ancient of the people, without the people. BALA´DAN, one without rule or judgment, ancient in judgment. BA´LAK, who lays waste, who laps. BA´MAH, an eminence. BARABBAS, Bar-ab´-bas, son of the father or of confusion. BARACHEL, Bar´-a-kel, who blesses God. BARACHIAS, Bar´-a-ky-as, the same as Barachel. BA´RAK, thunder, in vain. BAR-JE´SUS, son of Jesus. BAR-JO´NA, son of Jona or of a dove. BAR´NABAS, the son of the prophet or of consolation. BAR´SABAS, son of return, of rest, of swearing. BARTHOL´OMEW, a son that suspends the waters. BARTIMEUS, Bar-te-me´-us, the son of Timeus or of the honourable. BARUCH, Bay´-ruk, who is blessed, who bends the knee. BARZILLAI, Bar-zil´-la-i, made of iron, son of contempt. BA´SHAN, in the tooth, in the change or sleep. BASHEMATH, Bash´-e-math, perfumed, in desolation. BATH-SHEBA, Bath-she´-bah or Bath´-she-bah, the seventh daughter, the daughter of an oath. BATHSHU´A, the daughter of salvation. BE´DAD, alone, in friendship. BE´DAN, only, in the judgment. BEEL-ZEBUB, Be-el´-ze-bub. See Baal-zebub. BEER, Be´-er, a well, the name of a city. BEER-LAHAI-ROI, Be´-er-la-hay´-e-roy, the well of him that liveth and seeth me. BEER-SHEBA, Be´-er-she´-bah, the well of an oath, of satiety, the seventh well. BE´KAH, half a shekel. BEL, ancient, nothing, subject to change. BELIAL, Bee´-le-al, wicked, the devil. BELSHAZ´ZAR, master of the treasure. BELTESHAZ´ZAR, who lays up treasures in secret, secretly endures pain and pressure. BENAIAH, Ben-ay´-yah, son of the Lord, the Lord’s building. BEN-AM´MI, the son of my people. BENHA´DAD, the son of Hadad, of noise. BEN´JAMIN, the son of the right hand. BEN´JAMITE, a descendant of Benjamin. BENONI, Ben-o´-ny, son of my grief. BE´OR, burning, mad, beast. BERACHAH, Ber´-a-kah, blessing. BERÆA, Be-ree´-ah, heavy, from βάρος. BE´RITH, covenant. BERNICE, Ber-ny´-se, one that brings victory. BE´SOR, glad news, incarnation. BE´TAH, confidence. BETHABARA, Beth-ab´-ba-rah, the house of passage, of anger. BETH´ANY, the house of song, of affliction, of obedience, the grace of the Lord. BETH-A´VEN, the house of vanity, of strength. BETH-BIREI, Beth-bir´-re-i, the house of my Creator. BETH´-CAR, the house of the lamb, of knowledge. BETH-DA´GON, the house of corn, of the fish, of the god Dagon. BETH-DIBLATHAIM, Beth-dib-la-thay´-im, the house of dry figs. BETH´EL, the house of God. BETHELITE, Beth´-el-ite, an inhabitant of Bethel. BE´THER, division, in the turtle, in the trial. BETHES´DA, the house of effusion, of pity. BETH-E´ZEL, a neighbour’s house. BETH-GAMUL, Beth-gay´-mul, the house of recompense, of the weaned, of the camel. BETH-HACCEREM, Beth-hak´-ke-rem, the house of the vineyard. BETH-HO´RON, the house of wrath, of the hole, of liberty. BETHJESH´IMOTH, the house of desolation. BETH´-LEHEM, the house of bread, of war. BETH-LEHEM-EPHRATAH, Beth´-le-hem-eff-ray´-tah or eff´-ra-tah. BETH´-LEHEM-JU´DAH. BETH´-LEHEMITE, an inhabitant of Bethlehem. BETH-PE´OR, the house of gaping. BETHPHAGE, Beth´-fa-je, the house of the mouth, of early figs. BETHSAIDA, Beth-say´-dah, the house of fruits, of hunters. BETH´-SHAN, the house of the tooth, of change, of sleep. BETH-SHE´MESH, the house of the sun. BETHUEL, Beth-ew´-el, filiation of God. BEULAH, Bew´-lah, married. BEZALEEL, Bez-a-lee´-el, in the shadow of God. BE´ZEK, lightning, in chains. BICHRI, Bick´-ry, first-born, in the ram. BID´KAR, in compunction, in sharp pain. BIG´THAN, giving meat. BIL´DAD, old friendship. BIL´HAH, who is old, troubled, confused. BIR´SHA, in evil, son that beholds. BITHIAH, Be-thy´-ah, daughter of the Lord. BITH´RON, division, in his examination, daughter of the song, of anger, of liberty. BITHYNIA, Be-thin´-e-ah, violent precipitation. BLAS´TUS, one that sprouts and brings forth. BOANERGES, Bo-a-ner´-jes, the sons of thunder; James and John, the sons of Zebedee. BO´AZ, or BO´OZ, in strength, in the goat. BOCHIM, Bo´-kim, the place of weeping, of mulberry trees. BO´ZEZ, mud, in the flower. BOZ´RAH, in tribulation or distress. BUL, changeable, perishing. BUZ, despised, plundered. BUZI, Bew´-zye, my contempt. BUZITE, Bew´-zyte, a descendant from Buz.

CABUL, Kay´-bul, displeasing, dirt. CÆSAR, See´-sar, one cut out. CÆSAREA, Ses-a-ree´-a, a bush of hair. CAIAPHAS, Kay´-a-fas, a searcher. CAIN, Kay´n, possession. CAINAN, Kay´-nan, possessor, one that laments. CA´LAH, good opportunity, as the verdure. CA´LEB, a dog, a crow, a basket. CALEB-EPHRATAH, Kay´-leb-ef-ray´-tah or ef´-ra-tah, a place so called by a conjunction of the names of Caleb and his wife Ephratah. CALNEH, Kal´-nay, our consummation, all we, as murmuring. CAL´NO, our consummation, quite himself. CAL´VARY, the place of a skull. CA´MON, his resurrection. CA´NA, zeal, possession, nest, cane. CANAAN, Kay´-nan, a merchant, a trader. The son of Ham, who gave name to the land of Canaan. CANAANITE, Kay´-nan-ite, an inhabitant of Canaan. CANDACE, Kan-day´-se, who possesses contrition. CAPERNAUM, Ka-per´-na-um, the field of repentance, city of comfort. CAPHTOR, Kaf´-tor, a sphere, a buckle, a hand, doves, those that seek and inquire. CAPPADOCIA, Kap-pa-do´-she-a, in Hebrew, Caphtor. CARCAS, Kar´-kas, the covering of a lamb. CARCHEMISH, Kar´-ke-mish, a lamb, as taken away. CAR´MEL, a circumcised lamb, harvest, vineyard of God. CARMELITE, Kar´-me-lyte, an inhabitant of Mount Carmel. CAR´MI, my vineyard, the knowledge or the lamb of the waters. CAR´PUS, fruit, fruitful. CASIPHIA, Ka-se-fy´-a, money, covetousness. CAS´TOR, a beaver. CEDRON, See´-dron or Kee´-dron, black, sad. CENCHREA, Senk´-re-a, millet, small pulse. CEPHAS, See´-fas or Kee´-fas, a rock or stone. CE´SAR. See Cæsar. CESAREA, Ses-a-ree´-a. See Cæsarea. CHALCOL, Kal´-kol, who nourishes, sustains the whole. CHALDEA, Kal-dee´-a, as demons, as robbers. CHALDEAN, Kal-dee´-an, an inhabitant of Chaldea. CHALDEES, Kal-deez´, the same as Chaldeans. CHARRAN, Kar´-ran, a singing, the heat of wrath. CHEBAR, Ke´-bar, strength or power. CHEDORLAOMER, Ke´-dor-la-o´-mer, as a generation of servitude. CHEMARIMS, Kem´-a-rims, the name of Baal’s priests. CHEMOSH, Ke´-mosh, as handling, as taking away. CHENANIA, Ke-na-ny´-ah, preparation, rectitude of the Lord. CHERETHIMS, Ker´-eth-ims, who cuts, tears away. CHERETHITES, Ker´-eth-ites. See Cherethims. CHERITH, Ke´-rith, cutting, piercing, slaying. CHESED, Ke´-sed, as a devil, a destroyer. CHILEAB, Kil´-le-ab, totality or perfection of the father. CHILION, Kil´-le-on, finished, complete. CHILMAD, Kil´-mad, as teaching or learning. CHIMHAM, Kim´-ham, as they, like to them. CHIOS, Ky´-os, open, opening. CHISLEU, Kis´-lu, rashness, confidence. CHITTIM, Chit´-tim, those that bruise, gold, staining. CHIUN, Ky´-un, an Egyptian god, whom some think to be Saturn. CHLOE, Klo´-e, green herb. CHORAZIN, Ko-ray´-zin, the secret, here is a mystery. CHUSHAN-RISHATHAIM, Kew´-shan-rish-a-thay´-im, Ethiopian, blackness of iniquities. CHUZA, Kew´-zah, the prophet, Ethiopian. CILICIA, Sil-ish´-e-a, which rolls or overturns. CLAUDA, Klaw´-dah, a broken voice, a lamentable voice. CLAUDIA, Klaw´-de-ah, lame. CLE´MENT, mild, good, merciful. CLEOPHAS, Klee´-o-fas, the whole glory. COLOSSE, Ko-los´-see, punishment, correction. CONIAH, Ko-ny´-ah, the strength or stability of the Lord. CO´RINTH, which is satisfied, beauty. CORIN´THIANS, inhabitants of Corinth. CORNE´LIUS, a horn. COZ´BI, a liar, as sliding away. CRESCENS, Kres´-sens, growing, increasing. CRETE, Kree´t, carnal, fleshly. CRETES, Kree´ts, inhabitants of Crete. CRETIANS, Kree´-she-ans, the same as Cretes. CRISPUS, Kris´-pus, curled. CUSH, Ethiopian, black. CUSH´AN, Ethiopia, blackness, heat. CUSH´I, the same as Cushan. CYPRUS, Sy´-prus, fair, fairness. CYRENE, Sy-re´-ne, a wall, coldness, meeting, a floor. CYRENEANS, Sy-re´-ne-ans, people of Cyrene. CYRENIUS, Sy-re´-ne-us, who governs. CYRUS, Sy´-rus, as miserable, as heir, the belly.

DABBASHETH, Dab´-ba-sheth, flowing with honey, causing infamy. DABERATH, Dab´-be-rath, word, thing, bee, submissive. DA´GON, corn, a fish. DALMANUTHA, Dal-ma-new´-thah, a bucket, leanness, branch. DALMATIA, Dal-may´-she-a, deceitful lamps, vain brightness. DAMARIS, Dam´-a-ris, a little woman. DAMAS´CUS, a sack full of blood, similitude of burning. DAN, judgment, he that judges. DAN´IEL, judgment of God. DA´RA, generation, house of the shepherd, companion, race of wickedness. DARIUS, Da-ry´-us, he that inquires and informs himself. DA´THAN, laws, rites. DA´VID, beloved, dear. DEB´ORAH, a word, a bee. DECAPOLIS, De-kap´-po-lis, a Greek word compounded of δέκα, ten, and ϖόλις, a city, because this country contained ten cities. DE´DAN, their breasts, friendship, uncle. DEDANIM, Ded´-an-im, descendants of Dedan. DEL´ILAH, poor, head of hair, bucket. DE´MAS, popular. DEMETRIUS, De-me´-tre-us, belonging to Ceres, to corn. DER´BE, a sting. DEUEL, De-ew´-el, the knowledge of God. DIANA, Dy-ay´-nah, luminous, perfect. DI´BON, understanding, abundance of building. DI´BON-GAD, abundance of sons, happy and powerful. DIDYMUS, Did´-e-mus, a twin. DI´MON, where it is red. DI´NAH, judgment, who judges. DIN´HABAH, she gives judgment. DIONYSIUS, Dy-o-nish´-e-us, divinely touched; from δῖος, divine, and νεύω, I move. DIOTREPHES, Di-ot´-re-feez, nourished by Jupiter; from δῖος, of Jupiter, and τρὲφος, a foster-child. DO´EG, who acts with uneasiness, a fisherman. DOR, generation, habitation. DOR´CAS, the female of a roe-buck. DO´THAN, the law, custom. DRUSILLA, Drew-sil´-lah, watered by the dew; from δρόσος, the dew. DUMAH, Dew´-mah, silence, resemblance. DURA, Dew´-rah, generation, habitation.

EASTER, Ee´s-ter, the passover, a feast of the Jews. E´BAL, a heap, collection of old age. E´BED, a servant or labourer. EBED-MELECH, Ee´-bed-me´-lek, the king’s servant. EBEN-EZER, Eb-en-ee´-zer, the stone of help. E´BER, one that passes, anger, wrath. EBIASAPH, E-by´-a-saf, a father that gathers together. ED, witness. E´DEN, pleasure, delight. E´DOM, red, earthy, red earth. E´DOMITE, a descendant of Esau, of Edom. EDREI, Ed´-re-i, a very great mass, cloud, death of the wicked. EG´LAH, heifer, chariot, round. EGLAIM, Eg-lay´-im, drops of the sea. EG´LON, the same as Eglah. E´GYPT, in Hebrew, Mizraim; that binds or straitens, that troubles or oppresses. EGYP´TIAN, an inhabitant of Egypt. E´HUD, he that praises. EK´RON, barrenness, torn away. EK´RONITES, inhabitants of Ekron. E´LAH, an oak, oath, imprecation. E´LAM, a young man, a virgin, secret, an age. E´LAMITES, descendants of Elam. E´LATH, a hind, strength, an oak. EL-BETH´EL, the God of Bethel. EL´DAD, loved or favoured of God. ELEALEH, El-e-ay´-leh ascension or burnt-offering of God. ELEAZAR, El-e-ay´-zar, the help or court of God. EL-ELOHE-ISRAEL, El-el-ho´-he-is´-ra-el, God, the God of Israel. ELHA´NAN, grace, gift, or mercy of God. E´LI, E´li, my God, my God. E´LI, the offering or lifting up. ELI´AB, God my father. ELIADA, E-ly´-a-da or E-le-ay´-da, the knowledge of God. ELIAKIM, E-ly´-a-kim, the resurrection of God, God the avenger. ELI´AM, the people of God. ELI´AS. See Elijah. ELIASHIB, E-ly´-a-shib, the God of conversion. ELIATHAH, E-ly´-a-thah, thou art my God, my God comes. ELIEZER, E-le-ee´-zer, help or court of my God. ELIHOREPH, E-le-ho´-ref, the God of winter, of youth. ELI´HU, he is my God himself. ELI´JAH, God the Lord, the strong Lord. ELI´KA, pelican of God. E´LIM, the rams, the strong, the stags, the valleys. ELIMELECH, E-lim´-me-lek, my God is king. ELIOENAI, El-e-o´-en-a-i, toward him are my eyes, my fountains, toward him is my poverty or misery. ELIPHALET, E-lif´-fa-let, the God of deliverance. ELIPHAZ, E-ly´-faz, the endeavour of God. ELISABETH, E-liz´-a-beth, God hath sworn, the fulness of God. ELI´SHA, salvation of God. ELI´SHAH, son of Javan; it is God, God that gives help. ELISHAMAH, E-lish´-a-mah, God hearing. ELISHEBA, E-lish´-e-ba. See Elisabeth. ELISHUA, El-e-shew´-ah, God is my salvation. ELIUD, E-ly´-ud, God is my praise. ELI´ZUR, God is my strength, my rock. ELKA´NAH, God the jealous, the reed of God. ELMO´DAM, the God of measure, of the garment. ELNA´THAN, God has given. E´LON, oak, grove, strong. E´LUL, cry, outcry. ELUZAI, E-lu´-za-i, God is my strength. ELYMAS, El´-e-mas, in Arabic, a magician. E´MIMS, fears of terrors, people. EMMAUS, Em-may´-us or Em´-ma-us, people despised. EM´MOR, an ass. E´NAM, a fountain or well, the eyes of them. EN´DOR, fountain or eye of generation. ENE´AS, laudable; from ἀινέω, “I praise.” EN-EGLAIM, En-eg-lay´-im, the eye of the calves, of the chariots, of roundness. EN-GEDI, En-ge´-dy, fountain of the goat, of happiness. EN-MISH´PAT, fountain of judgment. ENOCH, Ee´-nok, dedicated, disciplined, well regulated. ENON, Ee´-non, cloud, his fountain. ENOS, Ee´-nos, fallen man, subject to all kind of evil. EX-ROGEL, En-ro´-gel, the fuller’s fountain. EN-SHEMESH, En-she´-mesh, fountain of the sun. EPAPHRAS, Ep´-pa-fras, covered with foam. EPAPHRODITUS, E-paf-ro-dy´-tus, agreeable, handsome. EPENETUS, E-pe-nee´-tus, laudable, worthy of praise. EPHAH, Ee´-fah, weary, to fly as a bird. EPHES-DAMMIM, E´-fez-dam´-mim, the effusion or drop of blood. EPHESIANS, E-fee´-se-ans, the people of Ephesus. EPHESUS, Ef´-fe-sus, desirable; chief city of Asia Minor. EPHPHATHA, Ef´-fa-tha, be opened. EPHRAIM, Ee´-fra-im, that brings forth fruit or grows. E´PHRAIMITE, a descendant of Ephraim. EPHRATAH, Eff-ray´-tah, abundance, bearing fruit. EPHRATH, Eff´-rath, See Ephratah. EPHRATHITE, Eff´-rath-ite, an inhabitant of Ephratah, or a descendant from Ephraim. EPHRON, Ef´-ron, dust. EPICUREANS, Ep-e-kew-re´-ans, who gives assistance; from the Greek ἐπικȣρέω, I help. ER, watch, enemy. ERAS´TUS, lovely, amiable. E´RECH, length, health. ESAIAS, E-zay´-e-as. See Isaia. ESAR-HADDON, E´-sar-had-´don, that binds, joy, or closes the point. E´SAU, he that does or finishes. E´SEK, contention. ESH-BA´AL, the fire of the idol. ESH´COL, a bunch of grapes. ESHTAOL, Esh´-ta-ol, stout, strong woman. ESHTEMOA, Esh-te-mo´-a, which is heard, the bosom of a woman. ES´LI, near me, he that separates. ES´ROM, the dart of joy, division of the song. ESTHER, Ess´-ter, secret, hidden. E´TAM, their bird or covering. E´THAM, their strength or sign. E´THAN, strong, the gift of the island. ETHANIM, Eth´-an-im, strong, valiant. ETHBAAL, Eth-bay´-al, toward the idol, he that rules. ETHIOPIA, Ee-the-o´-pe-a, in Hebrew, Cush, blackness; in Greek it signifies heat, from ἄιθω, I burn, and ὄψις, face. ETHIOPIANS, Ee-the-o´-pe-ans, Africans. EUBULUS, Yew´-bu-lus, a prudent counsellor. EUNICE, Yew-ny´-se, good victory. EUODIAS, Yew-o´-de-as, sweet scent. EUPHRATES, Yew-fray´-tes, that makes fruitful. EUROC´LYDON, the north-east wind. EUTYCHUS, Yew´-te-kus, happy, fortunate. EVE, living, enlivening. EVIL-MERODACH, Ee´-vil-me-ro´-dak, or mer´-o-dak, the fool of Merodach, despising the bitterness of the fool. EZEKIEL, E-zee´-ke-el, the strength of God. E´ZEL, going abroad, distillation. EZION-GEBER, E´-ze-on-ge´-ber, the wood of the man, counsel of the man, of the strong. EZ´RA, a helper.

FE´LIX, happy, prosperous. FES´TUS, festival, joyful. FORTUNA´TUS, happy, prosperous.

GAAL, Gay´al, contempt, abomination. GAASH, Gay´-ash, tempest, overthrow. GABBATHA, Gab´-ba-tha, high, elevated. In Greek, lithostrotos, paved with stones. GA´BRIEL, God is my strength. GAD, a band, happy, armed and prepared. GADARENES, Gad-a-ree´ns, surrounded, walled. GAD´DI, my happiness, my troop, a kid. GADDIEL, Gad´-de-el, goat of God, the Lord is my army. GADITES, Gad´-dites, descendants of Gad. GAIUS, Gay´-e-us, lord, an earthly man. GALATIA, Gal-ay´-she-a, white, of the colour of milk. GALATIANS, Gal-ay´-she-ans, born in Galatia. GALBANUM, Gal´-ba-num, a gum, sweet spice. GALEED, Gal´-e-ed, the heap of witness. GALILEE, Gal´-le-lee, wheel, revolution, heap. GALILEANS, Gal-le-lee´-ans, inhabitants of Galilee. GAL´LIM, who heap up, cover, roll. GAL´LIO, he that sucks or lives upon milk. GAMA´LIEL, recompense, camel, weaned of God. GAM´MADIMS, soldiers placed in the towers of Tyrus; men who came from Gammade, a town of Phenicia. GA´TAM, their lowing, their touch. GATH, a press. GATH-RIM´MON, the press of the granite, exalted press. GA´ZA, strong, a goat. GE´BA, a hill, a cup. GE´BAL, bound, limit. GE´BIM, grasshoppers, height. GEDALIAH, Ged-a-ly´-ah, God is my greatness, fringe of the Lord. GEHAZI, Ge-hay´-zye, valley of sight, of the breast. GEMARI´AH, accomplishment of the Lord. GENNESARET, Gen-ness´-a-ret, or Jen-ness´-a-ret, the garden or protection of the prince. GENUBATH, Gen´-u-bath, theft, garden or protection of the daughter. GE´RA, pilgrimage, dispute. GE´RAH, the twentieth part of a shekel. GE´RAR. See Gera. GERGESENES, Ger´-ge-seens, those who come from pilgrimage or from fight. GERIZIM, Ger´-re-zim, cutters. GER´SHOM, a stranger there, a traveller of reputation. GER´SHON, his banishment, the change of pilgrimage. GE´SHUR, the sight of the valley, the vale of the ox or the wall. GESHURITES, Gesh´-u-rytes, inhabitants of Geshur. GE´THER, the vale of trial, of searching, the press of inquiry. GETHSEMANE, Geth-sem´-a-ne, a very fat valley. GIAH, Gy´-ah, to guide, draw out, a sigh. GIBEAH, Gib´-e-ah, a hill. GIB´EON, hill, cup, that which is without. GIB´EONITES, people of Gibeon. GID´EON, he that bruises, cutting off iniquity. GIHON, Gy´-hon, valley of grace, impetuous. GILBOAH, Gil´-bo-ah, revolution of inquiry. GILEAD, Gil´-le-ad, the mass of testimony. GILEADITES, Gil´-le-ad-ites, the inhabitants of Gilead. GIL´GAL, wheel, revolution, heap. GILOH, Gy´-loh, he that rejoices, overturns, or discovers. GILONITE, Gy´-lo-nite. GIRGASHITE, Gir´-ga-shite, who arrives from pilgrimage. GITTITE, Git´-tite, a wine press. GOB, cistern, grasshopper, eminence. GOG, roof, covering. GO´LAN, passage, revolution. GOL´GOTHA, a heap of skulls. GOLI´ATH, revolution, discovery, heap. GO´MER, to finish, accomplish, a consumer. GOMOR´RAH, a rebellious people. GO´SHEN, approaching, drawing near. GO´ZAN, fleece, pasture, nourishing the body. GRECIA, Gree´-she-a, Greece, the country of the Greeks. GRECIANS, Gree´-she-ans, Greeks, the inhabitants of Greece. GUR, the young of a beast, dwelling, fear. GURBA´AL, the whelp of the governor.

HABAKKUK, Hab´-a-kuk, he that embraces, a wrestler. HACHALIAH, Hak-a-ly´-ah, who waits for the Lord. HACHILAH, Hak´-e-lah, my trust is in her. HA´DAD, joy, noise. HADADEZER, Hay´-dad-ee´-zer, the beauty of assistance. HADAD-RIMMON, Hay´-dad-rim´-mon, the voice of height, the invocation of Rimmon, a god of the Syrians. HADAS´SAH, a myrtle, joy. HADO´RAM, their beauty, power, praise. HADRACH, Hay´-drak, point, joy of tenderness, your chamber. HA´GAR, a stranger, that fears. HAGARENES, Hay´-gar-eens, of the family of Hagar. HAGARITES, Hay´-gar-ites. See Hagarenes. HAGGAI, Hag´-ga-i, feast, solemnity. HAG´GITH, rejoicing. HAK´KATAN, little. HALLELUIAH, Hal-le-lu´-yah, praise the Lord. HAM, hot, brown. HA´MAN, noise, tumult, he that prepares. HA´MATH, anger, heat, a wall. HAMMEDATHA, Ham-med´-a-thah, or Ham-me-day´-thah, he that troubles the law. HA´MON-GOG, the multitude of Gog. HA´MOR, an ass, clay, wine. HA´MUL, godly, merciful. HAMU´TAL, the shadow of his heat, the heat of the dew. HANAMEEL, Han-am´-e-el, or Han-am-ee´-el, grace or pity from God. HANANEEL, Han-an-ee´-el, mercy of God. HANANI, Han-ay´-ny, my grace or mercy. HANANI´AH, grace or mercy of the Lord. HAN´NAH, gracious, merciful, taking rest. HA´NOCH, dedicated. HA´NUN, gracious, merciful, he that rests. HA´RAN, mountainous country, which is enclosed. HARBO´NAH, his destruction or dryness. HA´ROD, astonishment, fear. HAROSHETH, Har-o´-sheth, agriculture, silence, vessel of earth, forest. HASHMO´NAH, diligence, enumeration, embassy, present. HA´TACH, he that strikes. HAVILAH, Hav´-e-lah, that suffers pain, brings forth, declares to her. HAVOTH-JAIR, Hay´-voth-jay´-ir, villages that enlighten. HAZAEL, Haz´-a-el, that sees God. HAZARMAVETH, Hay´-zar-may´-veth, court or dwelling of death. HAZELELPONI, Hay´-zel-el-po´-ny, shade, sorrow of the face. HAZEROTH, Haz-ee´-roth, villages, court. HA´ZOR, court, hay. HE´BER, one that passes, anger. HE´BREWS, descended from Heber. HE´BRON, society, friendship, enchantment. HEGAI, or HEGE, Heg´-a-i, meditation, word, separation. HE´LAM, their army, trouble, or expectation. HEL´BON, milk, fatness. HELDAI, Hel´-da-i, or Hel-day´-i, the world. HE´LI, ascending, climbing up. HEL´KATH-HAZ´URIM, the field of strong men, of rocks. HE´MAN, their trouble, their tumult, much. HEN, grace, quiet. HEPHER, Hee´-fer, a digger or delver. HEPHZI-BAH, Hef´-ze-bah, my pleasure. HER´MES, Mercury, gain, refuge. HERMOGENES, Her-moj´-e-nes, begotten of Mercury, of lucre. HER´MON, anathema, destruction. HER´MONITES, the inhabitants of Hermon. HEROD, Her´-rod, the glory of the skin. HERODIANS, He-ro´-de-ans. HERO´DIAS, the wife of Herod. HERODION, He-ro´-de-on, song of Juno. HESH´BON, invention, industry, thought, he that hastens to understand. HETH, trembling, fear. HETH´LON, fearful dwelling, his covering. HEZEKI´AH, strong in the Lord. HEZ´RON, the dart of joy, division of the song. HIDDAI, Hid´-da-i, praise, cry. HIDDEKEL, Hid´-de-kel, a sharp voice. HI´EL, the life of God. HIERAPOLIS, Hy-er-ap´-po-lis, holy city. HIGGAION, Hig-gay´-e-on, meditation. HILKI´AH, God is my portion, the Lord’s gentleness. HIL´LEL, praising folly, Lucifer. HIN´NOM, there they are, their riches. HI´RAM, exaltation of life, their whiteness, he that destroys. HIT´TITES, who are broken or fear. HI´VITES, wicked, bad, wickedness. HO´BAB, favoured and beloved. HO´BAH, love, friendship, secrecy. HOG´LAH, his festival, his dance. HOPHNI, Hoff´-ni, he that covers, my fist. HOR, who conceives, shows. HO´REB, desert, destruction, dryness. HOR-HAGIDGAD, Hor-ha-gidd´-gad, hill of felicity. HOR´MAH, devoted to God, destruction. HORONAIM, Hor-o-nay´-im, anger, raging. HORONITE, Hor´-o-nyte, anger, fury, liberty. HOSEA, and HOSHEA, Ho-zee´-a, and Ho-shee´-a, Saviour. HUL, infirmity, bringing forth children. HUL´DAH, the world, a prophetess. HUR, liberty, whiteness, cavern. HUSHAI, Hew´-sha-i, their haste, sensuality, or silence. HUZ´ZAB, molten. HYMENEUS, Hy-men-ee´-us, nuptial, marriage.

IB´HAR, election, he that is chosen. ICHABOD, Ik´-a-bod, where is the glory? ICONIUM, I-ko´-ne-um, from ἵκω, “I come.” ID´DO, his hand, power, praise, witness. IDUMEA, Id-ew-mee´-a, red, earthy. IGDALI´A, the greatness of the Lord. I´JON, look, eye, fountain. ILLYRICUM, Il-lir´-re-kum, joy, rejoicing. IM´LAH, plenitude, repletion, circumcision. IMMAN´UEL, a name given to our Lord Jesus Christ, signifying, God with us. IM´RAH, a rebel, changing. INDIA, In´-de-a, praise, law. IPHEDEIAH, If-fe-dy´-ah, or If-fe-dee´-ah, the redemption of the Lord. I´RA, city, watch, spoil, heap of vision. I´RAD, wild ass, heap of descents, of empire. IRIJAH, I-ry´-jah, the fear, vision, or protection of the Lord. ISAAC, I´-zak, laughter. ISAIAH, I-zay´-yah, or I-zay´-e-ah, the salvation of the Lord. ISCAH, Is´-kah, he that anoints, or covers. ISCARIOT, Is-kar´-re-ot, is thought to signify a native of the town of Iscarioth. ISH´BAK, empty, forsaken, abandoned. ISHBI-BENOB, Ish´-by-bee´-nob, he that sits in the prophecy, conversion. ISH-BOSHETH, Ish´-bo-sheth, a man of shame. ISHMAEL, Ish´-ma-el, God who hears. ISHMAELITES, Ish´-ma-el-ites, the posterity of Ishmael. ISRAEL, Is´-ra-el, a prince with God, prevailing with God, that wrestleth with God. ISRAELITES, Is´-ra-el-ites, the posterity of Israel, or Jacob. ISSACHAR, Is´-sa-kar, price, reward. ITALIAN, I-tal´-e-an, belonging to Italy. ITALY, It´-ta-le, a Latin word that has its original from vitulus, or vitula, “a calf,” or from a king called Italus. ITH´AMAR, island of the palm tree, wo to the palm or change. ITHIEL, Ith´-e-el, God with me, sign. ITHREAM, Ith´-re-am, excellence of the people. ITUREA, It-u-ree´-a, which is guarded, a country of mountains. I´VAH, iniquity.

JAALAM, Ja-ay´-lam, hidden, young man, kids. JAAZANIA, Ja-az-a-ny´-ah, whom the Lord will hear, the balances, the arms. JA´BAL, which glides away, produces. JAB´BOK, evacuation, dissipation. JA´BESH, dryness, confusion, shame. JABESH-GILEAD, Jay´-besh-gil´-e-ad. JA´BEZ, sorrow, trouble. JA´BIN, he that understands, he that builds. JABNEEL, Jab´-ne-el, building, or understanding of God. JACHIN, Jay´-kin, that strengthens. JA´COB, he that supplants, the heel. JA´EL, he that ascends, a kid. JAH, the everlasting God. JA´HAZ, dispute, going out of the Lord. JAHAZA, Ja-hay´-za, the same as Jahaz. JAIR, Jay´-er, my light, who diffuses light. JAIRUS, Jay´-e-rus or Ja-i´-rus, is enlightened. JAM´BRES, the sea with poverty. JAMES, the same as Jacob. JAN´NA, who speaks, who answers, affliction. JANNES, Jan´-nez, the same as Janna. JAPHETH, Jay´-feth, persuades, handsome. JAPHIA, Ja-fy´-ah, which enlightens, groans. JA´REB, a revenger. JA´RED, he that descends or commands. JA´SHER, righteous. JA´SON, he that cures, that gives medicines. JA´VAN, that deceives, clay. JA´ZER, assistance, he that helps. JE´BUS, treads under foot, contemns. JEB´USITES, inhabitants of Jebus. JECONI´AH, preparation or steadfastness of the Lord. JEDDI´EL, the knowledge or joy of God. JEDIDAH, Jed-dy´-dah, well-beloved, amiable. JEDIDIAH, Jed-e-dy´-ah, beloved of the Lord. JEDUTHUN, Jed-ew´-thun or Jed´-ew-thun, his law, who gives praise. JEGAR-SAHADUTHA, Je´-gar-say-ha-dew´-tha, the heap of witnessing. JEHOAHAZ, Je-ho-ay´-haz, the prize or possession of the Lord. JEHO´ASH, the fire or victim of the Lord. JEHOIACHIN, Je-hoy´-a-kin, preparation or strength of the Lord. JEHOIADA, Je-hoy´-a-dah, knowledge of the Lord. JEHOIAKIM, Je-hoy´-a-kim, the resurrection of the Lord. JEHON´ADAB. See Jonadab. JEHO´RAM, exaltation, rejected of the Lord. JEHOSH´APHAT, God judges. JEHO´VAH, the incommunicable name of God, self-existing. JEHOVAH-JIREH, Je-ho´-vah-jy´-rey, the Lord will see or provide, will be manifested. JEHO´VAH-NIS´SI, the Lord my banner. JEHOVAH-SHALOM, Je-ho´-vah-shay´-lom or shal´-lom, the Lord send peace. JEHO´VAH-SHAM´MAH, the Lord is there. JEHO´VAH-TSID´KENU, the Lord our righteousness. JEHU, Je´-hew, he that is or exists. JEHUDIJAH, Je-hew-di´-jah, praise of the Lord. JEMI´MA, handsome as the day. JEPHTHAH, Jef´-thah, he that opens. JEPHUNNEH, Je-fun´-neh, he that beholds. JE´RAH, the moon, to scent or smell. JERAHMEEL, Je-ram´-me-el, mercy or love of God. JEREMI´AH, grandeur of the Lord. JERICHO, Jer´-re-ko, his moon, sweet smell. JER´IMOTH, eminences, he that fears or rejects death. JEROBO´AM, fighting against, increasing the people. JERUBBAAL, Jer-uh-bay´-al, he that revenges the idol, let Baal defend his cause. JERUBBESHETH, Je-rub´-be-sheth, let the idol of confusion defend itself. JERU´SALEM, the vision or possession of peace. JERU´SHA, he that possesses the inheritance, exiled. JESHIMON, Jesh´-e-mon, solitude, desolation. JESHUA, Jesh´-u-a, a Saviour. JESHURUN, Jesh-ew´-run, upright. JES´SE, to be, my present. JESUI, Jes´-u-i, who is equal, flat country. JESUITES, Jes´-u-ites, the posterity of Jesui. JE´SUS, the holy name Jesus, Saviour, who saveth his people from their sins. JE´THER, he that excels, remains, searches. JETH´RO, his excellence or posterity. JE´TUR, he that keeps, succession, mountainous. JE´USH, devoured, gnawed by the moth. JEW, Jews, so called from Judah. JEW´ESS, JEW´ISH, JEW´RY. JEZ´EBEL, island of the habitation, wo to the habitation, isle of the dunghill. JEZRAHIAH, Jez-ra-hy´-ah, the Lord is the east, the Lord arises, JEZREEL, Jez´-re-el or Jez-ree´-el, seed of God, dropping of the friendship of God. JEZREELITE, Jez´-re-el-ite or Jez-ree´-el-ite, an inhabitant of Jezreel. JIDLAPH, Jid´-laf, he that distils, hands joined. JO´AB, paternity, having a father, voluntary. JO´AH, who has a brother, brother of the Lord. JOAN´NA, the grace or mercy of the Lord. JO´ASH, who despairs, burns, is on fire. JOB, he that weeps, cries, or speaks out of a hollow place. JOCHEBED, Jok´-ke-bed, glorious, honourable, a person of merit, the glory of the Lord. JO´EL, that wills, commands, or swears. JOEZER, Jo-ee´-zer, he that aids. JO´HA, who enlivens and gives life. JOHA´NAN, who is liberal and grants favour. JOHN, the gift or mercy of the Lord. JOK´SHAN, hard, difficult, scandalous. JOK´TAN, small, disgust, weariness, dispute. JON´ADAB, who acts in good earnest. JO´NAH, or JO´NAS, a dove, he that oppresses. JON´ATHAN, given of God. JOP´PA, beauty, comeliness. JO´RAM, to cast, elevated. JOR´DAN, the river of judgment, that rejects judgment, descent. JO´RIM, he that exalts the Lord. JO´SE, raised, who exists, or pardons, Saviour. JOSEPH, Jo´-sef, increase, addition. JOSES, Jo´-sez. See Jose. JOSH´UA, the Lord, the Saviour. JOSI´AH, the fire of the Lord. JO´THAM, perfection of the Lord. JUBAL, Jew´-bal, he that runs, he that produces, a trumpet. JUBILEE, Jew´-be-lee, a feast of the Jews, every fiftieth year; in Hebrew, Jobel, a ram’s horn, or a trumpet by which the jubilee year was proclaimed. JU´DAH, the praise of the Lord. JU´DAS, the same as Judah. JUDEA, Jew-dee´-a, a country. JU´LIA, downy; from ἴουλος, “down.” JU´LIUS, the same as Julia. JU´NIA, from Juno, or from juventus, youth. JUPITER, Jew´-pe-ter, as if it were juvans pater, the father that helpeth. JUS´TUS, just, upright.

KABZEEL, Kab´-ze-el, the congregation of God. KA´DESH, holiness. KADESH-BARNEA, Kay´-desh-bar´-ne-a or bar-nee´-ah, holiness of an inconstant son, of the corn, of purity. KAD´MIEL, God of rising. KE´DAR, blackness, sorrow. KEDEMAH, Ked´-de-mah, oriental. KEDEMOTH, Ked´-de-moth, old age, orientals. KEILAH, Ky´-lah, she that divides or cuts. KEMUEL, Kem´-u-el, God is risen. KE´NAZ, this nest, lamentation, possession. KE´NITES, possession, lamentation, nest. KEREN-HAPPUCH, Kee´-ren-hap´-puk, the horn or child of beauty. KERIOTH, Ker´-re-oth, the cities, the callings. KETURAH, Ke-tew´-rah, he that burns or makes the incense to fume, odoriferous. KEZIAH, Ke-zy´-ah, superficies, angle, cassia. KE´ZIZ, end, extremity. KIBROTH-HATTAAVAH, Kib´-roth-hat-tay´-a-vah, the graves of lust. KID´RON, obscurity, obscure. KIR, a city, a wall, a meeting. KIR-HARASETH, Kir-har´-ra-seth, the city of the sun. KIRIATHAIM, Kir´-e-ath-ay´-im, the two cities, the callings. KIR´-JATH, city, vocation, lesson, meeting. KIR´-JATH-AR´BA, the city of four. KIR´JATH-A´RIM, city of cities, the city of those that watch. KIR´JATH-BA´AL, the city of Baal, of those that command, of those that possess. KIRJATH-JEARIM, Kir´-jath-je´-a-rim, the city of woods. KIR´JATH-SAN´NAH, the city of the bush, of enmity. KIRJATH-SEPHER, Kir´-jath-see´-fer, the city of letters, of the book. KISH, hard, difficult, straw. KIS´RON, making sweet, perfuming. KIT´TIM, they that bruise, gold, colouring. KO´HATH, congregation, obedience, to make blunt. KOHATHITES, Ko´-hath-ites, the posterity of Kohath. KO´RAH, bald, frozen.

LA´BAN, white, shining, gentle. LACHISH, Lay´-kish, she walks, who exists of himself. LA´EL, to God, to the Almighty. LAH´MI, my bread, my war. LA´ISH, a lion. LA´MECH, poor, made low, who is struck. LAODICEA, Lay-o-de-see´-a, just people. LAODICEANS, Lay-o-de-see´-ans, inhabitants of Laodicea. LAPEDOTH, Lap´-pe-doth, enlightened, lamps. LAZARUS, Laz´-za-rus, the help of God. LE´AH, weary, tired. LEB´ANON, white, incense. LEBBEUS, Leb-bee´-us, a man of heart. LEHABIM, Le´-ha-bim or Le-hay´-bim, flames, the points of a sword. LE´HI, jaw bone. LEM´UEL, God with them. LE´VI, who is held and associated. LE´VITES, the posterity of Levi. LIB´NAH, LIB´NI, white, whiteness. LIBYA, Lib´-e-a, in Hebrew, Lubim, the heart of the sea. LIBYANS, Lib´-e-ans, the people of Libya. LI´NUS, nets. LO-AM´MI, not my people. LO´IS, better. LO-RUHAMAH, Lo-ru-hay´-mah, not having obtained mercy, not pitied. LOT, wrapt up, myrrh, rosin. LU´CAS, luminous. LU´CIFER, Lu´-se-fer, bringing light. LUCIUS, Lu´-she-us. See Lucas. LUD, maturity, generation. LUKE. See Lucas. LUZ, separation, departure. LYCAONIA, Ly-ka-o´-ne-a, she-wolf. LYD´DA, the name of a city. LYSA´NIAS, that drives away sorrow. LYS´TRA, that dissolves or disperses.

MAACHAH, May´-a-kah, to squeeze. MAASEIAH, Ma-a-sy´-ah, the work of the Lord. MACEDONIA, Mas-se-do´-ne-a, adoration, prostration. MACHIR, May´-kir, he that sells or knows. MACHPELAH, Mak-pee´-lah, double. MAGDALA, Mag´-da-lah, tower, greatness. MAGDALENE, Mag´-da-le´-ne, tower, grand, elevated. MA´GOG, roof, that dissolves. MAGOR-MISSABIB, May´-gor-mis´-sa-bib, fear, round about. MAHALALEEL, Ma-ha-la-lee´-el, he that praises God. MAHALATH, Ma-hay´-lath, melodious song, infirmity. MAHANAIM, Ma-ha-nay´-im, the two fields or armies. MAHER-SHALAL-HASH-BAZ, May´-er-shal´-al-hash´-baz, making speed to the spoil. MAH´LAH, the same as Mahalath. MAH´LON, song, infirmity. MAKKEDAH, Mak´-ke-dah, adoration, prostration. MALCHAM, Mal´-kam, their king. MALCHI-SHUA, Mal´-ke-shew´-ah, my king is a saviour. MALCHUS, Mal´-kus, king or kingdom. MAM´MON, riches. MAM´RE, rebellious, bitter, that changes. MANAEN, Man´-a-en, or Ma-nay´-en, a comforter, he that conducts them. MANAS´SEH, forgetfulness, he that is forgotten. MANEH, May´-neh, a species of money. MANOAH, Ma-no´-ah, rest, a present. MA´ON, house, crime. MA´RA, bitterness. MA´RAH, the same as Mara. MAR´CUS, polite, shining. MARK, the same as Marcus. MARS-HILL´, the place where the judges of Athens held their supreme council. MAR´THA, who becomes bitter. MA´RY, exalted, bitterness of the sea, mistress of the sea. MASREKAH, Mas´-re-kah, whistling, hissing. MAS´SAH, temptation. MA´TRI, rain, prison. MAT´TAN, the reins, the death of them. MATTATHIAS, Mat-ta-thy´-as, the gift of the Lord. MAT´THAT, gift, he that gives. MATTH´EW, given, a reward. MATTHIAS, Ma-thy´-as. See Mattathias. MAZ´ZAROTH, the twelve signs. ME´DAD, he that measures, the water of love. ME´DAN, judgment, process, measure, covering. MEDES, Mee´ds, people of Media. MEDIA, Mee´-de-a, measure, covering, abundance. MEGIDDO, Me-gid´-do, that declares, his precious fruit. MEGIDDON, Me-gid´-don, the same as Megiddo. MEHETABEL, Me-het´-ta-ble, how good is God! MEHUJAEL, Me-hu-jay´-el, who proclaims God, God that blots out. MELCHI, Mel´-ky, my king, my counsel. MELCHIZEDEK, Mel-kiz´-ze-dek, king of righteousness. MELITA, Me-ly´-ta or Me-lee´-ta, affording honey. MEMPHIS, Mem´-fis, by the mouth. MEMUCAN, Me-mew´-kan, impoverished, to prepare, certain, true. MENAHEM, Men´-na-hem, comforter, who conducts them. MENE, Mee´ne, who reckons, who is counted. MEPHIBOSHETH, Me-fib´-bo-sheth, out of my mouth proceeds reproach. ME´RAB, he that fights, he that multiplies. MERARI, Me-ray´-ry, bitter, to provoke. MERCU´RIUS, a false god; from the Latin word mercari, “to buy or sell,” because he presided over merchandise; in Greek, hermes, “orator” or “interpreter.” MERIB-BAAL, Mer-ib´-ba-al or Mer´-ib-bay´-al, rebellion, he that resists Baal, and strives against the idol. MERIBAH, Mer´-re-bah, dispute, quarrel. MERODACH, Mer´-ro-dak, bitter, contrition; in Syriac, the little lord. MERODACH-BALADAN, Mer´-ro-dak-bal´-la-dan or ba-lay´-dan, who creates contrition, the son of death, of thy vapour. ME´ROM, eminences, elevations. ME´ROZ, secret, leanness. MESHACH, Mee´-shak, that draws with force, that surrounds the waters. MESHECH, Mee´-shek, who is drawn by force, shut up, surrounded. MESHELEMIAH, Mesh-el-e-my´-ah, peace, perfection, retribution of the Lord. MESOPOTAMIA, Mes-o-po-tay´-me-a, in Hebrew, Aramnaharaim, that is, “Syria of the two rivers.” In Greek it also signifies “between two rivers;” from μέσος, “middle,” and ϖόταμος, “river.” MESSIAH, Mes-sy´-ah, anointed. ME´THEG-AM´MAH, the bridle of bondage. METHUSAEL, Me-thew´-sa-el, who demands his death. METHUSELAH, Me-thew´-se-lah, he has sent his death. MI´CAH, poor, humble, who strikes, is there. MICAIAH, My-kay´-e-ah, who is like to God? the lowliness of God. MICHAIAH, My-kay´-e-ah, MICHAEL, My´-ka-el, the same as Micaiah. MICHAL, My´-kal, who is it that has all? who is perfect? MICHMASH, Mik´-mash, he that strikes, the poor taken away. MIDIAN, Mid´-de-an, judgment, measure, covering. MIDIANITES, Mid´-de-an-ites, people of Midian. MIG´DOL, a tower, greatness. MIG´RON, fear, a barn, from the throat. MIL´CAH, queen. MIL´COM, their king. MILETUM, My-lee´-tum, red, scarlet. MIL´LO, fulness, repletion. MIN´NI, disposed, reckoned. MIN´NITH, counted, prepared. MIRIAM, Mir´-re-am, exalted, bitterness of the sea, mistress of the sea. MIS´GAB, the high fort or rock. MISHAEL, Mish´-a-el, asked for, lent, God takes away. MISREPHOTH-MAIM, Mis´-re-foth-may´-im, the burnings of the waters, furnaces where metals are melted. MITYLENE, Mit-e-lee´-ne, purity, press. MI´ZAR, little. MIZ´PAH, a sentinel, speculation, that waits for. MIZ´PEH, the same as Mizpah. MIZRAIM, Miz-ray´-im, tribulations, in straits. MNASON, Nay´-son, a diligent seeker, betrothing, an exhorter. MO´AB, of the father. MO´ABITES, Mo´-ab-ites, the descendants of Moab. MOLADAH, Mol´-a-dah, or Mo-lay´-dah, birth, generation. MOLECH, Mo´-lek, king. MOLOCH, Mo´-lok, the same as Molech. MORDECAI, Mor´-de-kay, contrition, bitter bruising; in Syriac, pure myrrh. MORI´AH, bitterness or fear of the Lord. MOSERA, Mo-see´-ra, MOSEROTH, Mo-see´-roth, erudition, discipline, bond. MO´SES, taken out of the water. MU´SHI, he that touches, withdraws himself. MY´RA, from μύρω, I flow, pour out, weep. MYSIA, Mish´-e-a, criminal, abominable.

NAAMAN, Na-ay´-man, beautiful, agreeable, that prepares himself to motion. NAAMATHITE, Na-ay´-ma-thite, of Naamath. NAASHON, Na-ash´-on, that foretels, serpent. NA´BAL, a fool, senseless. NA´BOTH, words, prophecies, fruits. NA´DAB, free and voluntary gift, prince. NAGGE, Nag´-gee, brightness. NAHARAI, Na-har´-ra-i or Na-ha-ray´-i, my nostrils, hoarse, hot. NAHASH, Nay´-hash, snake, one that foretels, brass. NA´HOR, hoarse, hot, angry. NAHSHON, Nay´-shon. See Naashon. NA´HUM, comforter, penitent, their guide. NA´IN, beauty, pleasantness. NAIOTH, Nay´-e-oth, beauties, habitations. NAOMI, Na-o´-my, beautiful, agreeable. NAPHISH, Nay´-fish, the soul, he that refreshes himself, that respires; in Syriac, that multiplies. NAPHTALI, Naf´-ta-ly, comparison, likeness, that fights. NARCISSUS, Nar-sis´-sus, astonishment. NA´THAN, who gives, or is given. NATHANAEL, Na-than´-yel, the gift of God. NATHAN-MELECH, Nay´-than-me´-lek, gift of the king. NA´UM. See Nahum. NAZARENE, Naz-a-ree´n, kept, flower. NAZARETH, Naz´-a-reth, separated, sanctified. NEAPOLIS, Ne-ap´-po-lis, new city. NEBAIOTH, Ne-bay´-yoth, prophecies, fruits. NE´BAT, that beholds. NE´BO, that speaks, prophesies, or fructifies. NEBUCHADNEZZAR, Neb-ew-kad-nez´-zar, tears and groans of judgment. NEBUZAR-ADAN, Neb-ew-zar´-ra-dan, fruits or prophecies of judgment, winnowed, spread. NECHO, Nee´-ko, lame, who was beaten. NEHELAMITE, Ne-hel´-a-myte, dreamer, vale, brook. NEHEMIAH, Ne-he-my´-ah, consolation, repentance, or rest of the Lord. NEHILOTH, Ne-hee´-loth, flute, hautboy, cornet. NEHUSHTA, Ne-hush´-tah, snake, soothsayer. NEHUSH´TAN, which is of brass or copper, a trifle of brass. NER, lamp, brightness, land new tilled. NEREUS, Nee´-re-us. See Ner. NERI, Nee´-ry, my light. NERI´AH, light and lamp of the Lord. NETHANEEL, Ne-than´-ne-el. See Nathanael. NETHANIA, Neth-a-ny´-ah, the gift of the Lord. NETHINIMS, Neth´-e-nims, given, offered. NIB´HAZ, that fructifies, to prophesy, to speak. NICANOR, Ny-kay´-nor, a conqueror, victorious. NICODEMUS, Nik-o-dee´-mus, innocent blood; in Greek, the victory of the people. NICOLAITANS, Nik-o-lay´-e-tanz, the followers of Nicolas. NICOLAS, Nik´-o-las, victor of the people; from νικάω, I overcome, and λαὸς, the people. NICOPOLIS, Ny-kop´-po-lis, the city of victory. NIGER, Ny´-jer, black. NIM´RIM, leopard, rebellion, change. NIM´ROD, rebellious, sleep of descent. NIM´SHI, rescued from danger, that touches. NINEVEH, Nin´-ne-veh, agreeable dwelling. NINEVITES, Nin´-ne-vites, people of Nineveh. NI´SAN, banner; in Syriac, a miracle. NIS´ROCH, flight, standard, proof. NO, stirring up, a forbidding. NOADI´AH, witness of the Lord. NO´AH, repose, rest, consolation. NOB, discourse, prophecy. NO´BAH, that barks or yelps. NOD, vagabond. NOPH, Noff, honey comb, a sieve, that drops. NUN, son, posterity, durable. NYMPHAS, Nim´-fas, spouse, bridegroom.

OBADI´AH, servant of the Lord. O´BAL, inconvenience of old age, of the flux. O´BED, a servant. O´BED-E´DOM, the servant of Edom, the Idumean, labourer of the man. O´BIL, that weeps, deserves to be bewailed, ancient. OC´RAN, disturber. O´DED, to sustain, to lift up. OG, a cake, bread baked in the ashes. O´HEL, tent, tabernacle, brightness. OLYMPAS, O-lim´-pas, heavenly. O´MAR, he that speaks, bitter. OMEGA, O-mee´-ga, the last letter of the Greek alphabet. OM´RI, a sheaf of corn, rebellion, bitter. ON, pain, force, iniquity. O´NAN, pain, strength, iniquity. ONESIMUS, O-nes´-se-mus, profitable, useful. ONESIPHORUS, On-ne-sif´-fo-rus, who brings profit. OPHEL, O´-fel, tower, obscurity. OPHIR, O´-fir, ashes. OPHRAH, Off´-rah, dust, fawn, lead. O´REB, a raven, caution, evening. ORION, O-ry´-on, the name of a constellation. OR´NAN, that rejoices, their bow or ark. OR´PAH, the neck, skull, nakedness of the mouth. OTH´NI, my time, my hour. OTHNIEL, Oth´-ne-el, the hour of God. O´ZEM, that fasts, their eagerness. OZIAS, O-zy´-as, strength from the Lord.

PAARAI, Pay´-a-ray or Pay-a´-ry, opening. PADAN-ARAM, Pay´-dan-ay´-ram, Padan of the field, and Aram Syria. PAGIEL, Pay´-je-el, prevention or prayer of God. PALESTINA, Pal-es-ty´-na, which is covered. PAL´TI, deliverance, flight. PAMPHYLIA, Pam-fil´-le-a, a nation made up of every tribe; from ϖᾶς, all, and φυλὴ, a tribe. PAPHOS, Pay´-fos, which boils, is very hot. PA´RAN, beauty, glory, ornament. PAR´BAR, a gate or building belonging to the temple. PAR´MENAS, that abides and is permanent. PAROSH, Pay´-rosh, a flea, fruit of the moth. PARSHANDATHA, Par-shan´-da-tha, revelation of corporeal impurities, of his trouble. PARTHIANS, Par´-the-ans, horsemen. PARUAH, Pa-rew´-ah, flourishing, that flies away. PARVA´IM, supposed to be Peru or Ceylon. PASH´UR, that extends the hole, whiteness. PATARA, Pa-tay´-rah, which is trodden under foot; from ϖατέω, _I tread under foot_. PATHROS, Path´-ros or Pay´-thros, mouthful of dew. PAT´MOS, mortal. PATROBAS, Pat´-ro-bas, paternal, that pursues the steps of his father. PAU, Pay´-ew, that cries aloud, appears. PAUL, PAUL´US, a worker. His former name was SAUL, a sepulchre, a destroyer. PEDAHZUR, Ped-ah´-zur, saviour, strong and powerful, stone of redemption. PEDAIAH, Ped-ay´-e-ah, redemption of the Lord. PE´KAH, he that opens, or is at liberty. PEKAHIAH, Pek-a-hy´-ah, it is the Lord that opens. PE´KOD, noble, rulers. PELATI´AH, let the Lord deliver. PE´LEG, division. PELETHITES, Pel´-eth-ites, judges, destroyers. PENIEL, Pe-ny´-el, face or vision of God. PENIN´NAH, precious stone, his face. PENU´EL. See Peniel. PEOR, Pee´-or, hold, opening. PER´GA, very earthy. PER´GAMOS, height, elevation. PERIZZITES, Per´-iz-zytes, the name of a people who dwell in villages. PER´SIA, Per´sis, that cuts, nail, horseman. PE´TER, a rock, a stone. PETHU´EL, mouth or persuasion of God. PHALEC, Fay´-lek. See Peleg. PHALLU, Fal´-lu, admirable, hidden. PHALTI, Fal´-ty, deliverance, flight. PHANUEL, Fa-new´-el, face or vision of God. PHARAOH, Fay´-ro, that disperses, that discovers; according to the Syriac, the revenger, the king, the crocodile. PHAREZ, Fay´-rez, division, rupture. PHARPAR, Far´-par, that produces fruits, fall of the bull. PHEBE, Fee´-be, shining, pure. PHENICE, Fe-ny´-se, red, purple. PHICHOL, Fy´-kol, the mouth of all, perfection. PHILADELPHIA, Fil-a-del´-fe-a, the love of a brother; from φιλία, love, and ἀδέλφος, a brother. PHILEMON, Fil-ee´-mon, or Fy-lee´-mon, that is affectionate. PHILETUS, Fil-ee´-tus or Fy-lee´-tus, amiable, beloved. PHIL´IP, warlike, a lover of horses. PHILIPPI, Fil-lip´-py, the same as Philip. PHILISTIA, Fil-lis´-te-a or Fy-lis´-te-a, the country of the Philistines. PHILISTINES, Fil-lis´-tines or Fil-lis´-tins, those that dwell in villages. PHILOLOGUS, Fil-lol´-lo-gus, lover of learning. PHINEHAS, Fin´-ne-has, a bold countenance. PHLEGON, Fle´-gon, zealous, burning. PHRYGIA, Frij´-e-a, dry, barren. PHURAH, Few´-rah, that bears fruit, that grows. PHYGELLUS, Fy-jel´-lus, fugitive. PI-BE´SETH, the mouth of despite. PI-HAHIROTH, Py-ha-hy´-roth, the mouth, the pass of Hiroth, the opening of liberty. PI´LATE, who is armed with a dart. PI´NON, gem, that beholds. PIRATHON, Pir´-a-thon, his dissipation, deprivation; in Syriac, his vengeance. PIS´GAH, hill, eminence, fortress. PISIDIA, Py-sid´-e-a, pitch, pitchy. PI´SON, changing, doubling, extended. PI´THOM, their mouthful, bit, consummation. PI´THON, his mouth, his persuasion. POL´LUX, a boxer. PONTIUS, Pon´-she-us, marine, belonging to the sea. PON´TUS, the sea; from ϖόντος. PORATHA, Por´-a-tha, fruitful. PORCIUS, Por´-she-us. POTIPHAR, Pot´-te-far, bull of Africa, fat bull. POTI-PHERAH, Pot-if´-fe-rah or Pot-e-fee´-rah, that scatters or demolishes the fat. PRISCA, Pris´-kah, ancient. PRISCILLA, Pris-sil´-lah, the same as Prisca. PROCHORUS, Prok´-o-rus, he that presides over the choirs. PUBLIUS, Pub´-le-us, common. PUDENS, Pew´-dens, shamefaced. PUL, bean, destruction. PU´NON, precious stone, that beholds. PUR, lot. PUTEOLI, Pew-tee´-o-ly, a city in Campania. PUTIEL, Pew´-te-el, God is my fatness.

QUAR´TUS, the fourth.

RAAMAH, Ray´-a-mah or Ra-ay´-mah, greatness, thunder, evil, bruising. RAAMSES, Ra-am´-ses. See Rameses. RAB´BAH, powerful, contentious. RAB´-MAG, who overthrows a multitude, chief of the magicians. RAB´-SARIS, grand master of the eunuchs. RAB´-SHAKEH, cup-bearer of the prince, chamberlain. RACHAB, Ray´-kab, proud, strong, enlarged. RACHAL, Ray´-kal, injurious, perfumer. RACHEL, Ray´-tshel, a sheep. RAGAU, Ray´-gaw, a friend, a neighbour. RAGUEL, Rag-ew´-el, shepherd or friend of God. RA´HAB, proud, strong, quarrelsome. RA´HAB, large, extended, public place. RAK´KATH, empty, spittle. RAK´KON, vain, mountain of lamentations. RAM, elevated, who rejects. RAMAH, Ray´-mah, the same as Ram. RAMATH, Ray´-math, raised, lofty. RAMATHAIM-ZOPHIM, Ra-math-ay´-im-zo´-fim, the same as Ramah. RA´MATH-LE´HI, elevation of the jaw bone. RAMESES, Ram´-e-ses, thunder, he that destroys evil. RAMIAH, Ram-i´-ah, exaltation of the Lord. RA´MOTH, high places. RAPHA, Ray´-fa, relaxation, physic. RAPHAEL, Ray-fay´-el. See Rephael. RAPHU, Ray´-few, cured, comforted. RE´BA, the fourth, a square, that stoops. REBEK´AH, fat, quarrel appeased. RECHAB, Re´-kab, square, chariot, rider. RECHABITES, Re´-kab-ites, the posterity of Rechab. RE´GEM, Re´-jem, that stones, purple. REGEM-MELECH, Re-jem´-me-lek, he that stones the king, the purple of the king. REHABI´AH, breadth, place of the Lord. RE´HOB, breadth, extent. REHOBO´AM, who sets the people at liberty, space of the people. REHO´BOTH, spaces, places. RE´HUM, compassionate, friendly. RE´I, my shepherd, companion, my evil. REMALI´AH, the exaltation of the Lord. REM´MON, greatness, a pomegranate tree. REMPHAN, Rem´-fan, the name of an idol, which some think to be Saturn. REPHAEL, Re´-fa-el, the medicine of God. REPHAIM, REPHAIMS, Re-fay´-im, giant, physician, relaxed. REPHIDIM, Ref´-e-dim, beds, places of rest. RESIN, Ree´-sen, a bridle or bit. REU, Ree´-ew, his friend, his shepherd. REUBEN, Rew´-ben, who sees the son, vision of the son. REU´BENITES, the posterity of Reuben. REUEL, Re-yew´-el, shepherd or friend of God. REUMAH, Re-yew´-mah, lofty, sublime. REZEPH, Ree´-zeff, a pavement, burning coal. RE´ZIN, voluntary, runner. RE´ZON, lean, secret, prince. RHEGIUM, Ree´-je-um, rupture, fracture. RHESA, Ree´-sah, will, course. RHODA, Ro´-dah, a rose. RHODES, Ro´des, the same as Rhoda. RIB´LAH, quarrel that increases or spreads. RIM´MON, exalted, pomegranate. RIPHATH, Ry´-fath, remedy, release. RIS´SAH, watering, distillation, dew. RIZ´PAH, bed, extension, coal. ROGEL, Ro´-jel, a foot; in Syriac, custom. ROMAMTI-EZER, Ro-mam-te-ee´-zer, exultation of help. RO´MAN, strong, powerful. ROME, strength, power; from ῥωμὴ. ROSH, the head, the beginning. RU´FUS, red. RUHAMAH, Ru-hay´-mah, having obtained mercy. RU´MAH, exalted, rejected. RUTH, filled, satisfied.

SABE´ANS, captivity, conversion, old age. SABTECHA, Sab´-te-kah, that surrounds. SA´DOC, just, justified. SA´LAH, mission, dart; according to the Syriac, that spoils. SALAMIS, Sal´-la-mis, shaken, tossed, beaten. SALATHIEL, Sal-ay´-the-el, I have asked of God. SA´LEM, complete, peace. SA´LIM. See Shalim. SAL´MON, peaceable, perfect, that rewards. SALMONE, Sal-mo´-ne, peaceable. SALOME, Sa-lo´-me. See Salmon. SAMARIA, Sa-may´-re-a, his guard, prison, or diamond; in Hebrew, Shomeron. SAMAR´ITANS, people of Samaria. SAM´LAH, raiment, his left hand, his name. SA´MOS, full of gravel. SAMOTHRACIA, Sam-o-thray´-she-a, an island so called because it was peopled by Samians and Thracians. SAM´SON, his sun; according to the Syriac, his service, here the second time. SAM´UEL, heard or asked of God. SANBAL´LAT, bush or enemy in secret. SAPH, Saff, rushes, end, threshold. SAPHIR, Saf´fir or Say´-fir, a city. SAPPHIRA, Saf-fy´-rah, that tells, that writes books. SA´RAH, lady, princess of the multitude. SARAI, Say´-ray, my lady, my princess. SAR´DIS, prince or song of joy, what remains; in Syriac, a pot or kettle. SAREP´TA, a goldsmith’s shop, where metals used to be melted and tried. SAR´GON, who takes away protection, who takes away the garden; according to the Syriac, nets, snares. SA´RON. See Sharon. SARSECHIM, Sar-see´-kim, master of the wardrobe, of the perfumes. SARUCH, Say´-ruk, branch, layer, twining. SA´TAN, contrary, adversary, an accuser. SAUL, demanded, sepulchre, destroyer. SCEVA, See´-vah, disposed, prepared. SCYTHIAN, Sith´-e-an, tanner, leather-dresser. SE´BA, drunkard, that surrounds; according to the Syriac, old man. SE´BAT, twig, sceptre, tribe. SE´CUNDUS, the second. SE´GUB, fortified, raised. SEIR, See´-er, hairy, demon, tempest, barley. SE´LAH, a rock. SELEUCIA, Se-lew´-she-a, beaten by waves, runs as a river. SEMEI, Sem´-me-i, or Se-mee´-i, hearing, obeying. SE´NEH, bush. SE´NIR, a sleeping candle, a changing. SENNACHERIB, Sen-nak´-ke-rib, bush of the destruction of the sword, of drought. SEPHAR, See´-far, a book, scribe; in Syriac, a haven. SEPHARAD, See-fay´-rad, a book, descending, ruling. SEPHARVAIM, Sef-ar-vay´-im, two books, two scribes. SE´RAH, lady of scent, song, the morning. SERAIAH, Se-ra-i´-ah or Se-ray´-yah, prince of the Lord. SERGIUS, Ser´-je-us, a net. SE´RUG. See Saruch. SETH, put, who puts. SHAALBIM, Shay-alb´-im, that beholds the heart. SHAARAIM, Shay-a-ray´-im, gates, valuation, hairs, barley, tempests, demons. SHAASHGAZ, Shay-ash´-gaz, he that presses the fleece. SHADRACH, Shay´-drak, tender nipple, tender field. SHA´LIM, fox, fist, path. SHALISHA, Shal´-e-shah, three, the third, prince. SHAL´LECHETH, a casting out. SHAL´LUM, perfect, peaceable. SHAL´MAN, peaceable, perfect, that rewards. SHALMANEZER, Shal-ma-nee´-zer, peace tied, perfection and retribution. SHAM´GAR, named a stranger, he is here a stranger, surprise of the stranger. SHAM´HUTH, desolation, astonishment. SHA´MIR, prison, bush, lees. SHAM´MAH, loss, desolation, astonishment. SHAMMUAH, Sham´-mew-ah, that is heard or obeyed. SHAPHAN, Shay´-fan, a rabbit, wild rat, their lip. SHAPHAT, Shay´-fat, a judge. SHARAI, Shar´-a-i or Sha-ray´-i, my lord, my song. SHAREZER, Shar-ee´-zer, overseer of the treasury. SHA´RON, his plain, field, song. SHA´SHAK, a bag of linen, the sixth bag. SHA´VEH, the plain, that makes equality. SHEALTIEL, She-al´-te-el, I have asked of God. SHEARIAH, She-a-ry´-ah, gate or tempest of the Lord. SHE´AR-JA´SHUB, the remnant shall return. SHE´BA, captivity, compassing about, repose, old age. SHEBANIAH, Sheb-a-ny´-ah, the Lord that converts, that recals from captivity, that understands. SHEB´NA, who rests himself, who is now captive. SHECHEM, Shee´-kem, portion, the back, shoulders. SHEDEUR, Shee´-de-ur or Shed´-e-ur, field, destroyer of fire. SHE´LAH, that breaks, that undresses. SHELEMIAH, Shel-le-my´-ah, God is my perfection, my happiness. SHELEPH, Shee´-lef, who draws out. SHEL´OMITH, my happiness, my recompense. SHELUMIEL, Shel-ew-my´-el, happiness, retribution of God. SHEM, name, renown, he that places. SHEMAIAH, She-ma-i´-ah or Shem-ay´-yah, that obeys the Lord. SHEMARIAH, Shem-a-ry´-ah, God is my guard, diamond. SHEMEBER, Shem´-me-ber, name of force, fame of the strong. SHEMER, Shee´-mer, guardian, thorn. SHEMIDA, She-my´-dah, name of knowledge, that puts knowledge, the science of the heavens. SHEMINITH, Shem´-me-nith, the eighth. SHEMIRAMOTH, She-mir´-ra-moth, the height of the heavens, the elevation of the name. SHEN, tooth, change, he that sleeps. SHENIR, Shee´-nir, lantern, light that sleeps, he that shows. SHEPHATIAH, Shef-a-ty´-ah, the Lord that judges. SHESHACH, Shee´-shak, bag of flax, the sixth bag. SHESHBAZZAR, Shesh-baz´-zar, joy in tribulation, or of vintage. SHETH. See Seth. SHETHER-BOZNAI, Shee´-ther-boz´-na-i, that makes to rot and corrupt. SHE´VA, vanity, elevation, fame, tumult. SHIBBOLETH, Shib´-bo-leth, burden, ear of corn. SHICRON, Shy´-kron, drunkenness, his wages. SHIGGAION, Shig-gay´-yon, a song of trouble. SHIGIONOTH, Shig-gy´-on-oth, mournful music. SHILOAH, Shy-lo´-ah. See Siloah. SHI´LOH, sent, the Apostle. SHI´LOH, peace, abundance. SHILONITE, Shy´-lo-nyte, of the city of Shiloh. SHIMEAH, Shim´-me-ah, that hears, that obeys. SHIMEI, Shim´-me-i, that hears, name of the heap, my reputation. SHIMSHAI, Shim´-shay, my sun. SHINAR, Shy´-nar, the watching of him that sleeps, change of the city. SHIPHRAH, Shif´-rah, handsome, trumpet, that does good. SHI´SHAK, present of the bag, of the pot, of the thigh. SHIT´TIM, that turn away, scourges, rods. SHO´A, tyrants. SHO´BAB, returned, turned back. SHO´BACH, your bonds, your nets, his captivity; according to the Syriac, a dove house. SHOCHOH, Sho´-koh, defence, a bough. SHOSHAN´NIM, lilies of the testimony. SHU´AH, pit, humiliation, meditation. SHU´AL, fox, hand, fist, traces, way. SHU´HITE, a descendant of Shuah. SHU´LAMITE, peaceable, perfect, that recompenses. SHU´NAMITE, a native of Shunem. SHU´NEM, their change, their sleep. SHUR, wall, ox. SHU´SHAN, lily, rose, joy. SHU´THELAH, plant, verdure, moist pot. SIB´MAH, conversion, captivity, old age, rest. SICHEM, Sy´-kem. See Shechem. SI´DON, hunting, fishing, venison. SIGIONOTH, Sig-gy´-o-noth, according to variable tunes. SI´HON, rooting out, conclusion. SI´HOR, black, trouble, early in the morn. SI´LAS, three, the third. SILOAS, Sil´-o-as or Sy-lo´-as, SILOAM, Sil´-o-am or Sy-lo´-am, sent, dart, branch. SILOE, Sil´-o-e or Sy-lo´-e, the same as Siloas. SILVA´NUS, one who loves the woods. SIM´EON, that hears or obeys. SI´MON, that hears or obeys. SIN, bush. SINAI, Sy´-nay or Sy´-nay-i, bush, according to the Syriac, enmity. SI´NIM, the south country. SI´ON, noise, tumult. SI´RAH, turning aside, rebellion. SIRION, Sir´-re-on, a breastplate, deliverance. SISERA, Sis´-se-rah, that sees a horse or swallow. SI´VAN, bush, thorn. SMYR´NA, myrrh. SO, a measure for grain or dry matters. SO´COH, tents, tabernacles. SO´DI, my secret. SODOM, Sod´-dom, their secret, their lime, their cement. SODOMITES, Sod´-dom-ites, inhabitants of Sodom. SOL´OMON, peaceable, perfect, one who recompenses. SOPATER, So-pay´-ter, who defends or saves his father. SO´REK, hissing, a colour inclining to yellow. SOSIPATER, So-se-pay´-ter. See Sopater. SOSTHENES, Sos´-the-nes, a strong and powerful saviour. SPAIN, rare, precious. STACHYS, Stay´-kis, spike; from ϛάχυς. STEPHANAS, Stef´-fa-nas, a crown, crowned. STE´PHEN, the same as Stephanas. SUC´COTH, tents, tabernacles. SUC´COTH-BE´NOTH, the tabernacles of young women. SUK´KIIMS, covered, shadowed. SUR, that withdraws or departs. SUSAN´NA, a lily, a rose, joy. SUSI, Su´-sy, horse, swallow, moth. SYCHAR, Sy´-kar, the name of a city. SYENE, Sy-ee´-ne, bush; according to the Syriac, enmity. SYNTYCHE, Sin´-te-ke, that speaks or discourses. SYRACUSE, Sir´-ra-kewse, that draws violently. SYRIA, Sir´-re-a, in Hebrew, Aram, sublime, deceiving. SYRIAC, SYRIAN, Sir´-re-ak, Sir´-re-an, of Syria. SYRIANS, Sir´-re-ans, inhabitants of Syria. SYRO-PHENICIAN, Sy´-ro-fe-nish´-e-an, purple, drawn to; from σύρω, _I draw_, and φοῖνιξ, red palm tree.

TAANACH, Tay´-a-nak, or Ta-ay´-nak, who humbles or answers thee. TAB´BATH, good, goodness. TABEAL, Tay´-be-al or Tab-ee´-al, good God. TABEEL, Tay´-be-el or Tab-ee´-el, the same as Tabeal. TABERAH, Tab´-e-rah or Tab-ee´-rah, burning. TABITHA, Tab´-e-tha, in Syriac, clear sighted; she is also called Dorcas, wild goat. TA´BOR, choice; in Syriac, contrition. TABRIMON, Tab´-re-mon, good promegranate. TAD´MOR, palm tree, change. TAHAPANES, Ta-hap´-pa-nes, secret temptation. TAHPENES, Tah´-pe-nes, standard, flight. TALITHA-CUMI, Tal´-le-tha-kew´-my, young woman, arise. TALMAI, Tal´-may, my furrow, heap of waters. TA´MAR, a palm, palm tree. TAM´MUZ, abstruse, concealed. TANHUMETH, Tan-hew´-meth or Tan´-hu-meth, consolation, repentance. TAPHATH, Tay´-fath, little girl. TAR´PELITES, ravishers, wearied. TAR´SHISH, contemplation of the marble. TAR´SUS, winged, feathered. TAR´TAK, chained, bound, shut up. TAR´TAN, that searches the gift of the turtle. TATNAI, Tat´-nay, that gives. TE´BAH, murder, a cook. TE´BETH, the Babylonish name of the tenth month of the Hebrews. TE´KEL, weight. TEKOA, Te-ko´-ah, sound of the trumpet. TEL´ABID, a heap of new grain. TEL-HARSA, Tel-har´-sah, heap, suspension of the plough or of the head. TE´LIETH, goodness. TEL-MELAH, Tel´-me-lah or Tel-mee´-lah, heap of salt or of mariners. TE´MA, admiration, perfection. TE´MAN, the south, Africa. TE´MANITE, an inhabitant of Teman. TE´RAH, to breathe, to scent, to blow. TERAPHIM, Ter´-ra-fim, an image, an idol. TERTIUS, Ter´-she-us, the third. TERTUL´LUS, a liar, an impostor. TETRARCH, Tet´-rark or Tee´-trarck, governor of a fourth part of a kingdom. THADDEUS, Thad-dee´-us, that praises. THA´HASH, that makes haste, or keeps silence. THA´MAH, that blots out or suppresses. THA´MAR. See Tamar. THAM´MUZ. See Tammuz. THE´BEZ, muddy, silk. THELASAR, The-lass´-ar, that unbinds and grants the suspension or heap. THEOPHILUS, The-of´-fe-las, a friend of God. THESSALONICA, Thes-sa-lo-ny´-kah, victory against the Thessalians. THEUDAS, Thew´-das, a false teacher. THOMAS, Tom´-mas, a twin. THUM´MIM, truth, perfection. THYATIRA, Thy-a-ty´-rah, a sweet savour of labour or sacrifice of contrition. TIBERIAS, Ti-bee´-re-as, good vision. TIBERIUS, Ti-bee´-re-us, son of Tiber. TIB´NI, straw, understanding. TI´DAL, that breaks the yoke. TIGLATH-PILESER, Tig´-lath-pi-lee´-zer, that takes away captivity, miraculous. TIK´VAH, hope, a congregation. TIMEUS, Ti-mee´-us, in Greek, perfect, honourable; in Hebrew, admirable. TIM´-NATH, image, enumeration. TIMNATH-HERES, Tim´-nath-hee´-res, image of the dumb. TI´MON, honourable. TIMO´THEUS, honour of God, valued of God. TIPHSAH, Tif´-sah, passage, passover. TIRHAKAH, Tir-hay´-kah or Tir´-ha-kah, inquirer, law made dull. TIRSHATHA, Tir-shay´-tha, that overturns the foundation; in Syriac, that beholds the time. TIR´ZAH, benevolent, pleasant. TISH´BITE, that makes captives, that dwells. TI´TUS, honourable; from τίω, I honour. TO´AH, a weapon. TOB, good, goodness. TOB-ADONIJAH, Tob´-ad-o-ny´-jah, my good God. TOBI´AH, the Lord is good. TOGAR´MAH, which is all bone, strong. TO´HU, that lives or declares. TOI, To´-i, who wanders. TO´LA, worm, scarlet. TO´LAD, nativity. TOPHEL, To´-fel, ruin, folly, insipid. TOPHET, To´-fet, a drum, betraying. TRO´AS, penetrated. TROGYLLIUM, Tro-jil´-le-um, a city in the isle of Samos. TROPHIMUS, Trof´-fe-mus, well educated. TRYPHENA, Try-fee´-nah, delicate. TRYPHO´SA, thrice shining. TU´BAL, the earth, confusion. TU´BAL-CAI´N, worldly possession, jealous of confusion. TYCHICUS, Tik´-e-kus, casual, happening. TYRAN´NUS, a prince, one that reigns. TYRE, TY´RUS, in Hebrew, Sor or Tzur, strength.

UCAL, Yew´-kal, power, prevalency. ULAI, Yew´-la-i or Yew-lay´, strength. ULAM, Yew´-lam, the porch, their strength. UL´LA, elevation, holocaust, leaf. UN´NI, poor, afflicted. UPHAZ, Yew´-faz, gold of Phasis or Pison. UR, fire, light. URBA´NUS, civil, courteous. URI, Yew´-ry, my light or fire. URIAH, URIJAH, Yew-ry´-ah, Yew-ry´-jah, the Lord is my light or fire. URI´EL, God is my light or fire. URIM and THUMMIM, Yew´-rim and Thum´-mim, lights and perfection. UZ, counsel; in Syriac, to fix. UZ´ZAH, strength, a goat. UZZEN-SHERAH, Uz´-zen-shee´-rah, ear of the flesh or of the parent. UZ´ZI, my strength, my kid. UZZI´AH, the strength of the Lord. UZZI´EL, the strength of God. UZZIELITES, Uz-zy´-el-ites, the posterity of Uzziel.

VASH´NI, the second. VASH´TI, that drinks, thread. VOPHSI, Vof´-sy, fragment, diminution.

ZAANA´NIM, movings. ZA´BAD, a dowry. ZAB´DI, portion, dowry. ZACCHEUS, Zak-kee´-us, pure, justified. ZACHARI´AH, memory of the Lord. ZA´DOK, just, justified. ZA´HAM, crime, impurity. ZAIR, Zay´-ir, little, afflicted. ZAL´MON, his shade, obscurity. ZALMO´NAH, the shade, your image. ZALMUN´NA, shadow, image. ZAMZUM´MIMS, thinking, wickedness. ZANO´AH, forgetfulness, this rest. ZAPHNATH-PAANEAH, Zaf´-nath-pay-a-nee´-ah, one that discovers hidden things; in the Egyptian tongue, a saviour of the world. ZA´RAH, east, brightness. ZAREPHATH, Zar´-re-fath, ambush of the mouth. ZARE´TAN, tribulation, perplexity. ZA´ZA, belonging to all; in Syriac, going back. ZEBADI´AH, portion of the Lord. ZE´BAH, victim, immolation. ZEB´EDEE, abundant portion. ZEBO´IM, deer, goats. ZE´BUL, a habitation. ZEB´ULUN, dwelling, habitation. ZECHARI´AH. See Zachariah. ZE´DAD, his side, his hunting. ZEDEKI´AH, the Lord is my justice. ZEEB, Zee´-eb, wolf. ZE´LEK, the noise of him that licks or laps. ZELOPHEHAD, Ze-lo´-fe-ad, the shade or tingling of fear. ZELOTES, Ze-lo´-tes, jealous, full of zeal. ZEL´ZAH, noontide. ZE´NAS, living. ZEPHANI´AH, the Lord is my secret, the mouth of the Lord. ZEPHATH, Zee´-fath, which beholds, attends. ZE´PHO, that sees and observes. ZER, perplexity, tribulation, a rock. ZE´RAH. See Zarah. ZEREDAH, Zer´-e-dah or Ze-ree´-dah, ambush. ZE´RESH, misery, stranger. ZE´ROR, root, that straitens, a stone. ZERU´AH, leprous, hornet. ZERUBBABEL, Ze-rub´-ba-bel, banished, a stranger at Babylon, dispersion of confusion. ZERUIAH, Zer-ew-i´-ah, pain, tribulation. ZE´THAN, their olive. ZE´THAR, he that examines or beholds. ZI´BA, army, fight, strength, stag. ZIB´EON, iniquity that dwells, the seventh. ZIB´IAH, deer, goat, honourable and fine. ZICHRI, Zic´-ry, that remembers, a male. ZID´DIM, huntings; in Syriac, destructions. ZI´DON, hunting, fishing, venison. ZIDO´NIANS, inhabitants of Zidon. ZIF, this, that; according to the Syriac, brightness. ZIK´LAG, measure pressed down. ZIL´LAH, shadow, which is roasted, the tingling of the ear. ZIL´PAH, distillation, contempt of the mouth. ZIM´RAN, song, singer, vine. ZIM´RI, my field, my vine, my branch. ZIN, buckler, coldness. ZI´ON, a monument, sepulchre, turret. ZI´OR, ship of him that watches, ship of the enemy. ZIPH, Ziff, this mouth, mouthful. ZIP´POR, bird, crown; according to the Syriac, early in the morning, goat. ZIP´PORAH, beauty, trumpet. ZITH´RI, to hide, overturned. ZIZ, flower, a lock of hair; according to the Syriac, wing, feather. ZI´ZA. See Zaza. ZO´AN, motion. ZO´AR, little, small. ZO´BAH, an army, a swelling. ZO´HAR, white, shining, dryness. ZOHE´LETH, that creeps or draws. ZOPHAR, Zo´-far, rising early, crown; in Syriac, sparrow, goat. ZO´RAH, leprosy, scab. ZOROBABEL, Zo-rob´-ba-bel. See Zerubbabel. ZUAR, Zew´-ar, small. ZUPH, that observes, roof. ZUR, stone, plan, form. ZURI´EL, the rock or strength of God. ZURISHADDAI, Zew´-ry-shad´-da-i, the Almighty is my rock, splendour, beauty. ZU´ZIMS, the posts of a door, splendour; in Syriac, departing, money; in Chaldee, strong.

TABLES OF THE WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND MONEY, MENTIONED IN THE BIBLE.

JEWISH WEIGHTS, REDUCED TO ENGLISH TROY WEIGHT.

lbs. ozs. pen. gr.

The Gerah, the twentieth part of a Shekel 0 0 0 12

The Bekah, half a Shekel 0 0 5 0

The Shekel 0 0 10 0

The Maneh, sixty Shekels 2 6 0 0

The Talent, fifty Maneh, or three thousand 125 0 0 0 Shekels

According to the bishop of Peterborough’s calculations, the Gerah is nearly equal to 11 grains Troy; the Bekah, to about 4¾ pennyweights; and the Shekel, to about 9⅛ pennyweights.

TABLES OF SCRIPTURE MEASURES OF LENGTH, REDUCED TO ENGLISH MEASURE.

SHORT MEASURES.

│ English Inches. │ feet.

│Digit 0 0.912

│ 4 Palm 0 3.684

│ 12 3 Span 0 10.944

│ 24 6 3 Cubit 1 9.888

│ 96 24 6 2 Fathom 7 3.552

│ 144 36 12 6 1.5 Ezekiel’s reed 10 11.328

│ 192 48 16 8 2 1.3 Arabian pole 14 7.104

│ 1920 480 160 80 20 13.3 10 Schœnus’s 145 11.04 │ meas’ng line

LONG MEASURES.

│ English Paces. Feet. │ miles.

│Cubit 0 0 1.824

│ 400 Stadium or Furlong 0 145 4.6

│ 2000 5 Sabbath day’s journey 0 729 3.0

│ 4000 10 2 Eastern mile 1 403 1.0

│ 12000 30 6 3 Parasang 4 153 3.0

│ 96000 240 48 24 8 A day’s journey 33 172 4.0

⁂ 5 Feet=1 Pace; 1056=1 mile. According to the bishop of Peterborough, a Parasang is equal to 4 miles, 116 paces. FOR TABLES OF TIME SEE THE ARTICLES “MONTHS” AND “DAY.”

TABLES OF SCRIPTURE MEASURES OF CAPACITY. MEASURES FOR LIQUIDS, REDUCED TO ENGLISH WINE MEASURE.

│ Gallons. Pints.

│Caph 0 0.625

│ 1.3 Log 0 0.833

│ 5.3 4 Cab 0 3.333

│ 16 12 3 Hin 1 2

│ 32 24 6 2 Seah 2 4

│ 96 72 18 6 3 Bath or Epha 7 4

│ 960 720 180 60 20 10 Chomer, Homer, 75 5 │ Kor, or Coros

The Omer was one-tenth of an Epha, and contained 6 pints; the Metretes of Syria, translated in John ii, 6, “firkins,” 7⅛ pints; and the eastern Cotyla, half a pint. This Cotyla, says the bishop of Peterborough, contains just 10 ounces Averdupois of rain water; the Omer, 100 ounces; the Epha, 1000; and the Chomer, 10,000 ounces. So by these weights all these measures of capacity may be expeditiously recovered to a near exactness.

MEASURES FOR THINGS DRY, REDUCED TO ENGLISH CORN MEASURE.

│ Pecks. Gals. Pints. │Gachal 0 0 0.1416 │ 20 Cab 0 0 2.8333 │ 36 1.8 Omer or Gomer 0 0 5.1 │ 120 6 3.3 Seah 1 0 1 │ 360 18 10 3 Epha 3 0 3 │ 1800 90 50 15 5 Letech 16 0 0 │ 3600 180 100 30 10 2 Chomer Homer, &c. 32 0 0

TABLES OF MONEY. JEWISH MONEY, REDUCED TO THE ENGLISH STANDARD.

│ £. s. d. │ Gerah 0 0 1.3687 │ 10 Bekah 0 1 1.6875 │ 20 2 Shekel 0 2 3.375 │ 1200 120 50 Maneh, or Mina Hebraica 5 14 0.75 │ 60,000 6000 3000 60 Talent 342 3 9

Solidus Aureus, or Sextula, was worth 0 12 0.5 Siclus Aureus, or Gold Shekel 1 16 6 Talent of Gold 5475 0 0

The bishop of Peterborough makes the Mina Hebraica to contain 60 Shekels, and to weigh 27 oz. 7½ dwts.; which, at 5_s._ per ounce, will amount to 6_l._ 16_s._ 10½_d._; and the Talent of Silver to contain 50 Minæ, which, at 5_s._, will equal the amount in this table, 342_l._ 3_s._ 9_d._

ROMAN MONEY, MENTIONED IN THE NEW TESTAMENT, REDUCED TO THE ENGLISH STANDARD.

£. s. d. far. Mite (Assarium) 0 0 0 ¾ Farthing, (Quadrans,) about 0 0 0 1½ Penny, or Denarius (Silver) 0 0 7 3 Pound, or Mina 3 2 6 0

According to the bishop of Peterborough, the Roman Mite is one-third of our farthing; Quadrans, three-fourths of a farthing; the Assarium, a farthing and a half; and the Assis three farthings.

⁂ In the preceding Tables, Silver is valued at 5s., and Gold at £4. per ounce.

SINCE the publication, in 1727, of Dr. Arbuthnot’s “Tables of Ancient Coins, Weights, and Measures,” that celebrated work has been regarded by the best divines as the general standard on these difficult subjects. More recently the bishop of Peterborough has rendered good service to this part of Biblical antiquity by entering into several nice and extensive calculations on the weights and measures mentioned in the Bible, which have, with very few exceptions, confirmed the previous investigations of Dr. Arbuthnot: and as the axiom, “What is new in theology is false,” holds good only in regard to the doctrines of Scripture, and not to its statics and numismatics, no hesitation has been felt in presenting the reader, under each of the preceding Tables, with some of the most important of the results which the bishop has thus obtained.

In the abstruse department of mensuration of superficies, the same learned prelate has also ably demonstrated, that the altar of incense, described in Exodus xxx, 2, as consisting of a cubit in length, and a cubit in breadth, and yet “four-square,” contained exactly one square cubit, that is, three English square feet, and about forty-seven square inches;--that the table of shew bread, described in Exodus xxv, 23, as being two cubits long and one broad, and rectangular, contained above six English square feet;--that the boards of the tabernacle, described in Exodus xxvi, 16, as ten cubits in length and a cubit and a half in breadth, and rectangular, contained nearly fifty square feet of English measure;--that the mercy seat, which Moses is directed to make “two cubits and a half the length thereof, and a cubit and a half the breadth thereof,” Exodus xxv, 17, contained twelve and a half square feet;--that the altar of incense, which was directed to be “a cubit the length thereof and a cubit the breadth thereof, and four square,” Exodus xxx, 2, contained upward of three square feet;--that the court of the tabernacle, the orders concerning which were, “The length of the court shall be a hundred cubits, and the breadth fifty every where,” Exodus xxvii, 18, comprised upward of sixteen thousand six hundred and thirty-four square feet, or in English land measure one rood, twenty-one perches, and twenty-seven and a half feet;--and that the Levites’ glebe, which is thus described in Numbers xxxv, 3–5: “The cities they shall have to dwell in: and the suburbs of them shall be for their cattle, and for their goods, and for all their beasts. And the suburbs of the cities, which ye shall give unto the Levites, shall reach from the wall of the city and outward a thousand cubits round about. And ye shall measure from without the city on the east side two thousand cubits, and on the south side two thousand cubits,” &c; “and the city shall be in the midst;” contained three hundred and five acres, two roods, and one perch, which was, for each of the four sides, seventy-six acres, one rood, twenty perches, and eighty square feet.

Respecting the Egyptian aroura, which is sometimes mistranslated “acre,” the bishop remarks, “Reflecting upon Moses’ measure by cubits, and,” in the case of the court of the tabernacle, “finding them to be precisely five thousand square cubits, I observed that they were just half ten thousand, which I had observed from Herodotus to be the area of the Egyptian aroura, by which their land was as generally measured as ours is by acres and roods. I called also to mind a passage in Manetho, an Egyptian priest, cited by Josephus, in his first book against Apion, where he affirms, that Manetho, in his history of the reign, wars, and expulsion of the Pastors, (whom Africanus affirms to be Phenicians or Canaanites, and Josephus vainly believed to be Jews,) wrote out of the public records of Egypt, that these Pastors made at Abaris a very large and strong encampment, that encompassed ten thousand arouræ, sufficient to contain two hundred and forty thousand men, and long to maintain their cattle. Hence it appears, that not only the Egyptians, but also the Phenicians or Canaanites, that had dwelt among them, and had reigned there during the time of six kings successively, used this measure of land called aroura. Now this was long before the time of Moses; for the beginning of Amosis or Tethmosis, who expelled them out of Egypt, was very near the time of Abraham’s death. Wherefore I believe that Moses, who was skilled in all Egyptian learning, especially in surveying, did of choice make the court of the tabernacle to be just half an aroura, which was a known measure to him and his people, and that divine authority directed him so to do.” In another part of his work he reduces the Egyptian aroura into English measure, and finds it to be three roods, two perches, and fifty-five and a quarter square feet.

THE END.

UNDER THE ARTICLE APOSTLES’ CREED, for Creed, read Confessions of Faith.

------------------------------------------------------------------------

Transcriber’s Note

Minor lapses in punctuation, including missing full stops and end-of-line hyphens, have been corrected with no further notice. In a work this large, it is inevitable that some inconsistencies in format will occur, which have been set right.

There are some variants of spelling which have, in general, been retained, given the wide range of sources employed by the author. The use of the diaeresis in words like ‘coöperate’ or ‘reëstablishment’ was not followed where the prefix appeared hyphenated on a line break (e.g. ‘re-establishment’). These have been rendered here using the diaeresis.

A passage from Chardin, cited on p. 250, has an un-opened quotation, the beginning of which has been placed as noted below, based on other commentaries citing Chardin on Psalms 90.4.

Most internal references refer to the main topics, which are typically in UPPERCASE characters, but on occasion refer to subtopics in mixed SMALLCAP font, or, rarely, to keywords in paragraphs (e.g., allegory).

The main entry for MOAB was printed in a normal font, and so could be easily missed. That has been corrected here to follow the conventional printing.

The Alphabetical Table of Proper Names, at the end of the text, also contains a number of internal references. These refer to other entries in that table.

In the article for CRANE, the Hebrew שיש (marble) is given for ‘crane’, from Jer. viii, 7. The word סיס, or ‘swift’ would seem to have been meant. In the alphabetical index of names, a reference to ‘Siloah’ has no obvious referent.

The article for REED directs the reader to an article for CANE, which is not in the text.

The following issues should be noted, along with the resolutions. The references in the first column are to the page, column, and line in the original text.

7.2.39 who gave Golia[t]h’s sword Added.

47.1.58 Καὶ ἐν τῷ μέσω ἀυτου ὡς ὅρασις ἠλεκτρȣ ἐν μέσῳ Replaced. [το͂ν/τοῦ] ϖυρὸς

90.2.69 has been much misrepresented[.] Added.

93.2.29 it is necessary, in order [] to his salvation sic: obtain?

94.2.47 as it does [ ] this day sic: to?

101.1.9 are undoub[t]edly mentioned Added.

111.1.52 in the habit of refer[r]ing with approbation Added.

113.2.20 the arguments of St. A[u]gustine Added.

116.2 observed[,] some remains of these enclosures Removed.

137.2.60 the Prophet says[./,] ‘Of the oaks of Bashan Replaced.

139.1.20 [the rendering of an equivalent:][)]'> Parenthesis added.

140.2.32 The following observations[./,] from Replaced.

143.1.42 exposed in the amp[h]itheatre to fight Added.

171.2.16 The word[,] is formed from the Gothic Removed.

160.1.25 the truth of the princ[i]pal facts Added.

185.1.8 “the Memphian” or Egyptian [“]boat is made Removed.

188.1.37 eso[r/t]etic, or concealed doctrine Replaced.

201.2.32 became permanently settled at the diet of Added. Au[g]sburg

202.1.48 and those who are not, accepted.[’] Probable.

207.1.59 is directed again[s]t Canaan Added.

207.2.9 in his de[s]cendants Added.

214.1.31 with hair standing [a/o]n end on it Replaced.

217.2.23 for their perusal.[”] Removed.

224.1.20 like that of the pine.[”] Added.

236.1.7 who holds her balance[,/.] Replaced.

236.2.12 more substantial world[l]y benefits Added.

236.2.48 Here the Christ[ai/ia]n Transposed.

241.2.4 which was to be pe[r]formed Added.

244.1.13 which have no s[pu/up]port from the magistracy Transposed.

250.1.36 that [“]as the people of the east have no Added. clocks

259.2.54 as it occurs in the [T/N]ew Testament Replaced.

268.2.9 whether they were gold or brass.[”] Added.

274.2.54 two birds are mentioned, the [שיש/סיס>] Replaced.

278.2.38 increases the p[io/oi] of the suffering Transposed.

285.1.19 Who call thee by thy name, am THE GOD OF Added. ISRAEL.[”]>

303.2.32 ‘all sick people,[’] that were taken with Removed. divers diseases

307.2.54 which occurs under the word, [סמפחת/מספחת], מס Lev. xiii, 6–8, 29. transposed.

318.2.47 “The earth is the Lord’s, and the fulness Added. thereof[”], Psalm xxiv, 1;

325.1.20 in his “Instit[ut]utes,” he confirmed Removed.

331.1.16 Volney’s account is suffic[i]ently descriptive Added.

333.2.25 placed by the Egy[p]tian task-masters Added.

336.1.24 as consisting in outward wor[l]dly Added. institutions

337.2.12 all visible ack[n]owledgment of them Added.

343.2.31 reckon the dog a filt[h]y creature Added.

348.2.24 I am with you alway[s] Added.

350.2.29 They have eleven dioces[s]es Removed.

352.1.58 and they were pun[n]ished for their Removed. presumption

356.2.31 answers to the artific[i]al conception Added.

372.1.15 can consisten[t]ly refuse to admit Added.

373.2.46 while the bride[./-]groom is with them? Replaced.

382.2.38 If, then, such was [s/t]he superstitious Replaced. homage

382.2.45 “is Arabic, and signifies the fly in Added. general.[”]

394.1.17 in the amp[h]itheatre at Tiberias Added.

394.1.30 “They gave me ראש to eat[”]; Added.

415.1.50 the Egyptians, Prussians, Lithu[a]nians, Added. Samogitians, &c.

416.1.38 to kill his b[r]other Jacob Added.

424.2.31 not a bunch of grapes left [of/for] those who Replaced/ came to glean.

438.2.31 church of the[-first / first-]born Transposed.

438.2.55 to make a t[py/yp]ical atonement Transposed.

442.2.23 the gifts of the Holy [C/G]host Replaced.

445.2.1 Hebron is now called El [H/K]halil; Replaced.

450.2.3 [Σ/Ἐ]ν τῶ ἄρχοντι τῶν δαιμονίων Replaced.

452.2.39 the only su[r]viving male Added.

462.2.41 [B/b]y the ‘testimony of the Spirit,’ I mean, Replaced.

469.2.25 A spacious bowl th[e]’ admiring patriarch Removed. fills

474.1.47 “counterfeit,” signif[i]es also a profane Added. wicked man

481.1.47 according to their origin[i]al institution Removed.

487.2.46 are built upon the foundati[a/o]n of the Replaced. Apostles

493.2.65 was buried with Abraham by his sons Esau and Missing, Jacob, Gen. xxxv,[ 29.] provided.

498.1.40 when [“]the Edomites revolted Added.

501.1.56 admitted till after the fourth[,] century Removed.

524.1.42 simply as a p[r]ediction prior to the event Added.

531.1.19 who occasion[al]ly sent officers Added.

538.1.35 the total absence of eve[ry/n] the slightest Replaced. allusion

539.2.33 but inferior to the second.[”] Added.

547.1.24 to visit the tomb of Thomas-a[ /-]Becket Replaced.

567.2.7 when the pu[u/n]ishment of their iniquity Inverted. shall be accomplished

577.1.38 LEAD, עפרת, Exod. xv, 10; sic: עופרת

584.2.61 if any animalcule of this sort were concealed Added. in their garments.[”]

593.2.36 LUCIAN, a philosop[h]er and wit Added.

594.1.65 they are [t/j]oined by Isaiah, lxvi, 19, with Replaced. Pul

691.2.15 Thus, it was infallib[l]y certain Added.

630.1.9 the fancy far more viv[e/i]d, in the dreaming Replaced.

637.1.13 utte[r]ly> averse to oaths Added.

660.2.14 [Moab/MOAB] was the son of Lot Replaced.

684.2.24 bore the character of remarkable simplic[i]ty Added.

672.1.29 so that he “heark[e]ned> not unto them, as the Added. Lord had said,”

692.1.1 they acc[c]omplished the great designs of Removed. Heaven

697.2.67 to impugn his doct[r]ine Added.

743.2.1 popular sect among the [Jews the/Jews. The] Replaced. time when

751.2.67 means literally [“]branches of oily or Added. gummy plants.”

788.1.45 the opin[i]ons of all sober persons Added.

789.1.30 or [גכר / נכר], also denotes a stranger Replaced.

791.1.50 differ, in this re[s]pect, from their Added. ancestors

796.2.69 and the sweet psalmist of Israel, said, Added. [‘]The Spirit of Jehovah

827.2.61 “The orientals hold,[”] says D’Herbelot, Added.

843.2.56 there should be one hundred [s/a]nd twenty Replaced. inhabitants

844.2.18 power and malice are rest[r]ained Added.

844.2.51 that can dignif[i]y human nature Removed.

845.1.4 and with which the ancients were Added. enraptured.[”]

845.2.46 will [b/h]e offer him a scorpion? Replaced.

858.1.13 that the s[k/h]ekel> was worth twenty gerahs Replaced.

865.2.51 Unto him that blasphemeth again[s]t the Holy Added. Ghost

866.2.52 has three tops of a ma[r]vellous height Added.

872.1.60 appearing to his di[s]ciples Added.

872.2.59 of all subsequent marty[r]s> Added.

882.1.21 that of Alexan[an]dria Removed.

905.1.27 that sacred [o/e]difice Replaced.

907.1.69 the teraphim were hum[na/an] heads Transposed.

925.2.39 against the doct[r]ine itself Added.

936.2.1 like the horn of a reem,[’] Psalm xcii, 10. Added.

945.2.58 as they were then nearer the times [e/o]f the Replaced. Apostles

946.2.36 among the Protest[t]ants Removed.

959.2.61 more palatable and frag[r]ant with aromatics Added.

973.1.47 for purposes of secre[s/c]y Replaced.

977.2.31 [οτε/hότε] ἐπλήσθησαν ἡμέραι ὀκτὼ Replaced.

Spotted a typo or a problem in this chapter? Tell us